RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

1. Introduction

Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior. The behavior in all its
aspects can be studied scientifically a single approach known as observation.
This leads up to a simple conclusion that observation may be regarded as the
only method or technique for carrying out studies regarding behavior. In fact,
it is true to a great extent. However, this single approach or technique may
give birth to a number of methods, techniques, or approaches, depending on
the types and nature of the conditions in which observations have been
recorded, the procedure adopted and the tools used.

2. Methods of Observation
2.1. Introspection: Observation of one’s behavior by looking within or
inward
2.2. Naturalistic: Behavioral events are observed and recorded under very
natural conditions.
2.3. Experimental: Observing and recording behavioral events under
controlled conditions
2.4. Normative/Field Survey: Observations are performed outside the
laboratories in the real setting by adopting survey techniques
2.5. Case study/Clinical Method: Reconstruction of an individual’s
biography (psychoanalysis and clinical method)

2.1. Introspection

Introspection is the oldest method known for the study of behavior. It implies
inner perception. In introspection, one is required to get inside one’s own
mind. It is a sort of self-observation in which one perceives, analyses and
reports one’s own feelings and everything that takes place in one’s mind
during the course of a mental act. For example, when it is a state of anxiety,
fear or anger, one may be asked to discover by one’s observation what they
sensed, thought or felt at the time of experiencing that sort of emotion.

2.1.1. Advantages of introspection

a. It is simple and readily available. Our mental processes are always with
us and can be introspected at any moment. Therefore, introspection is
able to give us immediate knowledge of our own mental processes
without involving any extra expenditure for the material or apparatus
 b. It is able to provide adequate knowledge of the inner or covert
experiences and thus the inner behavior of an individual in the form of
thinking or feeling something can be revealed through introspection
2.1.2. Disadvantages
a. The state of mental processes is not constant; hence the findings
may not be accurate
b. Lack of reliability, validity and objectivity
The results lack in reliable communicability and repeatability. Here,
one investigator can never be sure that what he feels or senses is
the same as what other investigators do. For example, if we invite
introspection reports on the nature of the sensation of ‘green’, these
reports are bound to differ. Some will insist that green is a unitary
sensation, while others will argue that green is a mixed sensation
involving yellow and blue. Furthermore, in introspection, people
study their individual behavior or mental process, hence it is not
possible to verify individual self-observation as there is no provision
for studying one’s mind by others in introspection (subjective)
c. It has limited scope- it can only be applied in the case or normal adult
human beings. Children and abnormal human beings cannot be studied
by this method.

2.2. Naturalistic Observation

It involves the perception of an individual’s behavior under natural conditions

by other individuals and the interpretation and analysis of this perceived
behavior. It occupies a leading role in the study of human behavior.

2.2.1. Advantages
a. It is economical, natural and flexible
b. Its results can be verified and relied upon
c. Suitable, particularly in studying the developmental
characteristics of children’s habits, interests and other similar
personality characteristics of individuals

2.2.2. Disadvantages
a. It can only be used to observe overt behavior; hence mental processes
cannot be assessed using this method
b. Subjectivity factors on the part of the investigator as well as the process
of observation also affect the results of the observation.
 There may arise distortions of observable facts depending on the degree
of care in the observation. The investigator’s interests, values and
prejudices may also distort the contents and results of observation. One
may give over-emphasis on some particular part of one’s behavior and
may altogether neglect some very important aspects of behavior
c. The behavior observed is dependent on the particular time, place and
individual, thereby it lacks repeatability as each natural situation occurs
once.
d. It is not able to establish a proper cause-effect relationship. For
example, if we observe that poverty and delinquency behavior invariably
occur together, we cannot infer from this that poverty is the sufficient
and necessary cause of delinquent behavior or vice-versa.

2.3. Experimental Method

The experimental method is considered as the most scientific and objective

method of studying behavior. It lays emphasis on performing experiments. In
experimentation, we try or put to the test the material, phenomenon,
characteristics or consequences of which we wish to ascertain. In performing
experiments, for example, the effect of drugs on the brain, we try to establish
certain cause and effect relationships through the objective observations of
the actions performed and the subsequent changes produced under pre-
arranged or rigidly controlled conditions. From these observations, certain
conclusions are drawn and theories or principles are performed.

2.3.1. Features of the experimental method

a. It requires two people- the subject and the experimenter
b. It is conducted on living organisms
c. Presence of control of conditions or variables.
Control implies eliminating irrelevant conditions or variables and
isolating relevant ones. In this way, we become able to observe the
causal relationship between two phenomena keeping all other conditions
almost constant. For example, if we try to study the effect of intelligence
on academic performance by the experimental method, we need to
discover the causative relation between the two variables – intelligence
and academic achievement. One of these variables, the effect of which
we want to study, will be called independent variable and the other as
dependent variable. Thus independent variable stands for the cause and
dependent variable is characterized as the effect of that cause. The
 other conditions like study habits, sex, socio-economic conditions,
parental education, home environment, health, past learning, memory
and many others which exercise desirable impact upon one’s
achievement besides his intelligence are termed as intervening
variables. In experimentation, all such intervening variables are to be
controlled, that is, made constant or equalized and the effect of only
one independent variable, like intelligence is studied on one or more
dependent variables. It brings associated change in the dependent
variable or variables. These changes are objectively observed and
measured and on the basis of this observation and measurement,
certain conclusions are drawn.

2.3.2. Disadvantages
a. Experimental method advocates for the study of behavior under
completely rigid conditions. The conditions demand for the creation of
artificial situations or environment and the behavior studied under these
conditions may not be generalized
b. It is difficult to control of the independent and intervening variables.
c. It has a limited scope in the sense that not all problems of psychology
can be performed using experiments
d. It is costly and time consuming

2.4. Differential Method

The differential method is based on individual differences. It includes all the

measures applied to the calculation of individual differences. It is also known
as Normative Survey or Field Survey as the investigator has to go the field to
investigate. It is sometimes called the Statistical Method for the reason that
statistical techniques become a major factor for studying the individual
differences.

It differs from the experimental approach in the sense that the investigator
cannot intentionally manipulate the variables. Each is studied as an
independent variable. For example, in the case of studying the relationship of
academic achievement with intelligence, it is not possible to manipulate
intelligence. Therefore, every individual is taken and their achievement
studied with respect to their intelligence. Thereafter, with the help of statistical
techniques, certain conclusions are arrived at:

There are two types or approaches used in the differential design:

 i. Correlational approach
ii. Longitudinal and cross-section approach

In correlational studies, the psychologist takes people as they are and studies
what they do without changing the conditions under which they respond to
the tests or perform the desired tasks. For example, in the above case of
finding the relationship between academic achievement and intelligence, the
intelligence and academic achievement of each person can be determined with
the help of intelligence as well as achievement tests. The subjects will
naturally differ from one another and by using the statistical techniques of
correlation, the desired relationship can be determined.

The longitudinal approach is one that is spread over a long period of time. It
is mostly used in developmental psychology. One particular individual is taken
and studied for a long span of time.

The cross-sectional approach takes many people and studies them

simultaneously.

In all these approaches, the help of statistical analysis is taken for calculating
and analyzing the individual differences and relevant conclusions arrived at by
the interpretation of these measures.

2.5. Case Study/Clinical Method

This method is directed towards the study of individual behavior. It employs

methods that deal with the task of investigating the root causes of a problem
or exceptional behavior and suggesting as well as providing a proper
environment and possible treatment.

It has the following characteristics:

▪ It is applicable to an individual case

▪ The individual has some problems
▪ Both methods of diagnosis and treatment are employed in dealing with
these problems
▪ It is an art as well a science and technology which means that everybody
cannot treat every patient and it derives pleasure in making mankind
healthier and better

Diagnosis may be carried out through an adequate physical check-up, building

up a comprehensive history (digging out the events or finding out the clues
for the present behavior) arranging clinical interviews, using relevant tests
and measuring devices and observing the client’s behavior in natural
surroundings.

Treatment is usually of two kinds:

a. Modifying the environment forces

b. Modifying the client’s attitude to help them adjust in their environment