Download the Full Version of textbook for Fast Typing at textbookfull.

com

Mastering Unity 2017 Game Development with C

Create professional games with solid gameplay
features and professional grade workflow Second
Edition Alan Thorn
https://textbookfull.com/product/mastering-unity-2017-game-
development-with-c-create-professional-games-with-solid-
gameplay-features-and-professional-grade-workflow-second-
edition-alan-thorn/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWNLOAD NOW

Download More textbook Instantly Today - Get Yours Now at textbookfull.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

Hands On Game Development Patterns With Unity 2019 Create

Engaging Games by Using Industry Standard Design Patterns
With C 1st Edition David Baron
https://textbookfull.com/product/hands-on-game-development-patterns-
with-unity-2019-create-engaging-games-by-using-industry-standard-
design-patterns-with-c-1st-edition-david-baron/
textboxfull.com

Developing 2D Games with Unity: Independent Game

Programming with C# 1st Edition Jared Halpern

https://textbookfull.com/product/developing-2d-games-with-unity-
independent-game-programming-with-c-1st-edition-jared-halpern/

textboxfull.com

Developing 2D Games with Unity: Independent Game

Programming with C# 1st Edition Jared Halpern

https://textbookfull.com/product/developing-2d-games-with-unity-
independent-game-programming-with-c-1st-edition-jared-halpern-2/

textboxfull.com

Learning C 7 By Developing Games with Unity 2017 Learn C

Programming by building fun and interactive games with
Unity Third Edition Micael Dagraca
https://textbookfull.com/product/learning-c-7-by-developing-games-
with-unity-2017-learn-c-programming-by-building-fun-and-interactive-
games-with-unity-third-edition-micael-dagraca/
textboxfull.com
Unity 2018 By Example Learn about game and virtual reality
development by creating five engaging projects Second
Edition Alan Thorn
https://textbookfull.com/product/unity-2018-by-example-learn-about-
game-and-virtual-reality-development-by-creating-five-engaging-
projects-second-edition-alan-thorn/
textboxfull.com

Mastering UI Development With Unity An In Depth Guide to

Developing Engaging User Interfaces with Unity 5 Unity
2017 and Unity 2018 1st Edition Ashley Godbold
https://textbookfull.com/product/mastering-ui-development-with-unity-
an-in-depth-guide-to-developing-engaging-user-interfaces-with-
unity-5-unity-2017-and-unity-2018-1st-edition-ashley-godbold/
textboxfull.com

3D Game Environments Create Professional 3D Game Worlds

Luke Ahearn

https://textbookfull.com/product/3d-game-environments-create-
professional-3d-game-worlds-luke-ahearn/

textboxfull.com

Unity 2017 Game Development Essentials Build fully

functional 2D and 3D games with realistic environments
sounds physics special effects and more Tommaso Lintrami
https://textbookfull.com/product/unity-2017-game-development-
essentials-build-fully-functional-2d-and-3d-games-with-realistic-
environments-sounds-physics-special-effects-and-more-tommaso-lintrami/
textboxfull.com

Beginning Game AI with Unity: Programming Artificial

Intelligence with C# Sebastiano M. Cossu

https://textbookfull.com/product/beginning-game-ai-with-unity-
programming-artificial-intelligence-with-c-sebastiano-m-cossu/

textboxfull.com
Mastering Unity 2017 Game Development with
C#
Second Edition
Create professional games with solid gameplay features and professional-grade workflow

Alan Thorn

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Mastering Unity 2017 Game Development
with C#
Second Edition

Copyright © 2017 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher,
except in the case of brief quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the
information presented. However, the information contained in this book is sold without warranty,
either express or implied. Neither the author(s), nor Packt Publishing, and its dealers and
distributors will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to be caused directly or
indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the companies
and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt
Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

First published: January 2017

Second edition: October 2017

Production reference: 1271017

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place
35 Livery Street
Birmingham
B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-78847-983-7

www.packtpub.com
Credits

Author Copy Editor

Alan Thorn Shaila Kusanale

Reviewers
Project Coordinator
Michael Miles
Devanshi Doshi
Alessandro Mochi

Commissioning Editor Proofreader

Amarabha Banerjee Safis Editing

Acquisition Editor Indexer Pratik

Larissa Pinto Shirodkar

Content Development Editor Graphics

Onkar Wani Jason Monteiro

Technical Editor Production Coordinator

Harshal Kadam Arvindkumar Gupta

About the Author
Alan Thorn is a multidisciplinary game developer, author, and educator with 17 years of
industry experience. He makes games for PC desktop, mobile, and VR. He founded Wax Lyrical
Games and created the award-winning game Baron Wittard: Nemesis of Ragnarok, working as
designer, programmer, and artist. He has written 23 technical books on game development and
presented 19 video training courses. These cover gameplay programming, Unity development,
and 3D modeling and animation. He has worked in game education as a senior lecturer for
Teesside University, a lead teacher for Uppingham School, and a visiting lecturer for London
South Bank University. Currently, he's the Head of Department for Games Design and
Development at the National Film and Television School.

This book would not have been possible if it hadn't been for the valuable help of many people. I
would like to thank all my friends and family, and also the team at Packt Publishing. This
includes Onkar Wani and Larissa Pinto.
About the Reviewers
Michael Miles is a manufacturing engineer working in the aerospace industry by day, and a
Unity Game designer and C#, JavaScript, and Python developer the rest of the time. While he
purchased his first computer in the early '80s, it was years later when he first got into
programming, writing modifications for Doom during breaks at work. With gaming in general
frowned upon, while working Michael put these skills to work, programming simulations for the
various processes he used on the job. A few years later, he discovered Unity3D and Blender;
using these applications, Michael creates interactive training and production-ready instruction
tools for the assembly of parts for the aircraft his company builds.

When not in front of a computer screen, he likes to play card games, board games with family
and friends, and immerse himself in books from fantasy to theoretical physics.

Thanks to my parents for always being there, supporting every decision I made, however unwise
you thought it was at the time.

Alessandro Mochi has been playing video games since the Amstrad and NES era, tackling all
possible fields: PC, console, and mobile. They are his love, and designing them is his passion,
used as a medium to transmit and evoke emotions. He gives a lot of importance to details while
doing any work, and is well versed in project and team management, communication, and
problem-solving skills.

He is experienced in mechanical design, but is also quite good at programming (Unity, C#) and
3D modeling. With over 15 years of experience in IT and project management, he's currently
pouring all of his heart and mind into the company he founded--Dapper Penguin Studios. Here,
he tries to resurrect a lost genre in PC gaming--the industrial tycoon--with the flagship title Rise
of Industry. Many studios have tried in recent years, and their failures serve as inspiration and
fuel for his work, trying to give back to the gaming industry a fun, polished, and immortal
experience.
www.PacktPub.com
For support files and downloads related to your book, please visit www.PacktPub.com.
Did you know that Packt offers eBook versions of every book published, with PDF and ePub
files available? You can upgrade to the eBook version at www.PacktPub.comand as a print book
customer, you are entitled to a discount on the eBook copy. Get in touch with us at
[email protected] for more details.

At www.PacktPub.com, you can also read a collection of free technical articles, sign up for a
range of free newsletters and receive exclusive discounts and offers on Packt books and eBooks.

https://www.packtpub.com/mapt

Get the most in-demand software skills with Mapt. Mapt gives you full access to all Packt books
and video courses, as well as industry-leading tools to help you plan your personal development
and advance your career.
Why subscribe?
Fully searchable across every book published by Packt
Copy and paste, print, and bookmark content
On demand and accessible via a web browser
Customer Feedback
Thanks for purchasing this Packt book. At Packt, quality is at the heart of our editorial process.
To help us improve, please leave us an honest review on this book's Amazon page at
https://www.amazon.com/dp/1788479831.

If you'd like to join our team of regular reviewers, you can email us at
[email protected]. We award our regular reviewers with free eBooks and videos in
exchange for their valuable feedback. Help us be relentless in improving our products!
Table of Contents
Preface
What this book covers What
you need for this book Who
this book is for Conventions
Reader feedback Customer
support

Downloading the example code

Downloading the color images of this book
Errata
Piracy
Questions
1. Preparation and Asset Configuring
Getting clear on design
Target platforms
Intended audience
Genre
Game mode Game
objective
Asset preparation
Meshes - Work only with good topology
Meshes - Minimize polygon count
Meshes - Simulating bump details without geometry
Meshes - Minimize UV seams
Meshes - Export as FBX
Meshes - Use meters scale (metric)
Textures - Never use lossy compression
Textures - Power of 2 sizes
Textures - Alpha textures
Asset importing for Dead Keys
Importing textures
Importing meshes
Importing animations
Importing audio
Configuring materials
Summary
2. Level Design and Structure
Setting the scene with a skybox
Level building - Modular construction sets
Level building - Organization and structure
Level design - Tips and tricks
Objective and feedback
Narrative
Believability and convenience
Atmosphere and aesthetic
Simplicity and reuse
 Level lighting - Preparation
Baked lighting
Dynamic lighting Precomputed
global illumination
Getting started with lightmapping
Baking lightmaps - Resolution and size
Baking lightmaps - Details
Light Probes
Lighting FAQ
Navigation mesh
Occlusion Culling
Creating a player camera
Particle systems
Music and audio
Summary
3. Player Controls - Movement
Player movement
Zombie combat
Creating player waypoints
Animating the camera
Configuring an animator graph
Working with animation - creating the navigator
Customizing and changing MonoDevelop
Singletons
Comments
Connecting to the navigator component
Comments
Navigator GUI
Input axes
The canvas
The button
Coding button behavior
Comments
Creating player death
Comments
Summary
4. Player Controls - Typing and Health
Word combat
Creating a word list Using
Visual Studio Code
Creating a WordList class
Comments
Comments
Matching words
Comments
The Typer object
Progressing with the Typer class
Comments Health
and damage
Comments
Comments
 Damage and feedback
Player score
Comments Bonus
items
Comments
Summary
5. Enemies and Artificial Intelligence
Configuring the zombie character Getting
started with the zombie Prefab Planning
the zombie Artificial Intelligence
Comments
Developing state structure
Comments
Developing an NPC Animator Controller
Developing the Idle state
Comments
Developing the Chase state
Comments
Developing the Attack state and more
Comments
Developing the Dead state
Zombies and text input
Comments
Zombies and the Typer class
Comments
Comments
Activating enemies and camera paths
Working with Play mode Summary

6. Project Management and Version Control

Project management
Research, design, and work assessment
Workload plan
Task status
Risk analysis
Resources and skills needed
Testing plan
Applied project management using Trello
Collaboration with cloud storage Version
control using Git
Getting started with Git and GitKraken
Commits and branches
Forward and backward with Git
Configuring Unity for version control
Reverting and discarding
Branches and branching
Conflicts and resolving
Git and the web
Pushing and pulling
Cloning
Summary
7. Persistent Data - Load and Save Game States
Data serialization
Player preferences - saving data
Player preferences - loading data
Player preferences - INI files
Comments on iniParser.cs
Saving data - XML files
Comments
Saving data - JSON files
Comments
Saving data - binary files
Comments
Saving data for Dead Keys
Comments
Summary
8. Performance, Optimization, Mobiles, and More
Stats and performance
Profiler and performance assessment
Optimization tips and tricks
Strings and comparisons
Beware of functions in disguise
Debug cleaning
Optimizing build size
Getting started with mobile development
Moving forward with mobile development
Building for Android
Building for VR (Virtual Reality)
Summary
Preface
Greetings and welcome to Mastering Unity 2017! This book begins from a beginner's knowledge
of Unity, and it helps you develop that knowledge into mastery of a certain kind. Specifically, it
develops a general, overarching mastery in which you’ll learn Unity like a seasoned indie
developer, capable of turning your hand to pretty much any department and feature set within
Unity. The following chapter outline explains, in more detail, the full range of features that we’ll
see, but the central aim of this book is to make you versatile and powerful with Unity; capable of
encountering a problem and being able to solve it in the language of Unity’s feature set. In this
book, we’ll concentrate for the most part on a practical example; we’ll build a first-person
combat game, across multiple chapters, and this will test your typing skills in more ways than
one, so let’s go!
What this book covers
Chapter 1, Preparation and Asset Configuring, outlines the project we’ll focus on in the book. It
specifies tips and tricks for importing assets optimally, configuring assets, and best-practice
workflows for keeping your project organized.

Chapter 2, Level Design and Structure, here, gets you started with designing and building the
main game level inside Unity, taking a look at interesting level-design ideas as well as critically
important practical considerations.

Chapter 3, Player Controls - Movement, explores player controls, that is, how player input drives
and controls the main game camera.

Chapter 4, Player Controls – Typing and Health, says that every character that can take damage
needs health, representing the total amount of damage a character may sustain. In this chapter,
we’ll focus on creating a combat mechanic that damages enemies.

Chapter 5, Enemies and Artificial Intelligence, informs that enemies need to behave intelligently
and believably; this chapter looks at how to achieve that using AI. By using AI, enemies will
move around the level, seeking the player, and will attack when in range.

Chapter 6, Project Management and Version Control, looks at ways to optimize the game
development workflow using Version Control software. This keeps a record of our project as it
moves through all its iterations.

Chapter 7, Persistent Data – Load and Save Game States, explains that players often want their
in-game progress saved, allowing them to resume where they left off previously every time they
start a new play session. This chapter covers the different saving methods available in Unity.

Chapter 8, Performance, Optimization, Mobiles, and More, outlines a selection of related topics
as the final chapter of this book. Specifically, it takes you through how to improve the
performance of your games through optimization, how to prepare your games for mobile
deployment, and how to prepare generally for VR development.
What you need for this book
To read this book effectively, and to complete the tasks within, you need only two things: first,
the Unity 2017 software (which you can get for free from https://unity3d.com) and second, the
determination to succeed! By using only these tools, you can learn to produce great games in
Unity.
Who this book is for
If you are a Unity developer who now wants to develop and deploy interesting games by
leveraging the new features of Unity 2017, then this is the book for you. Basic knowledge of C#
programming is assumed.
Conventions
In this book, you will find a number of text styles that distinguish between different kinds of
information. Here are some examples of these styles and an explanation of their meaning. Code
words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames, file extensions, pathnames, dummy
URLs, user input, and Twitter handles are shown as follows: To start again, create a new
animator controller named animControl_Navigator

A block of code is set as follows:

public IEnumerator StateIdle()
{
//Run idle animation
ThisAnimator.SetInteger("AnimState", (int) ActiveState);
//While in idle state
while(ActiveState == AISTATE.IDLE)
{
yield return null;
}
}

New terms and important words are shown in bold. Words that you see on the screen, for
example, in menus or dialog boxes, appear in the text like this: After installing the JDK, access
the User Preferences dialog by choosing Edit | Preferences from the application menu, and select
the External Tools tab.

Warnings or important notes appear like this.

Tips and tricks appear like this.
Reader feedback
Feedback from our readers is always welcome. Let us know what you think about this book-what
you liked or disliked. Reader feedback is important for us as it helps us develop titles that you
will really get the most out of. To send us general feedback, simply email [email protected],
and mention the book's title in the subject of your message. If there is a topic that you have
expertise in and you are interested in either writing or contributing to a book, see our author
guide at www.packtpub.com/authors.
Customer support
Now that you are the proud owner of a Packt book, we have a number of things to help you to
get the most from your purchase.
Downloading the example code
You can download the example code files for this book from your account at
http://www.packtpub.com. If you purchased this book elsewhere, you can visit
http://www.packtpub.com/support and register to have the files emailed directly to you. You can
download the code files by following these steps:

1. Log in or register to our website using your email address and password.
2. Hover the mouse pointer on the SUPPORT tab at the top.
3. Click on Code Downloads & Errata.
4. Enter the name of the book in the Search box.
5. Select the book for which you're looking to download the code files.
6. Choose from the drop-down menu where you purchased this book from.
7. Click on Code Download.

Once the file is downloaded, please make sure that you unzip or extract the folder using the latest
version of:

WinRAR / 7-Zip for Windows

Zipeg / iZip / UnRarX for Mac
7-Zip / PeaZip for Linux

The code bundle for the book is also hosted on GitHub at

https://github.com/PacktPublishing/Mastering-Unity-2017-Game-Development-with-C-Sharp.
We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and videos available at
https://github.com/PacktPublishing/. Check them out!
Downloading the color images of this book
We also provide you with a PDF file that has color images of the screenshots/diagrams used in
this book. The color images will help you better understand the changes in the output. You can
download this file from
https://www.packtpub.com/sites/default/files/downloads/MasteringUnity2017GameDevelopmentwithCSharp_Co
Errata
Although we have taken every care to ensure the accuracy of our content, mistakes do happen. If
you find a mistake in one of our books-maybe a mistake in the text or the code-we would be
grateful if you could report this to us. By doing so, you can save other readers from frustration
and help us improve subsequent versions of this book. If you find any errata, please report them
by visiting http://www.packtpub.com/submit-errata, selecting your book, clicking on the Errata
Submission Form link, and entering the details of your errata. Once your errata are verified, your
submission will be accepted and the errata will be uploaded to our website or added to any list of
existing errata under the Errata section of that title. To view the previously submitted errata, go
to https://www.packtpub.com/books/content/support and enter the name of the book in the search
field. The required information will appear under the Errata section.
Piracy
Piracy of copyrighted material on the internet is an ongoing problem across all media. At Packt,
we take the protection of our copyright and licenses very seriously. If you come across any
illegal copies of our works in any form on the internet, please provide us with the location
address or website name immediately so that we can pursue a remedy. Please contact us at
[email protected] with a link to the suspected pirated material. We appreciate your help in
protecting our authors and our ability to bring you valuable content.
Questions
If you have a problem with any aspect of this book, you can contact us at [email protected],
and we will do our best to address the problem.
Preparation and Asset Configuring
Greetings, and welcome to this comprehensive and detailed exploration of Unity 2017 that
carefully examines how we take a game project from conception to completion. Here, we'll pay
special attention to the best-practice workflows, design elegance, and technical excellence. The
project to be created will be a first-person cinematic shooter game, for desktop computers and
mobile devices, inspired by Typing of the Dead
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Typing_of_the_Dead). Our game will be called Dead Keys
(hereon abbreviated as DK). In DK, the player continually confronts evil flesh-eating zombies,
and the only way to eliminate them safely is to complete a set of typing exercises, using either
the physical keyboard or a virtual keyboard. Each zombie, when they appear, may attack the
player and is associated with a single word or phrase chosen randomly from a dictionary. The
chosen phrase is presented clearly as a GUI label above the zombie's head. In response, the
player must type the matching word in correct and full words, letter by letter, to eliminate the
zombie. If the player completes the word or phrase without error, the zombie is destroyed. If the
player makes a mistake, such as pressing the wrong letter in the wrong order, then they must
repeat the typing sequence from the beginning.

This challenge may initially sound simple for the player, but longer words and phrases naturally
give zombies a longer lifespan and greater opportunities for attacking. The player inevitably has
limited health and will die if their health falls below 0. The objective of the player, therefore, is
to defeat all zombies and reach the end of the level. Here's an illustration of the game:

Dead Keys, the game to be created

Creating the word-shooter project involves many technical challenges, both 3D and 2D, and
together, these make extensive use of Unity and its expansive feature set. For this reason, it's
worth spending some time exploring what you'll see in this book and why. This book is a
Mastering title, namely Mastering Unity 2017, and the word Mastering carries important
expectations about excellence and complexity. These expectations vary significantly across
people, because people hold different ideas about what mastery truly means. Some think mastery
is about learning one specific skill and becoming very good at it, such as mastery in scripting,
lighting, or animation. These are, of course, legitimate understandings of mastery. However,
others see mastery more holistically, and this view is no less legitimate. It's the idea that mastery
consists of cultivating a general, overarching knowledge of many different skills and disciplines,
but in a special way by seeing a relationship between them and seeing them as complementary
parts that work together to produce sophisticated and masterful results. This is a second and
equally legitimate understanding of the term, and it's the one that forms the foundation for this
book.

This book is about using Unity generally as a holistic tool--seeing its many features come
together, as one unit, from level editing and scripting to lighting, design, and animation. For this
reason, our journey will inevitably lead us to many areas of development, and not just coding.
Thus, if you're seeking a book solely about coding, check out the Packt title on Mastering Unity
Scripting. In any case, this book, being about mastery, will not focus on fundamental concepts
and basic operations. It already assumes that you can build basic levels using the level editor and
can create basic materials and some basic script files using C#. Though this book may at times
include some extra, basic information as a refresher and also to add context, it won't enter into
detailed explanations about basic concepts, which are covered amply in other titles. Entry-level
titles from Packt include Unity 5.x By Example, Learning C# by Developing Games with Unity
5.x, and Unity Animation Essentials. This book, however, assumes that you have a basic literacy
in Unity and want to push your skills to the next level, developing a masterful hand for building
Unity games across the board.

So, with that said, let's jump in and make our game!
Getting clear on design
To build games professionally and maximize productivity, always develop from a clear design,
whether on paper or in digital form. Ensure that the design is stated and expressed in a way that's
intelligible to others, and not just to yourself. It's easy for anybody to jump excitedly into Unity
without a design plan, assuming that you know your own mind best of all, and then to find
yourself wandering aimlessly from option to option without any direction. Without a clear plan,
your project quickly descends into drift and chaos. Thus, first produce a coherent game design
document (GDD) for a general audience of game designers who may not be familiar with the
technicalities of development. In that document, you will get clarity about some very important
points before using development software, making assets, or building levels. These points, and a
description, are listed in the following sections, along with examples that apply to the project
we'll develop.

A GDD is a written document created by designers detailing (through words, diagrams, and
pictures) a clear outline of a complete game. More information on GDD can be found online
at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_design_document.

[1]
Target platforms
The target platform specifies the device, or range of devices, on which your game runs natively,
such as Windows, Mac, Android, and iOS. This is the full range of hardware on which a
potential gamer can play your game. The target platforms for DK include Windows, Mac,
Android, iOS and the web:

Target platforms

Reaching decisions about which platforms to support is an important logistical and technical as
well as political matter. Ideally, a developer wants to support as many platforms as possible,
making their game available to the largest customer base. However, whatever the ideals may be,
supporting every platform is almost never feasible, and so, practical choices have to be made.
Each supported platform involves considerable time, effort, and money from the developer, even
though Unity makes multi-platform support easier by doing a lot of low-level work for you.
Developing for multiple-platforms normally means creating meshes, textures, and audio files of
varying sizes and detail levels as well as adapting user interfaces to different screen layouts and
aspect ratios, and also being sensitive to the hardware specifics of each platform.

Platform support also influences core game mechanics; for example, touchscreen games behave
radically differently to keyboard-based games, and motion controls behave differently to mouse-
based controls. Thus, a platform always constrains and limits the field of possibilities as to what
can be achieved, not just technically, but also for content. App Store submission guidelines place
strict requirements upon permissible content, language, and representations in games and
allowed in-app purchases, and the access to external, user-created content.

The upshot is that target platforms should, for the most part, always be chosen in advance. That
decision will heavily influence core game mechanics and how the design is implemented in a
playable way. Sometimes, the decision to defer support for a particular platform can, and should,
be made for technical or economic reasons. However, when such a decision is made, be aware
that it can heavily increase development time further along the cycle, as reasonable adjustment
and redevelopment may be needed to properly support the nuances of the platform.

[2]
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Base Casings
Siding Cornice
Shingles Labor

Roofing
Tin Gutter linings
Shingle Solder
Slate Cresting
Tile Finials
Paper or felt Conductor hooks and fastenings,
Hanging gutters nails and hooks
Conductor pipes Cast shoes or boots
Conductor heads Labor
Flashings

Plastering
Lath Three-coat work
Lime Plaster board
Sand Patent plaster
Hair Tiling, marble, etc.
Plaster of Paris Stucco cornices
Plastering mortar Stucco arches
Deafening Stucco centers
Back plastering Nails
One-coat work Labor
Two-coat work

JOINERY
Inside and Outside Finish
Window frames Doors
Door frames Base
Sashes Architraves
Corner and plinth blocks Posts
Outside and inside blinds Columns
Brackets Balusters
Wainscoting Hand railing
Moldings Nails and screws
Planed lumber Labor

Stairs
Rough lumber Hand railing
Treads and risers Balusters
Strings Brackets
Spandrels Bolts
Moldings Nails and screws
Newels Labor
 Hardware
Mortise locks Sash lifts
Rim locks Sash cord
Padlocks Transom lifters
Butts (various sizes) Cupboard catches
Wrought butts Hooks and eyes
Strap hinges Drawer pulls
Blind hinges Mortise bolts
Sash fasteners Door stops
Sash weights Door hangers
Shutter bars Axle pulleys

HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEM

Hot-Air Heating
Furnace Registers
Cold-air ducts and slide dampers Sheet-tin and asbestos fire protection
Hot-air pipes, elbows, and dampers Smoke pipe
Register boxes Labor

Steam Heating
Boiler Smoke pipe
Regulating and safety Steam pipes
appliances Return pipes
Fittings Galvanized sheet-iron casings
Hangers for indirect stacks
Indirect, direct-indirect, Sheet-iron indirect flues, screens,
and direct radiators and dampers
Valves Indirect registers and boxes
Air vents Japanning and bronzing
Floor and ceiling plates Pipe coverings
Labor

Hot-Water Heating
Heater Radiators, pipes, fittings, etc.,
Automatic damper regulator same as for steam heating
Smoke pipe Labor
Expansion tanks

PLUMBING AND GAS-FITTING

Plumbing Fixtures
Kitchen range with water-back Kitchen sinks
Plunge baths Pantry sinks
Shower baths Slop sinks
Foot baths Laundry tubs
Sitz baths Safes
Wash basins Hot- and cold-water faucets
Water closets for fixtures
Urinals Labor

Water Supply
City Supply Pumps
Permits Supply tanks
Corporation connections Outside piping
Excavation Lawn and garden hydrants
Extra-heavy lead, iron or Fittings, etc.
brass service pipe Wrought-iron pipe fittings
Curb cock and box Brass pipe fittings
Stop and waste Lead pipe fittings
Well Supply Solder nipples
Storage cisterns Stop-cocks
Cistern filters Pipe straps
Metal tacks Wiping solder
Kitchen boiler and stand Labor

House Drainage
Permits Lead soil, waste,
Sewer connections and vent pipes
Excavations Lead traps
Vitrified sewer pipe Brass traps
and fittings Fixture connections (brass)
Earthenware traps Wrought-iron, galvanized, or
Portland cement asphalt-coated drain, soil,
Unglazed drain pipe and vent pipes and fittings
Cast-iron soil pipe and Fresh-air inlets, vent caps
fittings Vent-pipe flashings
Lead and oakum Wall hooks, straps, bands,
Cast-iron traps and hangers
Handholes and cleanouts Wiping solder
Lead bends, brass ferrules Labor

Gas-Fitting
Permit Chandeliers
Tapping main Pendants
Excavation Wall brackets
Meters Pillar lights
Stop-cocks Globes, shades, and fireguards
Drip cups Gas stoves and ranges
Piping Gas-heater connections
Straps and hangers Labor
Fittings Pressure regulators
 PAINTING AND PAPERING
Painting
Body of house Floors
Trimmings Ceilings
Blinds Walls
Roof Sash
Porches Shelving
Inside work Mantels
Oiling Fences
Polishing Outbuildings
Varnishing Labor

Papering
Paper Lining paper
Borders Labor

Glazing
Sheet glass Ribbed glass
(single or double thick) Frosted glass
Plate glass Glaziers’ points
Leaded glass Putty
(stained or clear) Labor

EXCAVATION
7. Excavation is generally measured by the cubic yard, although, in a few localities,
measurement by the perch is still in use. If the latter method is adopted, it should be stated
just what is meant by a perch, as this varies considerably in different parts of the country.
Before fixing the price for excavation, it is advisable to investigate the character of the soil
by making boring tests. Where there is rock to be blasted in making the excavation, a special
price should be given in the estimate. If the ground is wet, rendering pumping necessary,
provision should be made for the cost of the extra labor needed. The disposition to be made of
the excavated material should also be considered; if it must be hauled a long distance, the
cost will be much greater than if the soil can be wasted near by. To aid in estimating the actual
cost, it is convenient and approximately correct to consider 1 cubic yard of ordinary earth as a
load for an ordinary two-horse wagon.
In making calculations of the amount of material to be removed, care should be taken to
note the existing levels of the ground and those required by the drawings. The excavation
should be figured (and made) at least 1 foot greater than the size of the foundation, so as to
provide room for setting the masonry, pointing, etc.
Excavation for pipes, drains, etc. should be at least 9 inches wider than the diameter of the
pipe to be laid therein. If the soil in which the excavation is to be made is of a loose and sandy
nature that is liable to crumble and slide, a slope, say of 3 inches horizontal to 1 foot vertical,
should be allowed on both sides of the trenches. If the latter are of considerable depth, it is
sometimes necessary to curb or shore up the sides, in which case an allowance should be
made in the estimate for the lumber required. If piles are required, they should be figured at
so much per linear foot, driven.

ACTUAL COST OF EXCAVATION

8. In order that an idea may be formed of the actual cost of excavating various kinds of
soils, figures based on work actually performed are here given. On this work, for a day of 8
hours, a laborer was paid $2, and a driver with a two-horse team, $4.
As a rule, one laborer can excavate about 7 cubic yards of sandy soil in 8 hours. Thus, at
the rate of 25 cents per hour, the cost of excavating this kind of soil is about 28½ cents per
cubic yard, provided the material is wasted around the building. To this figure, however, must
be added 4 or 5 cents to cover the foreman’s wages, the exact amount depending on the
number of men under the foreman. This brings the total cost per cubic yard to about 33 cents.
When the material has to be carted away, the cost is further increased. A team with a
driver can haul away about 20 cubic yards of soil in a day if the haul is only about ½ mile. In
order to do this, however, an extra wagon must be at hand so that the laborers can be loading
one wagon while the team is hauling away the other. Thus, the cost of hauling 1 cubic yard of
excavated material ½ mile is 20 cents. The total cost, therefore, of excavating 1 cubic yard of
sandy soil and hauling it ½ mile is 33 + 20 = 53 cents.
9. If the soil is compact gravel, the cost of excavating, including the foreman’s time, will be
from 34 to 65 cents per cubic yard, depending on its hardness. It costs about the same to haul
compact gravel as it does to haul sandy soil.
The exact cost of excavating wet soil cannot be given, as the conditions encountered may
vary in each case. In a stated time, a laborer will excavate nearly as much wet material as dry
material, but the conditions of sheet piling and pumping out water makes the price uncertain.
Such excavation is usually carried on at a cost of from 75 cents to $1.25 per cubic yard.
In excavating rock, three men—one rockman and two laborers—usually work together. For
a day of 8 hours, the rockman receives $3 and each laborer gets $2. Together, therefore, the
wages of the three amounts to $7 a day. These men will excavate about 6 cubic yards of rock
in 1 day, making the rock excavation cost $1.17 per cubic yard. To this must be added the cost
of explosives, which is about 10 cents per cubic yard, and the wear on tools. This latter
expense can hardly be estimated, but may also be considered as 10 cents per cubic yard, thus
bringing the total cost of rock excavation up to $1.37 per cubic yard for rock wasted at the
building.
10. To sum up, excavation in sandy soil wasted around the building costs 33 cents per
cubic yard; if hauled ½ mile, it costs 53 cents per cubic yard. If the soil is compact gravel and
is wasted around the building, excavation costs from 34 to 65 cents per cubic yard; if hauled
½ mile, from 54 to 85 cents per cubic yard. Wet excavation with no piling or pumping costs
about the same as dry; with piling and pumping, it costs from 75 cents to $1.25 per cubic
yard. Rock work costs $1.37 per cubic yard if wasted around the building. These figures do not
include the contractor’s profit.

CONTRACTOR’S METHOD OF
FIGURING EXCAVATION
 11. Besides the actual cost of excavation, the contractor, in estimating, must include such
items as office expenses, builder’s profits, etc. The following method of figuring, which is
employed by the estimator of a large contracting firm in the eastern part of the United States,
will therefore be found useful. As in the preceding case, the prices will be found to vary in
different localities; therefore, the figures given should only be used as a guide in estimating.
The prices are based on labor at $2 per day of 8 hours and a two-horse team and driver at
$5 per day of 8 hours. The excavation is assumed to be made in ground varying from made
ground to a moderately stiff clay. The prices do not include the cost of shoring or pumping,
and are based on the assumption that there is no frost of any account while operations are
being carried out. Four classes of excavation are recognized:
1. Excavation in trenches up to 5 feet deep, excavated material spread on site about
trenches, including back filling around walls, costs from 40 to 50 cents per cubic yard.
2. Trenches from 5 to 10 feet deep, excavated material spread on site adjacent to trenches,
including back filling around walls, costs from 65 to 75 cents per cubic yard.
3. For cellars, or similar digging, up to 6 feet deep and having an area large enough to use
a plow for loosening the earth (say areas 50 ft. × 20 ft. and over), excavated material being
spread on site adjacent to work, costs from 33 to 38 cents per cubic yard if a scoop can be
used, and from 40 to 45 cents per cubic yard if the material must be loaded on a wagon to
haul it out of the excavation.
4. When the conditions are the same as those just given, except that the excavation is from
6 to 10 feet deep, the price is about 45 cents per cubic yard.
The prices just given do not include hauling, except short hauls immediately in the vicinity
of the operations. The cost of hauling will depend on the distance to the place where the
material is to be dumped.
12. To obtain the cost of any of the classes of excavation just given, including hauling,
divide the hire of the team per day by the number of cubic yards that can be removed to the
dumping place per day, and increase the preceding prices by that amount.
To figure the cost of sheet piling, measure the area to be sheet-piled and allow for such
stringers and braces as judgment may suggest. Since the lumber may be used for other
purposes after serving as piling, its value should be estimated at 75 per cent. of the market
price. It usually costs about $7 per thousand feet to put the piling in place. As a rule, 3" × 10"
planks are used for this purpose.
The foregoing prices cover the general run of building work. For large office buildings and
other structures of a similar nature, where it is necessary to excavate to a depth of about 25
feet and where several varieties of ground are likely to be encountered, an average price for
digging (exclusive of pumping or shoring, but including a haul not exceeding 1 mile) is $1.25
per cubic yard. If large boulders are likely to be encountered in excavating, the price should be
at least $1.50 per cubic yard.

DITCH WORK

13. In estimating the cost of ditch work, there are several factors that influence the price.
A narrow ditch costs more to dig per cubic yard than a wide one; likewise, a deep ditch costs
more than a shallow one. Following are given prices for laying agricultural drain tiling. While
these figures do not include builder’s profit, they are based on the actual cost of work, the
wages for a day of 8 hours being $2 for laborers, $2.50 for the foreman, and $4 for a horse
and driver. In sections of the country where higher wages are paid, it will be necessary to
increase the figures at a proportional rate when making estimates.
For trenches 3 feet deep and 18 inches wide, in very hard, clay soil with about 10 inches of
loam on top, the cost of excavating is about 12 cents per linear foot, or 72 cents per cubic
yard. For filling in the trench with the aid of a team and a scraper, it costs ¾ cent per linear
foot. For laying a 4-inch tile, including distributing along the trench, the cost is ¾ cent per
linear foot. For picking stones off of the ground and placing them over the pipe to a depth of
about 8 inches, it costs 2¼ cents per linear foot. Each outlet built of field stones laid in cement
costs from $5 to $8.

CALCULATING THE VOLUME

OF AN EXCAVATION

Fig. 1
14. The ordinary rules of mensuration are all that are needed to compute the volume of
any excavation. The work is very simple when the area to be removed is regular; but when the
outlines are very irregular and broken, the easiest method to employ in calculating the
excavation is to divide the plan into geometrical figures that are easy to compute, and then
calculate the area of each one separately. Adding these areas and multiplying their sum by the
depth of the cellar will give the volume of the excavation.
This method will be made clear by referring to Fig. 1, which represents the plan of an
irregular foundation. To compute the area of the excavation, the plan is divided into the
rectangles a d c b, l k b m, j i h g, g f e c, and the polygons n q p o, t u r s, and a x w v. By
scaling on the drawing the dimensions of these figures, the area of each may then be readily
determined by calculation.
 Fig. 2
15. It is sometimes necessary to find the volume of an excavation, the surface of which is
very irregular, as in Fig. 2. In such a case, the following method may be used: Divide the
surface of the excavation into a number of squares, or rectangles, as at d e f c; these
represent the ends of prisms, the other ends of which are the bottom of the excavation, as at
a h g b. Then calculate the volume of each prism by ascertaining the height of the four corners
above the bottom; add these measurements together, divide the sum by 4 (the number of
corners), and multiply the result by the end area, as a h g b; the product will be the volume of
the prism. The sum of these partial volumes will be an accurate estimate of the contents of the
excavation.

CONCRETE WORK
16. Plain concrete work is usually paid for by the cubic yard. The contractor furnishes all
material, including the lumber, to make the forms; he also erects the forms and removes them
after the concrete has been placed. There is no fixed practice regarding openings in walls.
Usually, small openings under, say, 100 square feet in superficial area are considered as solid.
All larger openings are deducted from the work when measuring for payment. In some
localities, the actual volume of the concrete work is taken by the contractor as a basis of the
cost. In either case, it is of prime importance that the architect and the contractor make some
distinct agreement beforehand as to exactly how the concrete work is to be measured and
paid for.
Reinforced-concrete work is also often measured by the cubic yard, although
sometimes it is contracted for as a finished building. The steel reinforcement is sometimes
included in the price. Often, patented steel reinforcement is bought separately and delivered to
the contractor; at other times, the contractor buys the patented steel or else makes it and
pays a royalty to the holder of the patent. Reinforced-concrete floors are sometimes measured
by the cubic yard and sometimes by the square yard, according to agreement. Pavements are
usually measured by the square foot or by the square yard.
In Table II are given the costs of stone concrete and gravel concrete. These figures do not
include builder’s profit, cost of superintendence, or cost of forms. They are based on the
following costs: Labor, 25 cents per hour; cement, $2 per barrel; sand, $1.50 per cubic yard;
crushed stone, $1.65 per cubic yard; gravel, $1 per cubic yard.
To the values given in the table, the price of the wooden forms, both for material and
erection, must be added. This of course varies considerably, according to whether the work is
straight or has a number of corners and openings in it.

TABLE II
COST OF PLAIN STONE CONCRETE
Mixture Quantity Cost
Broken
Sand
Cement Sand Broken Cement Stone
Cubic> Cement Sand Broken Labor Total
Parts Parts Stone Barrels Cubic
Yards Stone
Parts Yards
1 2 4 1.5 .45 .90 $3.00 $.68 $1.49 $.75 $5.92
1 3 5 1.1 .50 .85 2.20 .75 1.40 .75 5.10
1 3 6 1.0 .45 .90 2.00 .68 1.49 .75 4.92

COST OF PLAIN GRAVEL CONCRETE

Mixture Quantity Cost
Sand Gravel
Cement Sand Gravel Cement
Cubic> Cubic Cement Sand Gravel Labor Total
Parts Parts Parts Barrels
Yards Yards
1 2 4 1.3 .4 .80 $2.60 $.60 $.80 $.75 $4.75
1 3 5 1.0 .5 .80 2.00 .75 .80 .75 4.30
1 3 6 .9 .4 .85 1.80 .60 .85 .75 4.00

The price of forms, including both material and erection, may be said to vary from 50 cents
for ordinary cellar work to $2 for heavy retaining walls per cubic yard of concrete placed.

DATA ON REINFORCED-CONCRETE
BUILDING

17. The cost of reinforced-concrete buildings varies with the market price of cement
and the steel bars or metal used for reinforcing. At present, reinforced-concrete buildings of
the factory type constructed of common, hard, stretcher-brick walls and reinforced-concrete
floors, roof, and columns with foundations may be built for from $1.35 to $1.65 per square
foot of floor area. Usually, the height of ceilings in factory buildings is about 14 feet from floor
to floor, thus making the cost of this type of building approximately from 10 to 12 cents per
cubic foot. For buildings of a better commercial type, with face-brick walls and terra-cotta
trimmings, the cost per square foot of floor area will range from $1.65 to $1.90, making the
cost per cubic foot from 12 to 14 cents.
Reinforced-concrete buildings, as a rule, exceed the cost of buildings of slow-burning
construction of the same size by an amount about equal to the cost of the metallic
reinforcement. In other words, a building of reinforced concrete costs from 10 to 25 per cent.
more than the same building of slow-burning construction.
The price of reinforced concrete per cubic yard varies within wide limits, depending on the
mass of concrete employed and the intricacies of the forms. In building construction,
reinforced concrete, including the price of the forms, can usually be placed for from $12 to $18
per cubic yard, the cost of the steel reinforcement being added.
Where the building is of considerable height, the same forms used in the three lower
stories may be used in constructing the balance of the building. In such a case, the cost of the
forms will probably not exceed $6 for each cubic yard of concrete placed. If the building is only
two or three stories in height, and the work is rushed by using new centering in each floor, the
cost of the forms will range from $7 to $9 per cubic yard of concrete.
The cost of form work for floor construction will range from 10 to 12 cents per square foot.
Column forms will cost in the neighborhood of 20 or 25 cents per running foot. The forms used
for fine concrete-wall construction require considerable time and bracing, and generally must
be executed with great care where finished work is required. Such forms will cost from 8 to 10
cents per square foot of form on both sides of the wall, but will greatly exceed this price if
molded courses or paneled spandrels are to be formed and lettering is to be cut in the work.
18. In estimating the cost of reinforced-concrete slabs, the cost of the centering, the
concrete, and the steel reinforcements must be considered. The cost of centering for slab work
varies from 5 to 7 cents per square foot, the latter figure probably being more nearly correct
for usual conditions. The concrete for plain reinforced-concrete slab construction on steel
beams can be placed for about $5.60 per cubic yard, or 1¾ cents for a square foot 1 inch in
thickness. At present market values, the steel for reinforcing slabs can usually be considered
as costing about 3 cents a pound, the pound price increasing as the rods decrease in size.
Table III gives the approximate cost, in cents per square foot, of constructing different
thicknesses of reinforced-concrete slabs on steel-beam construction with the different sizes of
reinforcing bars usually employed. The prices include cost of centering, concrete, and steel
reinforcement.
19. Table III cannot be used for estimating the cost of a reinforced-concrete floor with
reinforced-concrete beams and girders. In the construction of such a floor, the centering is
much more costly than where steel beams are used for the support of the floor slab. On an
average, the centering for the reinforced-concrete floor systems, including the studding and
shoring, will cost from 20 to 22 cents per square foot, the sides of the beam and girder forms
being included in the square-foot estimate. This cost is materially reduced where the centering
is used over and over again for the construction of upper floors, so that where the building is
six or eight stories in height, the average cost of the centering will not exceed 10 or 12 cents
per square foot, including shoring, as just mentioned. Owing to the difficulty encountered in
placing the concrete in the beams, the tamping required with slice bars, etc., and the expense
of placing the reinforcement, the concrete for such construction will cost about $7.50 or $8 per
cubic yard. The steel for the entire construction will usually average from 3 to 4 cents a pound,
depending on whether plain rods or deformed bars are used, or whether the system is made
up of loose rods or fabricated frames. In estimating the cost of such a floor system, the
centering should be figured by a carefully itemized estimate, or roughly from the preceding
figures. The amount of concrete in both the slab beams and columns should be estimated, and
the total number of cubic yards required for the entire work should be determined; then the
unit price for providing and placing the concrete should be carefully considered with reference
to local conditions of labor and cost of material.

TABLE III
 COST IN CENTS PER SQUARE FOOT OF
REINFORCED-CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS
SUPPORTED ON STEEL BEAMS
⁵/₁₆-Inch ⅜-Inch ⁷/₁₆-Inch ½-Inch ⅝-Inch
Thickness Diameter Diameter Diameter Diameter Diameter
of Slab Rods at Rods at Rods at Rods at Rods at
Inches 6-Inch 6-Inch 6-Inch 6-Inch 6-Inch
Centers Centers Centers Centers Centers
3½ 14.87 15.58
4 15.75 16.46 17.24
4½ 16.62 17.33 18.11 18.87
5 17.50 18.21 19.00 19.75 20.87
5½ 18.37 19.08 19.87 20.62 22.62
6 19.25 19.96 20.75 21.50 23.50

CEMENT CELLAR FLOORS

20. In determining the cost of cement cellar floors, the concrete proper and the top
coat should be considered separately. The concrete proper is usually reckoned by the cubic
yard. About 1 hour more is required to lay a cubic yard of floor than is necessary for plain
concrete work. Therefore, in estimating, 25 cents per cubic yard, or the wages of a laborer for
1 hour, must be added to the figures given in Table II. A 1-3-6 mixture is generally used. For
stone concrete, then, the cost of the concrete proper for a cement cellar floor would be $5.17
per cubic yard, exclusive of the cost of supervision and the builder’s profit.
An analysis of the cost per square yard of top coat 1 inch thick for a cement cellar floor is
as follows:
Cost
Cents
¼ hour, plasterer’s time, at 45 cents per hour 11¼
¼ hour, laborer’s time, at 25 cents per hour 6¼
¹/₁₅ barrel of cement, at $2 per barrel 13⅓
⅛ barrel of white sand, at 75 cents per barrel 9⅜
Approximate cost per square yard 40

To the foregoing should be added the cost of supervision and builder’s profit.

CONCRETE BUILDING BLOCKS

21. Concrete building blocks usually present about 2 square feet of surface in the wall and
are generally 8 inches thick, thus making a volume of 1⅓ cubic feet. Since one-third of this
volume as a rule is air space, the actual volume of concrete is a little less than 1 cubic foot.
The materials in a block of this kind, if used in a 1-4 mixture, will cost about 18 cents. If the
block is 12 inches thick instead of 8 inches, the materials will cost about half again as much, or
27 cents. The cost of labor to manufacture these blocks depends on whether they are made in
great quantities, and the wages paid the workmen, etc., and varies from 6 to 10½ cents for
each block. To lay a block in the wall costs from 5 to 10 cents, 7 cents being about the
average price. This price includes the mortar used in laying. For teaming and haulage, an
allowance of 5 cents per block is usually sufficient. The cost per block, 8 inches thick, set in
the wall is then as follows:
Maximum Minimum
Cost Cost
Cents Cents
Materials 18 18
Labor 10½ 6
Placing 10 5
Haulage 5 none
Total 43½ 29

These results divided by 2 will give the cost of the wall per square foot, since each block is
supposed to have a surface of 2 square feet. If the wall is 12 inches thick instead of 8 inches,
one-half as much again should be added to the price.

MASONRY
22. Stone masonry is generally measured by the perch; in some sections of the United
States, however, measurement by the cord is preferred, but the best method (as being
invariable) is by the cubic yard. In estimating by the perch, it is necessary to state how much
the perch is taken at, whether 24¾ or 25 cubic feet. Note should also be made in regard to
corners and deduction for openings. In most localities it is not customary to deduct openings
under a certain size, and corners are usually measured twice.
23. Rough stone from the quarry is generally sold under two classifications; namely, rubble
and dimension stone. Rubble consists of pieces of irregular size, such as are most easily
obtained from the quarry, up to 12 inches in thickness by 24 inches in length. Stone ordered of
a certain size, or to square over 24 inches each way and to be of a particular thickness, is
called dimension stone.
Rubble masonry and stone backing are generally figured by the perch or cubic yard.
Dimension-stone footings are measured by the square foot unless they are built of large,
irregular stone, in which case they are measured the same as rubble. Ashlar work is always
figured by the superficial foot; openings are usually deducted, and the jambs are measured in
with the face work. Flagging and slabs of all kinds, such as hearths, treads for steps, etc., are
measured by the square foot; sills, lintels, molding, belt courses, and cornices, by the linear
foot; and irregular pieces, by the cubic foot. All carved work is done at an agreed price by the
piece.

DATA ON RUBBLE MASONRY

24. The following proportions and cost of materials and amount of labor required to lay 1
perch of rubble masonry are reasonably accurate, and will serve to give an idea of how to
estimate such work. A perch of rubble masonry requires, approximately, 2,500 pounds of
stone.

Cost of Rubble Masonry

Using 1-to-3 Lime Mortar
1 perch of stone (25 cubic ft.) delivered at work $1.25
 1 bushel of lime .25
⅙ cubic yard of sand, at $1.50 per cubic yard .25
½ day, mason’s labor, at $3.20 per day 1.60
¼ day, helper’s labor, at $2 per day .50
Total $3.85

Using 1-to-3 Portland-Cement Mortar

1 perch of stone $1.25
¾ barrel of Portland cement, at $2 per barrel 1.50
¼ cubic yard of sand, at $1.50 per cubic yard .38
½ day, mason’s labor, at $3.20 per day 1.60
¼ day, helper’s labor, at $2 per day .50
Total $5.23

To the preceding amounts should be added the cost of scaffolding and the builder’s profit.
If the walls are over two stories in height, 60 cents per perch extra for hoisting should be
added.

DATA ON FLAGSTONES
AND CURBING

25. Flagstones for sidewalks, ordinary stock, natural surface, 3 inches thick, with joints
pitched to line, in lengths (along walk) from 3 to 5 feet, will cost, for a 3-foot walk, about 11
cents per square foot (if 2 inches thick, 10½ cents); for a 4-foot walk, 12 cents; and for a 5-
foot walk, 16 cents. The cost of laying all sizes will average about 3 cents per square foot.
These figures do not include cost of hauling.
Curbing, 4 in. × 24 in., granite, will cost from 40 to 50 cents per linear foot at the quarry;
digging and setting will cost from 10 to 12 cents additional; and the cost of freight and hauling
must also be added.

DATA ON ASHLAR AND

CUT STONE

26. The following figures are average prices for ashlar facing when the transportation
charges are not excessive, and are not given as fixed values, but more to show the relative
costs. They include nothing but plain ashlar, and in estimating, the extra cost of sills, lintels,
water-tables, belt courses, coping, etc. must be added. These prices are based on quarrymen’s
wages of $2.50 per day, and stone-cutters’ wages of $4 per day.
Good rock-face bluestone ashlar, with from 6- to 10-inch beds, dressed about 3 inches from
face, will cost, ready for laying, from 30 to 40 cents per square foot, face measure; while a
higher grade of work will cost from 40 to 55 cents per square foot. Regular course bluestone
ashlar, from 12 to 18 inches high and with from 8- to 12-inch beds, will cost about 50 cents
per square foot. To this (and the previous figures) must be added the cost of hauling, which,
on an average, will be about 3 cents per square foot.
To the preceding figures must also be added the cost of setting the ashlar. In estimating
the cost of ashlar walls backed with brick, the wall is considered as solid brick, the cost of
setting the ashlar being offset by the saving in cost of the brick and mortar and the labor
resulting from making part of the thickness of the wall of stone. The cost of raking out the
joints and pointing, which amounts to about 10 cents per square foot, must also be added.
27. The following figures show the approximate cost of cut bluestone for various uses:
Flagstone, 5-inch, size 8' × 10', edges and top
bush-hammered, per sq. ft., face measure $ .75
Flagstone, 4-inch, size 5' × 5', select stock,
edges clean cut, natural top, per sq. ft. .45
Door sills, 8" × 12", clean cut, per lin. ft. 1.35
Window sills, 5" × 12", clean cut, per lin. ft. .80
Window sills, 4" × 8", clean cut, per lin. ft. .45
Window sills, 5" × 8", clean cut, per lin. ft. .60
Lintels, 4" × 10", clean cut, per lin. ft. .65
Lintels, 8" × 12", clean cut, per lin. ft. 1.25
Steps, sawed stock,7" × 14", per lin. ft. 1.10
Water-table, 8" × 12", clean cut, per lin. ft. 1.25
Coping, 4" × 21", clean cut, per lin. ft. 1.20
Coping, 4" × 21", rock-face edges and top,
per lin. ft. .50
Coping, 3" × 15", rock-face edges and top,
per lin. ft. .35
Coping, 3" × 18", rock-face edges and top,
per lin. ft. .40
Platform, 6 inches thick, per sq. ft. .50

To the preceding prices of cut stone must be added the cost of setting, which for water-
tables, steps, etc. will be about 10 cents per linear foot; and for window sills, etc., about 5
cents per linear foot. In addition, about 10 cents per cubic foot for fitting, and about 5 cents
per cubic foot for trimming the joints after the pieces are set in place, should be allowed.
28. In a day of 8 hours, a stone cutter can cut about 4 square feet of granite, about 6
square feet of bluestone, or about 8 square feet of Ohio sandstone or limestone. These figures
are for 6-cut, patent-hammered work. For rock-face ashlar (beds worked about 3 inches from
face, the rest pitched), a workman can dress from 15 to 25 square feet of random ashlar per
day; and from 18 to 20 square feet of coursed ashlar. In dressing laminated stone, from two to
three times more work can be done in a day on the natural surface than on the edge of layers.
In figuring cut stone, ample allowance should be made for waste, which, on an average, will
be 15 per cent.

ADDITIONAL METHOD OF
ESTIMATING ASHLAR

29. The following method of estimating the cost of cut stone is employed by many
practical stone men. It is based on the fact that most ashlar walls have about the same
number of sills, belt courses, lintels, water-tables, etc. in proportion to their volume, and
therefore all the stonework, both the ashlar proper and the other cut stone, may be lumped
together at one price per cubic foot. For estimating purposes, stone may be divided into two
classes: soft stone, such as the sandstones, and hard stone, such as the granites.
 30. Soft Stone.—Indiana limestone may be taken as an example of soft stone. In the
Eastern Pennsylvania district, where the stone cutters’ wage rate is 50 cents per hour, the cost
of this kind of stone is about as follows:
Rough blocks, per cubic foot $ .75
Sawing, jointing, cutting, rubbing, waste in stock 1.50
Total $2.25

If the work is tooled, which is preferable for this material, 20 cents per cubic foot should be
added. Thus the value in the yard, but ready to set, for an ashlar front, including water-table,
sills, lintels, belt courses, all ordinary moldings, and plain cornices, is $2.45 per cubic foot.
Consoles, dentils, panelings, and similar ornamental work, mantels, and interior work have
no fixed prices, but must be governed by the estimator’s knowledge of time required to cut
any particular kind, sometimes reaching $5 per cubic foot. If moldings are deeply undercut, an
extra price will have to be charged.
In heavy work, where the amount of stock is large compared with the amount of dressing,
deductions may be made that sometimes amount to as much as 20 per cent. Rock-face work is
somewhat more expensive than plain, dressed work because the projecting rock surface
requires more stock; therefore, about 10 per cent. should be added.
It is customary to leave stone roughly cut to shape for carving in the wall, and therefore
the sculptor determines the value from the drawings and includes the cost of models, which
must be approved by the architect before the work is cut. Circular work, if plain, costs about
the same as square work, but if fluted or reeded, as in the case of columns, it may cost as
much as 50 per cent. additional.
31. Compared with limestone, the prices of other soft stones are as follows:
Cost of For Cutting
Stock Per Cent.
Connecticut brownstone $1.25 20
Long Meadow brownstone 1.25 30
Portage red stone 1.05 30
Vermont or Georgia white marble 2.15 50
Pennsylvania blue marble 2.00 50
Bluestone .80 30

No definite price can be given for marble, as it comes in different grades and varieties.
The prices of stock just given are for stones of common size. If extra-large or extra-long
stones are required, their price per cubic foot will be greater.
The cost of transportation from the quarries also influences the price of stone. This cost will
vary according to the distance of the quarry from the location where the stone is to be used.
The cost of hauling stone from the yard and setting it in the wall runs from 40 to 50 cents per
cubic foot.
32. Granite.—Final estimates of cut granite by the cubic foot are seldom made, although
approximate estimates are often made in that way by comparing a proposed piece of work
with a similar one already completed. The reason for not making final estimates is that every
additional molding or break in granite work affects the cost considerably, differing greatly in
this respect from soft stone.
 The first note to be made by the estimator is in regard to the cost of material. Good
granite, in dimension sizes, can be obtained from southern quarries by rail for 65 cents per
cubic foot, delivered. The same expenditure will buy very good eastern granite where through
water transportation is available. If, however, the granite specified is such that it must be
obtained from eastern quarries having only rail facilities for shipment, an addition of 40 or 50
cents per cubic foot will be required. There are also some special grades of granite that cost
$1.50 or more per foot. In shipping granite, the railroads usually allow 8 cubic yards to the car.
Granite for monumental purposes costs from $1.25 to $5 per foot, according to the size and
quality. At wholesale, the price first mentioned, namely, 65 cents per cubic foot, will buy as
good, substantial, and handsome material as will generally be required.
33. Machinery is used extensively for cutting plain faces in granite, and also to some extent
for moldings and carved work. Every line in granite is costly to cut and must be computed
separately. For instance, a plain face 12 inches wide, if cut by machinery, will cost 45 cents per
square foot, while if cut by hand, where the machine cannot be applied, it will cost 60 cents. A
2-inch bevel, as shown at a, Fig. 3, will cost 50 cents per linear foot additional. A scotia, as
shown at b, or other molding, as at c, will cost 60 cents per linear foot additional for each
member.

Fig. 3
All returns, no matter how small, must be counted as not less than 1 foot. Circular work
costs from 50 to 100 per cent. more than straight work. Flutes or reeds in columns are very
expensive, and must be calculated in each case according to the width and depth. All beads
and joints should be counted at say 30 cents per square foot. All notches or rabbets are
counted separately, according to shape and size.
The preceding prices are based on what is called patent-hammered, six-cut work. Eight-cut
work will cost 15 per cent. more, and ten-cut work, which is seldom used in ordinary building
work, brings $1 per square foot. Rock-face work in granite is cheaper than hammered work. A
good, clean rock face should be counted at 20 cents per square foot. Axed, or peen-
hammered, work is between rock face and six cut.
Polishing plain surfaces costs $1 per square foot in addition to the cost of cutting, surfaces
having widths of 4 inches and under counting as 6 inches, and those over 6 inches up to 12
inches counting as 1 foot.

BRICKWORK
34. Brickwork is generally estimated by the thousand bricks laid in the wall, but
measurements by the cubic yard and the perch are also used. The following data will be useful
in calculating the number of bricks in a wall. For each superficial, or square, foot of wall 4
inches (the width of one brick) in thickness, allow 7½ bricks; for a 9-inch (the width of two
bricks) wall, count 15 bricks; for a 13-inch (the width of three bricks) wall, allow 22½ bricks;
and so on, estimating 7½ bricks for each additional 4 inches in thickness of the wall. The
preceding figures are for bricks about 8½ in. × 4 in. × 2¼ in. in size. If smaller bricks are
used, the thickness of the walls will be decreased proportionately.
If brickwork is estimated by the cubic yard, allow 500 bricks to a yard. This figure is based
on the use of bricks of the size just given and mortar joints not over ⅜ inch thick. If the joints
are ⅛ inch thick, as in face brickwork, 1 cubic yard will require about 575 bricks. In making
calculations of the number of bricks required, an allowance of, say, 5 per cent. should be made
for waste in breakage, etc.
The practice in regard to deductions for openings is not uniform throughout the United
States, but, usually, small openings are counted solid, as the cost of the extra labor and the
waste in working around these places balances that of the brickwork saved. All large openings,
100 square feet or over in area, should be deducted. When openings are measured solid, it is
not customary to allow extra compensation for arches, pilasters, corbels, etc.
Rubbed and ornamental brickwork should be measured separately, and charged for at a
special rate.

DATA ON BRICKWORK

35. The following estimates on the cost of brickwork are very carefully compiled, and will
be found trustworthy. It should be understood that the prices will vary with the cost of
materials and labor; the proportions, however, will be constant. The figures are based on kiln,
or actual, count; that is, with deductions for openings. When the work is measured with no
deductions for openings, the cost per thousand may be assumed as about 15 per cent. less
than the prices given, which are exclusive of scaffolding, hoisting, and builder’s profit. The
scaffolding will cost, according to conditions of the structure and site, from 5 to 7 per cent. of
the prices given.

Cost of Common Brickwork

per Thousand Bricks

Using 1-to-3 Lime Mortar

1,000 bricks $8.00
2 bushels of lime, at 25 cents per bushel .50
½ cubic yard of sand, at $1.50 per cubic yard .75
Bricklayer, 8 hours, at 55 cents per hour 4.40
Laborer, 8 hours, at 25 cents per hour 2.00
Total $15.65

Using 1-to-3 Portland-Cement Mortar

1,000 bricks $8.00
1 barrel of Portland cement 2.00
½ cubic yard of sand .75
Bricklayer, 8 hours, at 55 cents per hour 4.40
Laborer, 8 hours, at 25 cents per hour 2.00
Total $17.15
 Using 1-to-4 Lime-and-Cement Mortar
1,000 bricks $8.00
¾ bushel of lime, at 25 cents per bushel .19
½ cubic yard of sand .75
⅔ barrel of cement, at $2 per barrel 1.34
Bricklayer, 8 hours, at 55 cents per hour 4.40
Laborer, 8 hours, at 25 cents per hour 2.00
Total $16.68

Cost of Straight, Pressed Brickwork,

per Thousand Bricks

Using Lime-Putty Mortar

1,000 pressed bricks, cost from $20 to $40 (average) $30.00
1½ bushels of lime .38
¼ cubic yard of fine sand .38
Bricklayer, 27 hours, at 60 cents per hour 16.20
Laborer, 27 hours, at 25 cents per hour 6.75
Total $53.71

ESTIMATING BRICKWORK

36. The following figures and method of estimating brickwork were supplied by an
estimator of a large eastern contractor. The prices given include office expense and builder’s
profit. The wages per hour on which these figures are based are: Bricklayers, 65 cents; hod
carriers, 25 cents; and common laborers, 18 cents.
Following are mentioned four distinct classes of brick buildings, and in Table IV are given
the labor prices per thousand brick for the various stories of buildings of these classes.
1. Absolutely plain factory buildings.
2. Factory or office buildings broken up with a few pilasters and
other projections; stretcher-brick facing, neatly cleaned down
and pointed.
3. Office buildings of fairly ornamental type, well broken up with
pilasters, projecting courses, etc., with pressed-brick facing.
4. Highly ornamental brick buildings, molded cornices, pilasters,
raised quoins, sunk molded panels, and numerous flat and
segmental arches.

TABLE IV
LABOR PRICES PER THOUSAND BRICK FOR
FOUR CLASSES OF BRICK BUILDINGS
Part of Building Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
Basement $ 7.50 $ 7.50 $ 8.50 $ 9.50
 Part of Building Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
First floor 8.00 9.00 10.50 13.50
Second floor 8.50 10.00 11.00 14.00
Third floor 9.00 10.50 11.50 14.50
Fourth floor 9.50 11.00 12.00 15.00
Fifth floor 10.00 11.50 12.50 15.50
Sixth floor 11.00 12.00 13.00 16.00

The prices in the table include the cost of mortar. If the cost of brick at building is added,
the result will be the total cost of brickwork exclusive of scaffolding. The average price of total
brick labor in buildings of class 1 is $8.50; of class 2, $9.50; of class 3, $11.50; and of class 4,
$14.
37. The following miscellaneous brick prices, including labor and mortar, but not brick, are
from the same source as the prices given in the preceding article, and are based on the same
condition, the prices being in bricks per thousand:
For heavy basement walls and similar masses
of brickwork $ 7.00
For 18-inch brick walls not over two or three
stories high, in hard brick with struck joints 8.00
Same as above, but for 13-inch walls 9.00
For 18-inch brick walls, as above, but faced
on one side with pressed brick 12.00
For 18-inch brick walls, as above, but faced on
both sides with pressed brick 16.50
For 13-inch brick walls, as above, but faced
one side with pressed brick 14.00
For 13-inch brick walls, as above, but faced
both sides with pressed brick 14.00
Add to above, if of English or Flemish
bond, on entire cost of wall .50
If work is broken up into light piers, requiring
a lot of plumbing, add to cost of wall as above 1.50
If a large number of segmental arches must
be turned, add to total cost of wall 1.00

In addition to the preceding schedule two useful rules to remember are: For pressed-brick
segmental arches, add for labor 1½ times the cost of bricks; for pressed-brick arches requiring
radial brick, add for labor twice the cost of straight, pressed brick. As radial brick are shipped
to the building in barrels and have to be unpacked and laid out on the full-sized diagram on
the floor, it will be found that the rate given is not excessive.
For brick vault arches, the cost of labor, exclusive of mortar, will be about $5 per thousand
brick. If pointed underneath, 7 cents per square foot will have to be added. If the centers are
left in place until the mortar has set, it will be necessary to rake out the joints and wet them
before pointing. This will cost about 10 cents per square foot.

TERRA-COTTA WORK
 38. Terra-Cotta Floor Arches.—The cost of terra-cotta floor arches varies somewhat
with the span and with the difficulties encountered in putting up and removing the centering.
If the building consists of a number of stories, the centering that is used on one floor may be
reused on a floor several stories higher up, in this way decreasing the outlay for centerings.
For ordinary spans, the following analysis of the cost of a 12-inch arch, exclusive of the cost of
the terra cotta itself, will be found quite accurate, provided the centering is put up by
experienced laborers. The price given is per square foot of arch.
Cents
Centering 3
Hoisting and laying 3½
Mortar ½
Total 7

This price is for work showing a flat ceiling. If the ceiling is much broken up by girders, the
price, exclusive of the terra cotta itself, will be about 8 cents per square foot.
As a price per square foot, including the cost of terra cotta, setting, and mortar, the
following figures may be taken. These, however, do not include the cost of plastering, or of
any concrete fill above the terra cotta.
Cents
10-inch arches 23
12-inch arches 25
15-inch arches 29

39. Terra-Cotta Partitions.—In office buildings, terra-cotta partitions are usually

erected on top of a floor in order to divide the space into such rooms as will suit the tenants.
This work is generally done after the building is otherwise completed. An analysis of the cost
of such partitions is given in Table V.

TABLE V
COST OF TERRA-COTTA PARTITIONS
Cost of Setting
Thickness per Square Foot, Cost of Terra Cotta Total Cost
Including Mortar per Square Foot per Square Foot
Inches Cents Cents Cents
3 5 9 14
4 5 10 15
6 6 12 18
10 8 16 24

The cost of placing 8-inch, terra-cotta backing to brickwork is 6 cents per square foot.

TILING

40. Although not always of a brick or terra-cotta nature, it will be found more convenient
to consider all tiling together and at the same time that the cost of brickwork is taken up.
 Only very general figures can be given on the cost of tiling, as this cost depends
considerably on the design to be carried out. The cost per square foot of various styles of tile
laid in place is as follows:
Moravian tile floors $1.50
Interlocking, rubber tile floors 1.50
Columbia marble tile, 12" × 12", with colored border,
tile laid straight on floor .50
Columbia marble tile, 12" × 12", with colored border,
tile laid diagonally on floor .60
Italian marble tile, 12" × 12", with colored border,
tile laid straight on floor .70
Italian marble tile, 12" × 12", with colored border,
tile laid diagonally on floor .80
Terrazzo and marble mosaic border .38 to .40
Common, white tile in vertical locations,
as lining for elevator shafts, etc. .40
Marble mosaic ceiling work 3.00
Marble and glass mosaic ceiling work 8.00
2-inch book tile (laying only) .04
3-inch book tile (laying only) .04
Shoe tile (laying only) .06

MACKITE

41. Mackite is a fireproofing material used for partitions in very much the same way as
terra cotta. As this material is put in place by bricklayers, its cost will be taken up here.
Where there are many openings, two bricklayers and one laborer can set 240 square feet
of mackite in 8 hours; in a straight wall, without openings, these same men can set about 400
square feet. The market price for 2" × 12" × 30" blocks is 6 cents per square foot; for blocks 3
inches thick, it is 8 cents per square foot. The average price for both material and labor for 2-
inch mackite is 10 cents per square foot; for 3-inch material it is about 12 cents per square
foot.

CARPENTRY
42. Carpentry should include general framing, roofs, floor joists, partitions, sheathing,
flooring, furring, and plastering grounds.
43. Board Measure.—The rough lumber used in framing is measured by the board foot,
which means a piece 12 inches square and 1 inch thick. Lumber is always sold on a basis of a
thousand feet board measure. The customary abbreviation for the latter term is B. M.; that
for thousand is M. Thus, 500 feet board measure, costing $27 per thousand, would be written:
500 ft. B. M., at $27 per M.
To obtain the number of board feet in any piece of timber, the length, in inches, should be
multiplied by the end area, in square inches, and the result divided by 144. For example, the
number of feet B. M. in a floor joist 20 feet long, 3 inches thick, and 10 inches deep is 240
inches (=20 feet × 12) multiplied by 30 square inches (the end area) divided by 144, or 50.
 The following rule is used by most contractors and lumber dealers: Multiply the length in
feet by the thickness and width in inches, and divide the product by 12. Thus, a scantling 26
feet long, 2 inches thick, and 6 inches wide contains
26 × 2 × 6
= 26 feet B. M.
12
This rule, expressed in a slightly different manner, is more convenient for mental
computation: Divide the product of the width and thickness in inches by 12, and multiply the
quotient by the length in feet. Thus, a 2" × 10" plank, 18 feet long, contains
2 × 10
× 18 = 30 feet B. M.
12
44. Prices of Lumber.—Owing to the continual variation in the prices and grades of
lumber, it is impossible to give prices here that will not vary from day to day. The architect
before starting to estimate should first be sure that he has the latest lumber prices obtainable.
These prices can always be secured from the local lumber dealer.
45. Studs.—To calculate the number of studs—set on 16-inch centers—the following rule
may be used: From the length of the partition, in feet, deduct one-fourth, and to this result
add 1. Count the number of returns, or corners, on the plan, where double studding is
required, and add 2 studs for each such return. (The reason for adding 1 is to include the stud
at the end, which would otherwise be omitted.) The sills, plates, and double studs must be
measured separately.

Fig. 4
For example, the number of studs required for partitions only, shown on the plan, Fig. 4, is
computed in the following manner.

30 ft. 6 in.
10 ft. 6 in.
9 ft. 6 in.
5 ft. 0 in.
4 ft. 6 in.
60 ft. 0 in.
 Deducting one-quarter from 60 feet, the remainder is 45 feet; adding 1 stud, the result is
46 feet. As there are 4 returns, with 2 studs for each, as shown at a a, the total number is 46
+ (4 × 2) = 54 studs.
As a general rule, when (as is customary) the studs are set at 16-inch centers, 1 stud for
each foot in length of partition will be a sufficient allowance to include sills, plates, and double
studs. Thus, if the total length of partitions is 75 feet, 75 studs will be sufficient for sills,
double studs, etc. If the studs are set at 12-inch centers, the number required will be equal to
the number of feet in length of partition plus one-fourth. Thus, if the length of partitions is 72
feet, 72 + 18, or 90, studs will include those required for sills, plates, etc.
The same rules may be used for calculating the number of joists, rafters, tie-beams, etc.
A good way to estimate bridging is to allow 3 cents apiece, or 6 cents per pair; this will be
sufficient to furnish and set a pair made of 2" × 3" spruce or hemlock stuff.
46. Sheathing.—To calculate sheathing or rough flooring (not matched), find the
number of feet B. M. required to cover the surface, making no deductions for door or window
openings, because what is gained in openings is lost in waste. If the sheathing is laid
horizontally, only the actual measurement is necessary; but if it is laid diagonally, add 8 or 10
per cent. to the actual area.
47. Flooring.—In estimating matched flooring, a square foot of ⅞-inch stuff is
considered to be 1 foot B. M. If the flooring is 3 inches or more in width, add one-quarter to
the actual number of board feet, to allow for waste of material in forming the tongue and
groove; if less than 3 inches wide, add one-third. Flooring of 1⅛-inch finished thickness is
considered to be 1¼ inches thick, and for calculating it the following rule may be used:
Increase the surface measure 50 per cent. (This consists of 25 per cent. for extra thickness
over I inch, and 25 per cent. for waste in tonguing and grooving.) To this amount add 5 per
cent. for waste in handling and fitting.
In figuring the area of floors, openings for stairs, fireplaces, etc. should be deducted.
48. Weather Boarding, or Siding.—In measuring weather boarding, or siding, the
superficial, or square, foot is usually employed. No deduction should be made for ordinary
window or door openings, as these usually balance the waste in cutting and fitting. Careful
attention must be given to the allowance for lap. If 6-inch, nominal width (actual width, 5⅝
inches), siding, laid with 1-inch lap, is used, add one-quarter to the actual area of the space to
be covered, in order to obtain the number of square feet of siding required. If 4-inch stuff is
used, add one-third to the actual area. When, as previously noted, no allowance is made for
openings, the corner and baseboards need not be figured separately.
49. Cornices.—As a general rule, cornices are measured by the running foot, the molded
and plain members being taken separately. A good method of figuring cornices is as follows:
Measure the girth, or outline, and allow 1½ cents for each inch of girth, per linear foot. This
price will pay for material and for setting, the cost of the mill work being estimated at 50 per
cent.
50. Cost per Square Foot.—For all classes of materials that enter into the general
framing and covering of a building, a close estimate may be made by analyzing the cost per
square foot of surface; that is, the cost of labor and materials—studs and sheathing in walls,
joists and flooring in floors, etc.—required for a definite area should be closely determined,
and this cost divided by the area considered, will give the price per square foot. If the
corresponding whole area is multiplied by the figure thus obtained, the result will, of course,
be the cost of that portion of the work. While the usual custom is to adopt a uniform rate for
the various grades of work, a careful analysis will show that roof sheathing, where the roof is
much cut up, costs more in place than wall sheathing, owing to its position; also that the studs
in walls and partitions cost more than floor joists, as they are lighter and require more
handling.
The following example shows how to determine the cost per square foot of flooring and
indicates the general method to be pursued in similar cases. The area used in the calculation is
a square, or 100 square feet. The cost of labor is estimated at 40 per cent. of that of the
materials, as it has been shown by experience that this allowance is a very close
approximation to the actual cost of general carpenter work.

Cost of Finished Floor

per Square

Joists, hemlock, 8 pieces, 3" × 10" × 10',

200 feet B. M., at $27 per M. $ 5.40
Bridging, hemlock, 7 sets, 2" × 3" × 1' 4",
9 feet B. M., at $27 per M. .24
Rough flooring, hemlock, ⅛ inch thick, laid diagonally,
100 ft. + 25 ft. + 10 ft.,
135 feet B. M., at $25 per M. 3.38
Finished flooring, No. 2, white pine, ⅞ inch thick,
125 feet B. M., at $45 per M. 5.63
Nails, eightpenny (about) 3 pounds,
at $2.50 per 100 pounds .08
Labor, 40 per cent. of cost of materials 5.89
Total cost for 100 square feet $20.62

A similar method may be followed in estimating the cost of interior finish, paneling, doors,
etc.
51. Work of a Carpenter per Day.—The quantity of material that a workman can put in
place in a day is very uncertain, as it depends on the skill of the man and the ease or difficulty
of the work, both being somewhat modified by circumstances. The figures given in Table VI,
while founded on information gained by many years of experience, are only intended to give
an idea of the relative quantities and are not a standard to be adhered to in all cases. The
estimates are based on an 8-hour day and wages at $3.20 per day. If the hours or pay are less
or greater in various localities than the prices given, the results will be correspondingly
diminished or increased.

TABLE VI
QUANTITIES OF MATERIAL PUT IN PLACE
PER DAY BY ONE MAN
Number of
Class of Material Feet B. M., Remarks
or Number
Studding 2" × 4", or 2" × 6" 400 Wall or partition.
Rafters 400
 Number of
Class of Material Feet B. M., Remarks
or Number
Rafter ridge and bracing 250
Plate, 6" × 8", halved at corners 350
Floor joists, 2" × 10", or 3" × 12" 500
Ceiling joists, 2" × 6" 450
Sheathing, unmatched 500 Laid horizontally.
Sheathing, unmatched 400 Laid diagonally.
Sheathing, matched 400 Laid horizontally.
Sheathing, matched 300 Laid diagonally.
Sheathing, roof 750 Plain gable roof.
Much cut up by hips,
Sheathing, roof 300
valleys, dormers, etc.,
Ceiling lined with paper 200
Includes fitting
Siding, 4 inches wide 200 and setting
Siding, 6 inches wide 300 corner boards,
base, trim, and
scaffolding.
Includes scarfing
Posts and beams over cellars 200-250
and doweling.
For base and wainscot,
Plaster grounds, linear feet 250 straightened in
good shape.
Bridging, number of pairs per hour 10 Includes cutting and setting.
False jambs around openings, per hour 1

52. Cost of Laying Flooring.—The figures on flooring given in Table VII will be found
useful in calculating as they are based on a square, which, as previously stated, is equal to 100
square feet. The same carpenters’ wages and number of working hours as in the preceding
article are used here.

TABLE VII
LABOR COST OF LAYING WOODEN FLOORS, ETC.
Number of Cost per
Squares per Square at
Class of Material, Etc.
Man per Day 40 Cents
of 8 Hours per Hour
Rough matched hemlock floor, 6 inches wide 3 $ 1.07
3-inch spruce floors laid at right angles
3½ .91
to the beams
Yellow pine floor, with struck joints 1½ 2.13
Cypress porch floor, finished with
1 3.20
white-lead joints
⅞-inch maple floor laid on a plank floor,
2 1.60
with paper between; also, struck joints
 Number of Cost per
Squares per Square at
Class of Material, Etc.
Man per Day 40 Cents
of 8 Hours per Hour
Laying straight-oak floor 1 3.20
Scraping oak floors ⅓ 9.60
Finishing and waxing oak floors ⅔ 4.80
Parquet floor in 2-inch strips of blocks ,
¼ 12.80
12" × 6" or 16" × 8"
Scraping parquet floor ¼ 12.80
Finishing and waxing parquet floor
⅔ 4.80
to good finish
Sleepers, laying and setting, per linear foot .02

53. Miscellaneous Carpentry Items.—In Table VIII is given the cost of several items of
carpentry, such as setting window and door frames, furring brick walls, etc. The prices are
based on the same wages and hours as in the two preceding articles.

TABLE VIII
COST OF MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS OF CARPENTRY
Class of Work Cost Remarks
Setting window frames in wooden buildings $ .45
Each.
Per square foot; includes
Furring brick walls, 1" × 2 strips, 12-inch centers .02½
labor,material, and nails.
Furring brick walls, 1" × 2" strips, 16-inch centers .01⅞ Per square foot.
Cutting holes and fitting plugs in brick walls .05 Each.
Each; includes nails
Setting window frames in brickwork .60
and bracing.
Setting door frames in brickwork .60 Each.
Setting window frames in stonework 1.25 Each, for ordinary work.
Setting window frames in stonework 2.00 Each, for very careful work.
Setting door frames in stonework 2.00 Each, for very careful work.
Furnishing and setting trimmer-arch centers 2.00 Each.
Each; includes supports
Arch centers, 4-foot span ,8-inch reveal 1.50
and wedges.

54. Nails.—To calculate the quantity of nails required in executing any portion of the work,
Table IX, which is based on the use of cut nails, will be found useful.

TABLE IX
QUANTITY OF NAILS REQUIRED
FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES
Pounds Kind of Nails and
Material
Required Size in Pennies
1,000 shingles 5 4
1,000 laths, 4 nails to a lath 7 3, fine
1,000 laths, 6 nails to a lath 9 3, fine
 Pounds Kind of Nails and
Material
Required Size in Pennies
1,000 sq. ft. beveled siding 18 6
1,000 sq. ft. sheathing 20 8
1,000 sq. ft. sheathing 25 10
1,000 sq. ft. flooring, rough 30 8
1,000 sq. ft. flooring, rough 40 10
15 10
1,000 sq. ft. studding
5 20
1,000 sq. ft. furring, 1" × 2" 10 10
1,000 sq. ft. ⅞" finished flooring 20 8 to 10, finish
1,000 sq. ft. 1⅛" finished flooring 30 10, finish

ROOFING
55. Kinds of Roof Covering.—The roof coverings most generally used are shingles,
slate, tin, tile, and tarred paper and gravel (known as gravel roofing). While there are slight
variations in the methods of measuring the different kinds, they are all based on the square of
100 square feet.
56. Shingles.—In measuring shingle roofing, it is necessary to know the exposed length
of a shingle. This is found by deducting 3 inches (the usual cover over the head of the lowest
shingle in the four overlapping courses) from the length and dividing the remainder by 3.
Thus, in Fig. 5, the distance b that one shingle is overlapped by the third above it is usually
made equal to 3 inches, and the remaining length of the lowest shingle may be divided into
three equal portions, each equal to a. The lowest of these three portions is the part exposed to
the weather. Multiplying the length exposed to the weather by the average width of a shingle
will give the exposed area. Dividing 14,400, the number of square inches in a square, by the
exposed area of 1 shingle, in square inches, will give the number of shingles required to cover
100 square feet of roof. For example, it is required to compute the number of shingles 18 in. ×
4 in. needed to cover 100 square feet of roof. With a shingle of this length, the exposure will
be
18 - 3
= 5 inches;
3
then, the exposed area of 1 shingle is 4 in. × 5 in., or 20 square inches, and 1 square requires
14,400 ÷ 20 = 720 shingles.
 Fig. 5
An allowance should always be made for waste in estimating the number of shingles
required.
Table X is arranged for shingles from 15 to 27 inches in length, 4 and 6 inches in width,
and for various lengths of exposure.
57. Shingles are classed as shaved, or breasted, and sawed shingles.
Shaved shingles have fallen almost into disuse, owing to the difficulty of manufacturing
them. These shingles vary from 18 to 30 inches in length, and are about ½ inch thick at the
butt and ¹/₁₆ inch at the top.
Sawed shingles are usually from 14 to 18 inches long and of various thicknesses. In the
case of 18-inch shingles, five shingles, at their butts, will make 2¼ inches; that is, the
thickness of one shingle at the butt is 2¼ ÷ 5 = .45, or about ⁷/₁₆ inch. At the top, each
shingle is ¹/₁₆ inch thick. With 16-inch shingles, however, five of them make only 2 inches.
Therefore, the thickness of a 16-inch shingle at the butt is 2 ÷ 5 = .4, or about ⅜, inch.

TABLE X
DATA FOR ESTIMATING SHINGLES
Number of Shingles
Exposure Number of Square Feet
Required for
to of Roof Covered by
100 Square Feet
Weather 1,000 Shingles
of Roof
Inches
4 Inches Wide 6 Inches Wide 4 Inches Wide 6 Inches Wide
4 111 167 900 600
5 139 208 720 480
6 167 250 600 400
7 194 291 514 343
8 222 333 450 300
 White-pine and white-cedar shingles are graded alike. The shingles made of No. 1, or clear,
stock are designated XXXX. Those made of No. 2 stock, with 6-inch clear butt, are given the
brand XX, while those made of mill cull, with sound butt, are called X.
Red-cedar shingles are graded differently. Their grade depends on their length. Thus, 18-
inch, No. 1 shingles are termed “Perfection,” while 18-inch, thin butt are termed “Eureka.” Red-
cedar shingles 16 inches long, if made of No. 1, or clear, stock, are designated “Extra * A *.”
If they are 16-inch, thin butt, they are termed simply “* A *.”
Sawed shingles are made up into bundles of 250, and are sold on a basis of 4 inches width
for each shingle. Shingles cost from $4 to $6.75 per thousand, according to material and
grade. Dimension shingles—those cut to a uniform width—if of prime cedar, shaved, ½ inch
thick at the butt and ¹/₁₆ inch at the top, will cost about $7.75 per thousand, but since such
shingles are usually 6 inches wide, less will be required per square.
A fairly good workman will lay about 1,000 shingles per day of 8 hours, on straight, plain
work; while in working around hips and valleys, the average will be about 700 per day.
58. Slating.—In measuring slating, the method of determining the number of slates
required per square is similar to that given for shingling; but in slating, each course overlaps
only two of the courses below, instead of three, as in shingling. The usual lap, or cover, of the
lowest course of slate by the uppermost of the two overlapping courses, is 3 inches; hence, to
find the exposed length, deduct the lap from the length of the slate, and divide the remainder
by 2. The exposed area is the width of the slate multiplied by this exposed length, and the
number of slates required per square is found by dividing 14,400 by the exposed area of 1
slate in square inches. Thus, if 14" × 20" slates are to be used, the exposed length will be
20 - 3
= 8½ inches;
2
the exposed area will be 14 × 8½ = 119 square inches; and the number per square will be
14,400 ÷ 119 = 121 slates.
The following points should be observed in measuring slating: Eaves, hips, valleys, and
cuttings against walls are measured extra, 1 foot wide by their whole length, the extra charge
being made for waste of material and the increased labor required in cutting and fitting.
Openings less than 3 square feet are not deducted, and all cuttings around them are measured
extra. Extra charges are also made for borders, figures, and any change in color of the work;
and for steeples, towers, and perpendicular surfaces.
Table XI, which is based on a lap of 3 inches, gives the sizes of the American slates and the
number of pieces required per square. The cost of slating varies from 9 to 15 cents per square
foot, depending on the class of work.
The thickness of stock slate varies from five to 1 inch to ⅜ inch and special thicknesses up
to 1 inch are made to order. For ordinary dwellings, the usual thickness used is five to 1 inch,
which gives a thickness of a little more than ³/₁₆ inch, and the size used for this class of work
is generally 8 in. × 12 in. or 9 in. × 18 in., the price being the same.

TABLE XI
NUMBER OF SLATES PER SQUARE
 Size Number Size Number Size Number
Inches of Pieces Inches of Pieces Inches of Pieces
6 × 12 533 9 × 16 246 14 × 20 121
7 × 12 457 10 × 16 221 11 × 22 138
8 × 12 400 9 × 18 213 12 × 22 126
9 × 12 355 10 × 18 192 13 × 22 116
7 × 14 374 11 × 18 174 14 × 22 108
8 × 14 327 12 × 18 160 12 × 24 114
9 × 14 291 10 × 20 169 13 × 24 105
10 × 14 261 11 × 20 154 14 × 24 98
8 × 16 277 12 × 20 141 16 × 24 86

In Table XII is given a list of the different colors of slate used in the Eastern and Middle
States, the quarries from which they are obtained, and the cost of slate, labor, etc. per square,
pertaining to each variety. The prices in the table are based on the 8 in. × 12 in. or 9 in. × 18
in. sizes, thickness five to 1 inch, and for quantities of not less than 50 squares. The cost of
labor, etc. being based on current prices in the aforementioned territory.
Slate ¼ inch thick cost about 20 per cent. more than the five to 1 inch for the material,
and about 5 per cent. more for laying and freight.
Slate ⅜ inch thick cost about 45 per cent. more than the five to 1 inch for the material,
and about 15 per cent. more for laying and freight.
When copper nails are specified obtain current prices.

TABLE XII
APPROXIMATE COST OF SLATING,
PER SQUARE
Cost of Laying,
Cost of Slate Total Cost,
Including
Classification F. O. B. Exclusive of
Roofing Felt,
Quarries Builder’s Profit
and Freight
Black Slate
Brownville, Maine $8.00 $5.00 $13.00
Monson, Maine 7.00 5.00 12.00
Peach Bottom, Pennsylvania 5.50 4.00 9.50
Chapman (Hard Vein), Pennsylvania 4.50 3.50 8.00
Bangor, Pennsylvania 4.50 3.50 8.00
Lehigh, Pennsylvania 4.00 3.50 7.50
Buckingham, Virginia 3.75 4.00 7.75
Red Slate
Vermont 12.00 4.25 16.25
Green Slate
Vermont 5.50 4.25 9.75
Purple Slate
Vermont 5.00 4.25 9.25
Mottled Slate
Vermont (Purple and Green) 4.00 4.25 8.25
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com