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Loft Conversions
Loft Conversions
SECOND EDITION

John Coutts
MA (Oxon)

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

This edition first published 2013
© 2006 John Coutts
© 2013 John Coutts

Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program
has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.

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is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Coutts, John, 1965–
Loft conversions / John Coutts. – 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-40004-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Lofts–Remodeling for other use. I. Title.
TH3000.L63C68 2012
728′.314–dc23
2012009293
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not
be available in electronic books.

Cover image courtesy of FreshPaint/www.Bigstock.com

Cover design by Meaden Creative

Set in 10/12.5pt Minion by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

1 2013
Contents

Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xiv

1 Planning and legal considerations 1

Permitted development 1
Permitted development law 1
Commentary on permitted development provisions – England 4
Permitted development restrictions 10
Curtilage: raising party walls 10
Conservation areas 10
Article IV directions 11
Planning conditions affecting permitted development 11
Listed buildings 11
Other conditions affecting development 12
Restrictive covenants 12
Mortgage lenders 12
Buildings and contents insurance 12
Tree preservation orders 12
Bats 12
Lawful Development Certificate 13
Planning permission 13
Planning applications 13
Sources of planning guidance 15
Supplementary planning guidance 16
Supplementary planning documents 16
Design guides 16
Design codes 16
Local Development Framework 16
Unitary Development Plan 16
The Party Wall etc. Act 1996 16
Procedure 17
Disputes 18

2 The Building Regulations and building control 19

The Building Act 1984 19
The Building Regulations 19
Approved Document guidance 20
Compliance guides 21
Relationship between the Building Regulations and the
Approved Documents 21
vi Contents

Building control 21
Local authority building control 22
Full plans 22
Building notice 24
Notification and inspection of work 25
Resolving Building Regulations disputes 26
Electronic building control applications 28
Approved inspector building control 28

3 External forms 30
Primary influences on form 30
Planning considerations 30
Pitch, plan and headroom 31
Stair access 31
Shallow-pitched roofs 31
Existing roof type 31
Conversion forms 33
Roof space only conversion 33
Box dormer conversion 33
Front box dormer conversion 34
Hip-to-gable conversion 34
Side dormer conversion 35
Full-width dormer with masonry flanks 35
Mansard conversion 36
Lean-to conversion 38
Half dormer 38
Existing attic rooms 38
Galleries and platforms 39
Traditional dormer forms 39
Gabled dormer 40
Hipped dormer 40
Flat dormer (small) 40
Cat slide dormer 42
Recessed dormer 42
Eyebrow dormer 42
Arched dormer 42
Segmental dormer 42
Pedimented dormer 42
Canted bay dormer 43
Design considerations 43
Fenestration 43
Roof detail 43
Vertical cladding and roofing materials 44
Chimney positions 45
Drainage 45
 Contents vii

4 Fire safety 47
Regulatory framework 47
Main changes to Approved Document B (2006) 47
Fire resistance: basic requirements 49
Warning and escape 50
Floor height rules 51
Storey and floor numbering rules 51
Fire safety: common configurations – floor not more than
4.5 m above lowest ground level 52
Means of warning 52
Means of escape 52
One floor more than 4.5 m above ground level 54
Means of warning 54
First floor fire resistance 54
New floor (conversion) 54
Escape windows 54
Means of escape 55
More than one floor over 4.5 m above ground level 59
Galleries 59
Elements and terminology 62
Access room 62
AFD 62
Air circulation systems 62
Alternative escape route 62
Automatic self-closing devices (self closers) 63
Balconies and flat roofs 63
Cavity barriers 63
Doors – glazing in final exit 63
Emergency egress (escape) windows and external doors 64
Escape route 64
Final exit 64
Fire curtains 65
Fire detection and fire alarm systems 65
Fire doors 67
Fire stopping and the protection of openings 67
Habitable room 69
Inner room 69
Inner inner room 69
Loft conversion 69
Modified 30-minute protection 69
Open plan layouts 70
Passenger lifts 71
Sprinkler systems 71
Storey exit 71
Storey height measurement 71
Fire safety in context 72
viii Contents

5 Conversion survey 73
Survey procedure 73
Outline of survey elements 74
Survey elements in detail 76
Age of the building 76
Headroom and floor-to-ceiling height 76
External relationships 77
Internal layout 77
Roof form 77
Roof structure 77
Roof condition 79
Walls 80
Foundations 82
Internal walls and partitions 83
Floor and ceiling structure 84
Strength of existing timber elements 85
Water tanks 85
Drainage and services 86
Chimneys 87

6 Beams and primary structure 88

Approved Document guidance 88
Beam position relative to existing structure 88
Beam characteristics 89
Common structural steel sections 89
Engineered timber beams 91
Fire resistance of beams 94
Beam bearings 94
Mild steel bearing plates 95
Padstones 96
Beam penetration 98
Beam splices 98
Flange and web plate splice 98
End plate beam splices 99
Splice box 99
Inline box 99
PFC bearing 100
Beam-to-beam connections 101
Bolted connections 101
Grade 4.6 bolts 103
Grade 8.8 ‘high-strength’ bolts 103
HSFG bolt assemblies 104
Toothed plate connectors 105
Timber to masonry connections 105
Tension straps 105
 Contents ix

Expansion bolts 105

Chemical anchoring 107
Disproportionate collapse 107

7 Floor structure 109

Role of the conversion floor 109
Elements of loft conversion floor design 110
Room height in the conversion (headroom) 111
Methods of support for floors 111
Beam-supported floors 112
Wall-supported floors 115
Floor joist selection 117
Joist spacing 117
Timber supplies 118
Machined (regularised) joist sections 118
Holes and notches in joists 119
Binders 119
New floor joist/existing ceiling clearance 122
Strutting 122
Trimming 123
Lateral support by floors 125
Floor fire resistance 128
Conversion floor (fire and sound resistance) 128
Floor materials and fixing 129
Conditioning 130
Staggered joints 130
Moisture and sound resistance 130
Fixing 131
T&G floor panels 131
Timber floorboards 131
Stairs 131
Headroom 131
Landings 132
Stair configuration 132
Structural implications 136
Stair provision: practical aspects 136

8 Wall structure 138

External stud walls 138
Stud arrangement and spacing 138
Elements of stud wall construction 141
Terminology 141
Openings 146
Supporting structural steel in stud walls 146
Vertical cladding 146
Fire resistance of dormer stud walls 148
x Contents

Masonry walls (external) 149

Hip-to-gable conversion 150
Safety considerations during construction 151
Lateral restraint of flank gable walls 151
Brick selection and size 151
Solid blockwork 153
Mortar and brickwork 154
Parapet walls in loft conversions 155
Integrating new and old 155
Chimney cowls 159
Compartment (party) walls 159
Internal partitions 160
Window and door safety 160
Windows 161
Juliet balconies and balustrades 161
Glazing requirements for doors 162
Cleaning 162
Replacement windows 162

9 Roof structure 163

Roof types 163
The cut roof (common to about 1950) 163
The TDA roof truss (common 1947–1980) 163
Trussed rafter roofs (1965 to present) 165
Cut roof: structural forms 165
Single roofs 165
Double roofs 166
Cut roof: structural elements 167
Purlin 167
Ridge and rafters 170
Wall plates 172
Ceiling joists and collars 172
Cut roof: common conversion alterations 172
Modification of the roof structure 172
Reasons to remove a purlin 174
Replacement support for purlins 174
Rafters 176
Trimming 176
Sizing and loading of rafters 183
Hip-to-gable conversion 183
Notches and holes 184
Lateral support for gables 184
Replacement roof coverings 185
Flat roof: basic structure 186
Flat roof – warm deck (unventilated) 188
Flat roof – cold deck (ventilated) 189
Flat roof – hybrid warm roof (unventilated) 189
 Contents xi

Roof ventilation 189

Continuity of airflow around roof windows 191
Ventilation – possible exemptions from the requirement 191
Approved Document guidance 192
Attic trusses 192

10 Energy performance 195

Methods of compliance 195
The reference method (elemental approach) 195
Area-weighted U-value method (optional approach) 196
Whole dwelling calculation method (optional approach) 197
Walls and roofs – performance requirements 197
U-values for new thermal elements 198
U-values for retained thermal elements 198
Standards for replacement thermal elements in an
existing dwelling 199
Standards for renovation of thermal elements 199
Energy conservation – practical approaches 200
Insulation materials 200
Fixing internal insulation 201
Airtightness 203
Thermal bridging 204
Insulation for wall and roof elements 204
Existing (retained) solid brick masonry walls 204
New solid brick masonry walls 205
New solid blockwork walls 205
Existing (retained) cavity masonry walls 206
New cavity masonry walls 207
New tile hung stud walls 208
Existing (retained) or new pitched roof 208
New flat warm roof 209
New flat cold deck 210
Windows and other openings 210
Area of windows 213
Risks associated with insulation 213
Surface condensation 213
Interstitial condensation – all elements 214
Spalling risk – masonry walls 214
Electric lighting 214
Practical implications 214
Heating and hot water systems 215
Providing information about energy efficiency 216
Loft insulation when a loft is not converted 216
Ventilation for occupants 216
Background ventilation 217
Purge (rapid) ventilation 217
Extract ventilation 218
xii Contents

Ventilation – practical measures 218

All rooms 218
Habitable room (with external wall) 219
Habitable room (with no external wall) 219
Bathroom (with external wall) 219
Bathroom (with no external wall) 219
WC (with external wall) 220
WC (with no external wall) 220
Providing information about ventilation 220

11 Lofts in context 221

Why convert? 221
Loft conversion statistics 222
Underlying trends 222
The nature of the housing stock 222
Practical sustainability 223
Renewable energy 223
Reducing solar gain 224
Green roofs 225
Water conservation 225
Reducing construction waste and re-using materials 226
Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs) and insulating to a higher standard 227
Towards zero carbon 228
The Zero Carbon Loft 229

Appendix A Specification 233

Appendix B The Building Regulations: appeals and determinations 239
Appendix C Planning and curtilage 249

Glossary 252
Bibliography and useful contacts 260
Index 264

A colour plate section falls between pages 162 and 163

Preface

The purpose of this book is to provide technical, regulatory and practical guidance on
loft conversions in single-family dwellings. It is the most comprehensive book of its
sort and is the result of extensive research and consultation with regulatory bodies and
practitioners.
Since the publication of the first edition in 2006, Loft conversions has become established
as the definitive source of guidance for architects, builders, surveyors and others
professionally involved in the process of loft conversions.
This extensively-updated second edition takes into account significant changes to
Building Regulations and planning law that have taken place since the first edition was
published. It also contains a new section on sustainability and zero carbon approaches to
loft conversions.

John Coutts
October 2012
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following organisations and businesses for their invaluable
co-operation and assistance in the preparation of this book: the Building Research
Establishment (BRE), British Woodworking Federation (BWF), British Standards
Institution (BSI), Cooper & Turner Ltd, Coopers Fire Ltd, Department for Communities
and Local Government (DCLG), Denmay Steel, Economic and Social Data Service
(ESDS), Energy Saving Trust (EST), English Heritage, Euroform Products Ltd, Federation
of Master Builders (FMB), Green Structures, Local Authority Building Control (LABC),
Polytank Group Ltd, South London Lofts Ltd, TRADA Technology Ltd, Trussed Rafter
Association (TRA) and the Welsh Assembly Government.
Material reproduced from the Approved Documents and other government sources is
Crown copyright and is reproduced with permission of the Controller of the HMSO.
1 Planning and legal
considerations

This chapter examines the influence of planning and other legal mechanisms on the loft
conversion process in England. Obligations imposed by the Building Regulations are
considered in Chapter 2.
The controls and mechanisms examined both here and in Chapter 2 are largely separate
from each other. Planning and building control, for example, are administered indepen-
dently. Approvals granted under one mechanism do not automatically confer rights under
another, nor are they intended to. Building Regulations and planning law have specific and
generally unrelated aims.

PERMITTED DEVELOPMENT

Most loft conversions are carried out under permitted development legislation. Where
permitted development rights exist, no specific application for planning permission is
required, provided that work is carried out in accordance with the legislation. Permitted
development rights apply to dwellinghouses only. A loft conversion in a building containing
one or more flats, or a flat contained within such a building, would require planning
permission. The following section considers current permitted development legislation for
England only.

Permitted development law

Permitted development legislation is set out in The Town and Country Planning (General
Permitted Development) (Amendment) (No. 2) (England) Order 2008. This came into
force on 1 October 2008 and represents the first major change in planning law relevant to
small-scale domestic building works, such as loft conversions, since 1995.
One of the notable features of the 2008 General Permitted Development Order (GPDO
2008) is that it is rather more generous in its scope than the earlier legislation. It dispenses
with the principle of a whole-dwelling volume allowance (at least as far as loft conversions
are concerned) and only the volume of the roof is now considered (Fig. 1.1). A ground
floor extension to a dwellinghouse, whether proposed or existing, no longer counts against
a loft conversion.

Loft Conversions, Second Edition. John Coutts.

© 2013 John Coutts. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
2 Loft Conversions

Fig. 1.1 Permitted development (England): primary constraints.

Reproduced below are three extracts from The Town and Country Planning (General
Permitted Development) (Amendment) (No. 2) (England) Order 2008. All are relevant, or
potentially relevant, to loft conversions. The meaning and implications of the GPDO 2008
are considered in the next section.

Class B

Permitted development
B. The enlargement of a dwellinghouse consisting of an addition or alteration to its roof.

Development not permitted

B.1 Development is not permitted by Class B if –
(a) any part of the dwellinghouse would, as a result of the works, exceed the height of
the highest part of the existing roof;
(b) any part of the dwellinghouse would, as a result of the works, extend beyond the
plane of any existing roof slope which forms the principal elevation of the dwelling-
house and fronts a highway;
(c) the cubic content of the resulting roof space would exceed the cubic content of the
original roof space by more than –
(i) 40 cubic metres in the case of a terrace house, or
(ii) 50 cubic metres in any other case;
(d) it would consist of or include –
(i) the construction or provision of a veranda, balcony or raised platform, or
(ii) the installation, alteration or replacement of a chimney, flue or soil and vent pipe; or
(e) the dwellinghouse is on article 1(5) land.
 Planning and legal considerations 3

Conditions
B.2 Development is permitted by Class B subject to the following conditions –
(a) the materials used in any exterior work shall be of a similar appearance to those
used in the construction of the exterior of the existing dwellinghouse;
(b) other than in the case of a hip-to-gable enlargement, the edge of the enlargement
closest to the eaves of the original roof shall, so far as practicable, be not less than
20 centimetres from the eaves of the original roof; and
(c) any window inserted on a wall or roof slope forming a side elevation of the dwelling-
house shall be –
(i) obscure-glazed, and
(ii) non-opening unless the parts of the window which can be opened are more than
1.7 metres above the floor of the room in which the window is installed.

Interpretation of Class B
B.3 For the purposes of Class B ‘resulting roof space’ means the roof space as enlarged,
taking into account any enlargement to the original roof space, whether permitted by this
Class or not.

Class C

Permitted development
C. Any other alteration to the roof of a dwellinghouse.

Development not permitted

C.1 Development is not permitted by Class C if –
(a) the alteration would protrude more than 150 millimetres beyond the plane of the
slope of the original roof when measured from the perpendicular with the external
surface of the original roof;
(b) it would result in the highest part of the alteration being higher than the highest part
of the original roof; or
(c) it would consist of or include –
(i) the installation, alteration or replacement of a chimney, flue or soil and vent pipe, or
(ii) the installation, alteration or replacement of solar photovoltaics or solar thermal
equipment.

Conditions
C.2 Development is permitted by Class C subject to the condition that any window located
on a roof slope forming a side elevation of the dwellinghouse shall be –
(a) obscure-glazed; and
(b) non-opening unless the parts of the window which can be opened are more than
1.7 metres above the floor of the room in which the window is installed.
4 Loft Conversions

Class G

Permitted development
G. The installation, alteration or replacement of a chimney, flue or soil and vent pipe on a
dwellinghouse.

Development not permitted

G.1 Development is not permitted by Class G if –
(a) the height of the chimney, flue or soil and vent pipe would exceed the highest part of
the roof by 1 metre or more; or
(b) in the case of a dwellinghouse on article 1(5) land, the chimney, flue or soil and vent
pipe would be installed on a wall or roof slope which –
(i) fronts a highway, and
(ii) forms either the principal elevation or a side elevation of the dwellinghouse.

Commentary on permitted development provisions – England

A degree of caution should be exercised when exercising rights associated with permitted
development. Where any doubt exists, clarification should be sought from the local
planning authority and a Lawful Development Certificate obtained (see p. 13) before
undertaking any work.
Permitted development rights are not universal: they do not apply to flats, for example,
nor do they apply to dwellinghouses on designated land (see section on Article 1(5) land,
below). It is also emphasised that development that is not permitted under one class may
be permitted development under another: chimneys, soil pipes and solar panels all fall
into this category.
It should also be noted that interpretation of the GPDO varies considerably between
local planning authorities. Areas of inconsistency include:

■ Raising a party wall (see also appeal decision letter in Appendix C)

■ Providing a highway-facing roof window in a dwelling in a conservation area

There are also risks when working at the volume limits of permitted development. A local
planning authority has discretionary powers to take enforcement action if, in its view, there
is an unacceptable breach of planning control. In cases where any degree of doubt exists,
therefore, it is prudent to consult the local planning authority before work commences.
The Department for Communities and Local Government has sought to clarify some of
the 2008 provisions and has published two supporting documents. These are: Changes to
Householder Permitted Development 1 October 2008 – Informal Views from Communities
and Local Government (this document has now been superseded) and Permitted develop-
ment for householders – Technical guidance (published August 2010). The latter document
is described as ‘CLG guidance’ where it is referenced below.
The following section highlights areas that require consideration in the 2008 GPDO.
 Planning and legal considerations 5

Development within the curtilage of a dwellinghouse

This is the title of Part 1 of the 2008 GPDO. The meaning of ‘curtilage’ is subject to a
degree of interpretation. This has important implications for conversions that involve
raising a party wall between dwellinghouses: some local authorities consider raising a
party wall to be permitted development, others do not. See Curtilage: raising party walls,
below, and Appendix C.

B. Dwellinghouse
The GPDO 1995 definition remains valid in this section for the purposes of Part 1:
‘dwellinghouse’ does not include a building containing one or more flats, or a flat
contained within such a building.

B.1 (a) Defining the highest part of an existing roof

The ridge of a conventional pitched roof is generally its highest part. Where the roof is of
slated or tiled construction, it is usually capped with ridge tiles. But the definition of pre-
cisely which part of the ridge is to provide the highest point datum remains open to a
degree of interpretation, particularly where the original roof is capped with decorative
‘crested’ ridge tiles which may project more than 150 mm above the apex.
The position with walls and other masonry projections is less ambiguous. In the case of
buildings with butterfly roofs and a front parapet wall, local planning authorities have tended
historically to take the roof as the highest point, even though the highway-facing parapet
is higher (Fig. 3.1c). This position is supported by CLG guidance, which suggests that:
Chimneys, firewalls, parapet walls and other protrusions above the main roof ridge line
should not be taken into account when considering the height of the highest part of the
roof of the existing house.

B.1 (b) Roof slopes: principal elevation fronting a highway

Alterations to a roof slope fronting a highway (other than the installation of roof windows in
the same plane as the existing roof) are not permitted development. For example, a front
dormer window (i.e. one occupying and projecting from the principal roof slope facing a high-
way) could not be considered permitted development. Planning permission would be needed.
Defining precisely what constitutes a ‘principal elevation’ is not always a simple matter,
however. CLG guidance states the following:

The effect of this [i.e. B.1(b)] is that dormer windows as part of a loft conversion, or any
other enlargement of the roof space, are not permitted development on a principal
elevation that fronts a highway and will therefore require an application for planning
permission. Roof-lights in a loft conversion on a principal elevation may however be
permitted development as long as they meet the requirements set out under Class C [].
In most cases, the principal elevation will be that part of the house which faces
(directly or at an angle) the main highway serving the house (the main highway will be
the one that sets the postcode for the house concerned). It will usually contain the main
6 Loft Conversions

architectural features such as main bay windows or a porch serving the main entrance
to the house. Usually, but not exclusively, the principal elevation will be what is under-
stood to be the front of the house.
There will only be one principal elevation on a house. Where there are two elevations
which may have the character of a principal elevation (for example, on a corner plot), a
view will need to be taken as to which of these forms the principal elevation.
The principal elevation could include more than one roof slope facing in the same
direction – for example, where there are large bay windows on the front elevation, or
where there is an ‘L’ shaped frontage. In such cases, all such roof slopes will form the
principal elevation and the line for determining what constitutes ‘extends beyond the
plane of any existing roof slope’ will follow these slopes [].
A highway will usually include public roads (whether adopted or not) as well as
public footpaths and bridleways, but would not include private driveways. The extent to
which an elevation of a house fronts a highway will depend on factors such as:
(i) the angle between the elevation of the house and the highway. If that angle is more
than 45 degrees, then the elevation will not be fronting a highway;
(ii) the distance between the house and the highway – in cases where that distance is
substantial, it is unlikely that a building can be said to ‘front’ the highway. The same
may be true where there is a significant intervening area of land in different owner-
ship or use between the boundary of the curtilage of the house concerned and the
highway.

B.1 (c) Cubic content

For a terrace house, the 2008 GPDO allows an addition of up to at 40 m3 and for other types
of dwelling (semi-detached and detached), an addition of 50 m3 beyond that of the ‘original
roof space’ (see below). This has the effect of ‘capping’ the volume of loft conversions but
note that these volume figures are limits, not entitlements. In a significant number of cases,
it will not be possible to take full advantage of the ‘allowance’ because the physical footprint
of the building, and the limitations imposed by B.1 (a) and B.1 (b), will not permit it.
Note that when the proposed work includes both a hip-to-gable and a dormer con-
version, the volumes of both elements must be considered relative to the cubic content
‘allowance’, that is, both must be deducted from it (Fig. 1.2). Any earlier addition to the
cubic content of the original roof space must also be taken into account.

B.1 (c) Original roof space

The GPDO provides a definition of ‘resulting roof space’ for the purposes of Class B (i.e.
the roof space as enlarged, taking into account any enlargement to the original roof space,
whether permitted by this Class or not), but it does not define original roof space. However,
CLG guidance states that:
‘original roof space’ will be that roof space in the ‘original building’ …
in which ‘original’ means:
… a building as it existed on 1 July 1948 where it was built before that date, and as it was
built when built after that date.
 Planning and legal considerations 7

Fig. 1.2 Roof enlargement: calculation of additional volume.

This is broadly the same definition that is used in the 1995 GPDO.

B.1 (c) Terrace house

For the purposes of Part 1, the GPDO defines ‘terrace house’ as follows:
… a dwellinghouse situated in a row of three or more dwellinghouses used or designed for
use as single dwellings, where –
(a) it shares a party wall with, or has a main wall adjoining the main wall of, the
dwellinghouse on either side; or
(b) if it is at the end of a row, it shares a party wall with or has a main wall adjoining the
main wall of a dwellinghouse which fulfils the requirements of sub-paragraph (a).

B.1 (d)(i) Veranda, balcony or raised platform

Projecting structures (such as balconies) require planning permission. However, a ‘Juliet’
balcony (with a balustrade but no external platform, and therefore not a true balcony) is
normally accepted as permitted development.
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the fugitive has injured some one of their colleagues or his guilt is
clearly proved; and even then they have frequently required
assurances that he should be pardoned, or that his punishment
should be mitigated. A circumstance of this nature occurred in 1829
which brought these two parties in direct and open collision, and for
a time involved the Consul of the United States in difficulties with the
Government of Tripoli; the affair was originally of a private nature,
but has ultimately produced the most serious changes in the
situation of the Regency.

It is well known that many efforts have been made during the last
forty years, by individuals and by some European Governments, to
obtain information respecting the interior of the African Continent;
we are all familiar with the names and adventures of Ledyard, Parke,
Burckhardt, Denham, Clapperton, Laing, Lander and others, whose
labors have been important from the light thrown by them on the
subject of their researches, and still more so as exhibiting instances
of perseverance and moral courage with which the annals of warfare
offer few parallels. Several of these heroic travellers took their
departure from Tripoli, as the communications between that place
and the regions which they desired to explore are comparatively
easy and safe; and the Pasha, whether actuated by the expectation
of obtaining some advantage from their discoveries, or by more
laudable motives, appears from their accounts to have used every
exertion to facilitate their movements. They likewise concur in
expressing their gratitude and respect for Mohammed D'Ghies, who
entertained them all hospitably in Tripoli and furnished them with
letters of credit and introduction, which, says Denham, "were always
duly honored throughout Northern Africa."

Hassuna and Mohammed D'Ghies the two sons of this respectable

person, are also mentioned in terms of high commendation by many
who visited Tripoli. Hassuna the elder was educated in France, and
afterwards spent some time in England where he was much noticed
in high circles, notwithstanding the assertion of the Quarterly Review
to the contrary; on his return to his native country, he for some time
conducted the affairs of his father's commercial house, and
afterwards those of his ministerial office, in which he was
distinguished for his attention to business and his apparent desire to
advance the welfare of his country. Mohammed the younger son was
brought up under the eye of his father at home; Captain Beechy of
the British Navy who spent some time at Tripoli in 1822 while
employed in surveying the adjacent coast, describes him as "an
excellent young man," and as "an admirable example of true
devotion to the religion of his country, united with the more
extended and liberal feelings of Europeans. He daily visits the public
school where young boys are taught to read the Koran, and
superintends the charitable distribution of food which the bounty of
his father provides for the poor who daily present themselves at his
gate. Besides his acquaintance with English and French he is able to
converse with the slaves of the family in several languages of the
interior of Africa," &c. He was subsequently employed also in public
affairs, and became the intimate confident of his brother-in-law the
Bey Ali.

On the 17th of July 1825, Major Gordon Laing of the British Army a
son-in-law of Consul Warrington, quitted Tripoli with the intention of
penetrating if possible directly to Tombuctoo, and thence descending
the river which is said to flow near that city, to its termination. He
was amply supplied with letters by the D'Ghies family; and orders
were sent to the governors and chiefs of places on his route, which
were subject to the Pasha to aid him by every means in the
prosecution of his journey, and to forward his letters and journals to
Tripoli. For some time after his departure his communications were
regularly received and bills drawn by him at various places were
presented at Tripoli for payment. From these accounts it appears,
that taking a south-western course he arrived on the 13th of
September at Ghadamis a town of considerable trade situated in an
oasis about five hundred miles from Tripoli; thence he passed to
Einsalah in the country of the Tuaricks (a fierce race of wanderers)
which he reached on the 3d of December and left on the 10th of
January 1826. His journals up to this date were regularly received;
from his few subsequent letters we learn that during the month of
February, the caravan with which he travelled was suddenly attacked
in the night by a band of Tuaricks, who had for some days
accompanied them; many persons of the caravan were killed and the
Major was dreadfully wounded, but he escaped and arrived at
Tombuctoo on the 18th of August. At this place he had remained five
weeks when Boubokar the Governor of the town who had previously
treated him with favor, suddenly urged him to depart immediately,
stating that he had received a letter from Bello the Sultan of the
Foulahs a Prince of great power in the vicinity of Tombuctoo,
expressing the strongest hostility to the stranger; Laing accordingly
quitted Tombuctoo on the 22d of September, in company with
Burbushi an Arab Sheik who had engaged to conduct him in safety
to Arouan, distant about three hundred miles to the northward.

After this date nothing farther was heard from the traveller, no more
of his bills were presented for payment at Tripoli, and Mr. Warrington
becoming uneasy prevailed on the Pasha to have inquiries made
respecting him. Messengers were accordingly despatched southward
in various directions, one of whom on his return in the spring of
1827 brought an account that the Christian had been murdered soon
after leaving Tombuctoo, by a party despatched from that place for
the purpose. This statement was confirmed by all the other
messengers on their return, and it was confidently repeated in a
long article on the subject published in a Paris Journal, which gave
the Prime Minister of Tripoli as authority. The other caravans and
travellers however from the South contradicted these reports, and
Hassuna D'Ghies on being questioned respecting the account driven
in the Paris Journal, denied that he had supplied such information
and asserted his total disbelief of the story. These and other
circumstances induced Mr. Warrington to suspect that the Pasha or
his Minister had for some interested motive suppressed Laing's
communications; at his request therefore, the Commander of the
British squadron in the Mediterranean sent a ship of war to Tripoli to
give Yusuf notice that as the traveller had proceeded to the interior
under his protection, he should hold him responsible for his safety,
or at least for the delivery of his property and papers. This intimation
was certainly of a most unreasonable character; the Pasha however
could only exert himself to avert the threatened evil, by endeavoring
to discover the traveller and at all events to disprove any unfair
dealings or bad intentions on his own part with regard to him.

All doubts respecting the fate of the British traveller were however
dispelled by the return to Tripoli of the servant who had
accompanied him; from the statements of this man it was clearly
ascertained, that the unfortunate Laing had been murdered in his
sleep by his Arab conductor Burbushi on the third night after their
departure from Tombuctoo, that is on the 25th of September 1826.

Some time after receiving this melancholy news, the British Consul
was induced to believe that papers which were sent by his son-in-
law from Tombuctoo, had actually arrived in Tripoli; and in the
course of the investigations which he made in consequence, a
suspicion was awakened in his mind that they had been secreted by
Hassuna D'Ghies, in order to conceal some gross treachery or
misconduct on his part. Under this impression Mr. Warrington urged
the Pasha to have the papers secured, and not being satisfied with
the means used for the purpose, he finally struck his flag, and
declared that all official intercourse between himself and the
Government of Tripoli, would be suspended until they were
produced.

To avert the evils which might result from this measure, Yusuf
labored diligently, and in the spring of 1829 he intercepted some
letters sent from Ghadamis to Hassuna, which indicated a means of
unravelling the mystery. Pursuing his inquiries farther, he became
fully convinced of the perfidy of his Minister, and at length he
declared to a friend of the British Consul, that two sealed packages
sent by Laing from Tombuctoo, had been received by Hassuna and
delivered by him to the French Consul in consideration of the
abatement of forty per cent. in the amount of a large debt due by
him to some French subjects. The fact of the receipt of the papers
by Hassuna was to be proved by the evidence of the Courier who
brought them from Ghadamis, and of other persons daily expected
in Tripoli; the remainder of the Pasha's strange statement appears to
have been founded entirely on a written deposition to that effect, of
Mohammed D'Ghies the younger brother of the accused Minister,
which was said to have been made in the presence of the Bey Ali
and of Hadji Massen the Governor of the city.

On the strength of this declaration, Mr. Warrington insisted on the

immediate apprehension of Hassuna, but he having received timely
warning fled for refuge on the 20th of July, to the house of Mr. Coxe
the American Consul; and immediately after to the surprise of all
concerned, it was found that his brother Mohammed had likewise
sought an asylum under the roof of Baron Rousseau.

OCTOBER.

October in New England is perhaps the most beautiful—certainly the most

magnificent month in the year. The peculiar brilliancy of the skies and purity of the
atmosphere,—the rich and variegated colors of the forest trees, and the deep, bright
dyes of the flowers, are unequalled by any thing in the other seasons of the year; but
the ruin wrought among the flowers by one night of those severe frosts which occur
at the latter end of the month, after a day of cloudless and intense sunshine, can
scarcely be imagined by one not familiar with the scene.

Thou'rt here again, October, with that queenly look of thine—

All gorgeous thine apparel and all golden thy sunshine—
So brilliant and so beautiful—'tis like a fairy show—
The earth in such a splendid garb, the heav'ns in such a glow.
'Tis not the loveliness of Spring—the roses and the birds,
Nor Summer's soft luxuriance and her lightsome laughing words;
Yet not the fresh Spring's loveliness, nor Summer's mellow glee
Come o'er my spirit like the charm that's spread abroad by thee.

The gaily-mottled woods that shine—all crimson, drab, and gold,

With fascination strong the mind in pensive musings hold,
And the rays of glorious sunshine there in saddening lustre fall—
'Tis the funeral pageant of a king with his gold and crimson pall.

Thou'rt like the Indian matron, who adorns her baby fair,
E'er she gives it to the Ganges' flood, all bright, to perish there;
Thou callest out the trusting buds with the lustre of thy sky,
And clothest them in hues of Heaven all gloriously—to die.

Thou'rt like the tyrant lover, wooing soft his gentle bride—
Anon the fit of passion comes—and her smitten heart hath died;
The tyrant's smile may come again, and thy cheering noonday skies,
But smitten hearts and flowers are woo'd, in vain, again to rise.

* * * * *

Thy reign was short, thou Beautiful, but they were despot's hours—
The gold leaves met the forest ground, and fallen are the flowers;
Ah, 'tis the bitterness of earth, that fairest, goodliest show,
Comes to the heart deceitfully, and leaves the deeper wo.

ELIZA.

Maine.
 MOTHER AND CHILD.

CHILD.
Where, mother, where have the fire-flies been
All the day long, that their light was not seen?

MOTHER.
They've been 'mong the flowers and flown through the air,
But could not be seen—for the sunshine was there.
And thus, little girl, in thy morning's first light,
There are many things hid from thy mind's dazzled sight,
Which the ev'ning of life will too clearly reveal,
And teach thee to see—or, it may be, to feel.

CHILD.
Where, mother, where will the fire-flies go
When the chilling snows fall and the winter winds blow?

MOTHER.
The tempest o'ercomes them, but cannot destroy:
For the spring time awakes them to sunshine and joy.
And thus, little girl, when life's seasons are o'er,
And thy joys and thy hopes and thy griefs are no more,
May'st thou rise from death's slumbers to high worlds of light,
Where all things are joyous, and all things are bright.

IMOGENE.
 LINES

Written on one of the blank leaves of a book sent to a friend in

England.

As he who sails afar on southern seas,

Catches rich odor on the evening breeze,
Turns to the shore whence comes the perfum'd air,
And knows, though all unseen, some flower is there—

Thus, when o'er ocean's wave these pages greet

Thine eye, with many a line from minstrel sweet,
Think of Virginia's clime far off and fair,
And know, though all unseen, a friend is there

IMOGENE.

THE BROKEN HEART.

... The morning dew-drop,

With all its pearliness and diamond form
Vanisheth.

* * * * *
 ... She turned her from the gate, and walked
As quietly into her father's hall,
As though her lover had been true. No trace
Of disappointment or of hate was found
Upon the maiden's brow: but settled calm,
And dignity unequalled. And they spoke
To her, and she did mildly answer them
And smiled: and smiling, seem'd so like an angel,
That you would think the man who could desert
A form so lovely, after he had won
Her warm affections, must be more than demon.

And though she shrunk not from the love of those

Who were around her, and was never found
In fretful mood—yet did they soon discover
The rosy tinge upon her youthful cheek
Concentrate all its radiance into one
Untimely spot, and her too delicate frame
Wither away beneath the false one's power.
But lovelier yet, and brighter still she grew
Though Death was near at hand—as the moon looks
Most lovely as she sinks within the sea.
Her fond devoted parents watch with care
The fatal enemy: friends and physicians
Exert their skill most faithfully. Alas!
Could Love or Friendship bind a broken heart,
The fading flower might be recalled to life.

* * * * *

She's gone, where she will chant the melody

Of Seraphim and live—beyond the power
Of the base. Then weep not, childless parents, weep not,—
But think to meet her soon. Her smile is yet
More lovely now than when a child of earth:
 For she has caught the ray of dazzling glory
And sweet divinity, that beams all bright
Upon her Saviour's face; and waits to cast
That smile on thee.

ELIZA.

Richmond, Va.

HALLEY'S COMET—1760.

BY MISS E. DRAPER.

Good George the Third was sitting on his throne—

His limbs were healthy, and his wits were sound;
In gorgeous state St. James's palace shone—
And bending courtiers gather'd thick around
The new made monarch and his German bride,
Who sat in royal splendor side by side.

Pitt was haranguing in the House of Lords—

Blair in the Pulpit—Blackstone at the Bar—
Garrick and Foote upon the Thespian boards—
And pious Whitfield in the open air—
While nervous Cowper, shunning public cares,
Sat in his study, fattening up his hares.

Sterne was correcting proof-sheets—Edmund Burke

Planning a register—Goldsmith and Hume
Scribbling their histories—and hard at work
Was honest Johnson; close at hand were some
Impatient creditors, to urge the sale
Of his new book, the Abyssinian tale.

Italia smiled beneath her sunny skies—

Her matchless works were in her classic walls;
They had not gone to feast the Frenchman's eyes—
They had not gone to fill Parisian halls:
The Swiss was in his native Canton free,
And Francis mildly ruled in Germany.

Adolphus reigned in Sweden; the renown

Of Denmark's Frederic overawed her foes;
A gentle Empress wore the Russian crown;
Amid the gilded domes of Moscow rose
The ancient palace of her mighty Czars,
Adorn'd with trophies of their glorious wars.

Altho' the glory of the Pole was stain'd,

Still Warsaw glitter'd with a courtly train,
And o'er her land Augustus Frederic reign'd;
Joseph in Portugal, and Charles in Spain—
Louis in France, while in imperial state
O'er Prussia's realm ruled Frederic the Great.

In gloomy grandeur, on the Ottoman throne

Sat proud Mustapha. Kerim Khan was great
Amid fair Persia's sons; his sword was one
That served a friend, but crush'd a rival's hate:
O'er ancient China, and her countless throng,
Reign'd the bold Tartar mighty Kian Long.

America then held a common horde

Of strange adventurers; with bloody blade
The Frenchman ruled—the Englishman was lord—
 The haughty Spaniard, o'er his conquests sway'd—
While the wild Indian, driven from his home,
Ranged far and lawless, in the forest's gloom.

Thus was the world when last yon Comet blazed

Above our earth. On its celestial light
Proudly the free American may gaze:
Nations that last beheld its rapid flight
Are fading fast; the rest no more are known,
While his has risen to a mighty one.

EXTRACTS FROM MY MEXICAN JOURNAL.

Mexico—Procession of Nuestra Señora de los Remedios—Visit to the Country—Society

and Manners in Mexico—Climate.

20th June, 1825. Since our arrival on the 25th May, my occupations
have been such as to prevent my seeing many of the lions of
Mexico. I have, however, walked through the principal streets, and
visited most of the churches, of which some are very rich and
splendid—some are ancient and venerable—others are fine and
gaudy—while a few of the more modern are extremely neat and
handsome. The churches are numerous: these, with the convents,
occupy almost every alternate square of the city; but with all this
show of religion, there is a proportionate degree of vice among its
population.

The city is, indeed, magnificent; many of the buildings are spacious.
The streets are not wide, but well paved—clean in the most
frequented, but excessively filthy in the more remote parts, and
thronged with dirty, diseased, deformed, and half naked creatures.
Disgusting sights every moment present themselves. At the corners
of every street—each square is called a street, and bears a distinct
name,—at the doors of the churches which you must be passing
constantly in your walks—and sometimes in the areas of the private
residences, you are importuned by miserable beggars, some of
whom, not satisfied with a modest refusal, chase you into charity,
which you are not assured is well bestowed.

We meet in the streets very few well dressed people; the ladies
seldom walk, except to mass early in the morning, when some pretty
faces are seen.

Such is the character of the street-population of Mexico. So much

filth, so much vice, so much ignorance are rarely found elsewhere
combined. Those who have seen the lazzaroni of Naples, may form a
faint idea of the leperos of Mexico.

The leperos are most dexterous thieves—none can be more expert

in relieving you of your pocket handkerchief; it is unsafe to trust
them within your doors. I knew an American who had his hat stolen
from under the bench on which he was seated in the Cathedral
listening to a sermon!1
1 A very ingenious theft by one of this class was mentioned to me by an American
who was present when it took place. At a fair in the interior of the country, two
Americans were seated on a bench engaged in conversation, one of them having his
hat by his side with his hand upon it for its protection. Talking earnestly he
occasionally uplifted his hand from the hat. On his rising from his seat, he was
surprised to find in his hand not his own beaver, but an inferior one which had been
substituted for it. At an incautious moment he had ceased to guard it; a hat was
there when he put down his hand—but it was not his own.

They are superstitious, too, almost to idolatry. I may here include

with them the better class of people also. The recent reception of
the image of Nuestra Senora de los Remedios, (Our Lady of
Remedies,) I give as evidence of the justice of this remark. Her
history is briefly this. She is a deity of Spanish origin—the more
highly esteemed Lady of Guadalupe—the patron saint of Mexico, is
indigenous. She accompanied the conquerors to the city of
Muteczuma2—was lost in their disastrous retreat on the celebrated
noche triste—was found some years afterwards, in 1540, seated in a
maguey, by an Indian, Juan de Aguila, who carried her to his
dwelling, and fed her with tortillas, (Indian corn-cakes,) which were
regularly deposited in the chest where she was kept. Suddenly she
fled, and was discovered on the spot where her temple now stands
—the place to which Cortes retreated on the night of his flight from
the city. It is an eminence to the west of Mexico, distant about five
miles.
2 Cortés, in his Letters, writes the name of the Emperor of Mexico, Muteczuma.
Humboldt says, I know not on what authority, that Moteuczoma was his name. The
English historians always call him Montezuma.

This identical image, they say, still exists—it is about eight inches in
height—it is richly decorated. It is believed to possess the power of
bringing rain, and of staying the ravages of disease.

For many days previous to her entrance into the city, great
preparations had been made. On the 11th inst. she was conveyed
from her sanctuary in the President's coach, which was driven by a
nobleman of the old regime, the Marques de Salvatierra, bare
headed, and attended by a large number of coaches, and crowds of
people on foot, to the parroquia de Santa Vera Cruz, a church just
within the limits of the city. Here, as is usual, she was to rest one
night, and on the following evening to proceed to the Cathedral.
Before the appointed time, the streets leading to it were covered
with canopies of canvass; draperies were suspended from every
balcony, and strings of shawls and handkerchiefs stretched across,
were seen fluttering in the wind. A regiment of troops marched out
to form her escort, and thousands flocked to join her train. But a
heavy rain began to fall, and the procession was necessarily
postponed, the populace being delighted to find that the intercession
of Our Lady was of so much avail, and their faith strengthened at
the trifling expense of wet jackets. The procession was now
appointed for an early hour the next morning, (a prudent
arrangement, for it rains, in course, every evening, the rainy season
having commenced,) and preparations were again made with
increased zeal, proportionate with the gratitude felt at so prompt a
dispensation of her Ladyship's favors. Two regiments of infantry and
one of cavalry now composed the escort. The concourse of people
was immense. Wax tapers, lanterns, candle-boxes, flags, and all the
frippery of the churches were carried to grace the occasion; children
dressed fantastically, with wings, and gay decorations upon their
heads, but barefooted, with tapers in their hands, were led by their
parents or nurses to take part in the pageant.

After the procession was formed, a discharge of artillery announced

the departure of the holy image from the church, in which she had
until now rested. The advance was a corps of cavalry, followed by
flocks of ragged Indians, by respectable citizens and the civil
authorities, all bearing lighted wax tapers; then followed the
numerous religious orders, each order preceded by an Indian
carrying on his back a huge mahogany candle-box; the higher
dignitaries of the order, with their hands meekly folded on their
breasts, each attended by two assistants, bringing up the rear of
Carmelites, Augustines, Franciscans, Dominicans, and Mercedarians;
next these were other Indians, followed by the angelic little children,
who strew roses before the object of their adoration, La Santa
Virgen de los Remedios, who stands majestically under a canopy,
richly clothed, and surrounded by gilded ornaments, supported by
four men. As she passed, the people who crowded the streets, and
all who fill the windows under which she is carried, knelt, and roses
are showered upon her from the roofs of the houses. Next her was
another canopy, under which the Host was carried, to which the
people also knelt. The troops brought up the rear, escorting Our
Lady to the Cathedral, where she remains nine days. If it rain during
this time, it is ascribed to her influence. If rain precede her entrance,
it is because she was to be brought into the city; and if it follow her
departure, it is the consequence of her late presence. The miracle,
of course, never fails. After the rainy season has set in, she is
introduced annually for the idolatrous worship of this ignorant,
superstitious people—not only the canaille, but also the most
respectable portion of the community.

14th August, 1825. I returned to the city yesterday after an

excursion of a week in the vicinity of Chalco, about twenty-five or
thirty miles distant. We were invited by an acquaintance to his
hacienda, where he promised fine sport with our guns. Not content
with abundance of deer, we were to return with the spoils of sundry
wild animals, such as wild-cats, bears, panthers, wolves and tigers.
Prepared for ferocious contests, we set out with all the eagerness of
huntsmen who feast in their imagination on their slaughtered prey.
But in fact, though to hunt was our ostensible object, from which we
expected little, although entertained by our friend with extravagant
hopes, we left the city chiefly for the purpose of exercise, of viewing
the country, and avoiding the water, which, at this season of the
year, impregnated with the soda which the heavy rains disengage
from the soil, deals sadly with strangers.

A ride of five or six hours brought us to the hacienda. This, I have

elsewhere said, is a country seat, generally of large extent, with a
chapel forming a part of the building, and surrounded by the reed or
mud huts of the Indians, who are the laborers, or, as it were, vassals
of the estate. A plain, thickly strewed with these haciendas, presents
the appearance of numerous villages, each with its steeple and bell.
The buildings are hollow squares, extensive and commodious, and
embracing in their several ranges the usual conveniences of a farm,
such as stables, and yards for poultry, sheep and cattle. They all
have a look of antiquity, of strength and durability, which, at a
distance, is imposing; but on nearer view, they are commonly found
dilapidated, and devoid of neatness, and destitute of the garden and
the orchard, which give so much the appearance of comfort to the
country houses of the United States.

This is their general character, as far as I have seen them, and such
was the commodious dwelling to which we were now hospitably
invited. It bore the air of tattered grandeur—in its dimensions and in
its ruined state showing marks of pristine elegance. It was partially
fortified, as were most of them, during the revolution, for protection
from lawless depredation, and from the numerous bands of banditti
who then roamed through the country, and were royalists or
republicans, as was most expedient to accomplish their designs.
Even at this time, these defences are esteemed necessary to ensure
safety from the robbers who have escaped the vigilance of
government by concealing themselves in the adjacent mountains.

On the day of our arrival nothing occurred particularly to attract our

notice, except that, after the conclusion of dinner, the tall Indian
waiter fell upon his knees in the middle of the room and gave thanks
—a custom common, I am told, in the country. To our surprise, this
was not repeated. He was either told that we were heretics, (as all
foreigners are designated) or was deterred because some of our
Catholic friends were less devout on the occasion than was to be
expected from them.

It may not be amiss here to mention, that the dinner table of the
Mexicans is of indefinite length, always standing in the eating room.
One end only is commonly used. The seat of honor is at the head,
where the most distinguished and most honored guest is always
placed; the rest arrange themselves according to their rank and
consequence; the dependants occupying the lowest seats.

After a cup of chocolate at six o'clock the next morning, we went in

pursuit of game, and roamed through the hills and mountains which
are contiguous, meeting with very little success. At about twelve we
partook of our breakfast, which was brought to us more than two
leagues from the hacienda—after which we prosecuted our hunt.
Our sole reward was a heavy shower of rain—and between four and
five we returned to the hacienda, well wearied, having walked at
least twelve miles over steep mountains.

On the following day we set out with our mules, &c. to try our
fortune higher up the mountains, and after a ride of between three
and four hours, reached a herdsman's hut, where we were to lodge
at night. We were unsuccessful in finding game in the evening, and
after a laborious search for deer, sought our hut—a log building,
about fifteen feet square, in which twelve of us, men, women and
children, stowed ourselves. Annoyed by fleas, and almost frozen by
the chill mountain air, within two leagues of the snow-crowned
Iztaccihuatl, we passed a sleepless night.

Early next morning, whilst others of the party engaged in hunting for
deer, with two companions I ascended the highest peak of this
range, (except those covered with snow,) with great labor and
fatigue; but we were compensated amply by the grand view beneath
and around us. The adjoining peak to the south of us was the
Iztaccihuatl, about a league distant. We felt very sensibly the
influence of its snow. Beyond this, the Popocatepetl raised its lofty
cone, while far in the southeast appeared Orizaba, around whose
crest the clouds were just then gathering. The plains of Puebla and
Mexico are on opposite sides of this seemingly interminable ridge on
which we stood. From the latter, the clouds, which we had been long
admiring far beneath us, hiding the world from our view, were
gradually curling, and disclosed the distant capital with its adjoining
lakes and isolated hills. The chilling wind drove us from our height,
but in descending we often rested to enjoy a scene which the eyes
never tire in beholding.

In the evening, we left the mountain for the hacienda, where we

spent another day. Our friends were extremely kind to us, and
regretted more than ourselves our ill success in quest of game.
Being little of a sportsman, to me it was a trifling disappointment. I
enjoyed abundant gratification in seeing the country, its people and
manner of living. Whatever may be said of the bad blood of the
Mexicans, I cannot but view them as a mild and amiable people—
nature has bestowed her bounties liberally upon them: for their state
of degradation and ignorance they are indebted not to any natural
deficiencies of their own, but to the miserable and timid policy of
their former Spanish masters. They are superstitious, but this arises
from their education; they are jealous of strangers—the policy of
Spain made them so; and they are ignorant, for in ignorance alone
could they be retained in blind subjection to the mother country. If
they are vicious, their vices arise from their ignorance of what is
virtuous—of what is ennobling. They are indolent because they are
not permitted to enjoy the fruits of industry, and nature supplies
their wants so bountifully, they are compelled to exert themselves
but little.

These are in fact serious defects, but the improvement of the

Mexican people is daily taking place. They are beginning to be
enlightened with the rays of the rising sun of liberty; and after the
present generation has passed away, the succeeding one will exhibit
those political and moral virtues, which are the offspring of freedom.
The effects of a daily increasing intercourse with foreigners are even
now perceptible, and lead me to believe, that, before many years roll
over, a wonderful change must take place. Society, too, will improve:
ladies will no longer gormandize or smoke—will discover that it is
vulgar to attend cock-fights, and will bestow, with increased regard
for their personal appearance, greater attention upon the cultivation
of their minds.

In Mexico, there are few parties, either at dinner, or in the evening.

None will suit but great balls, and these must occur seldom, else
none but the wealthy can attend them, so expensive are the
decorations and dresses of the ladies. They esteem it extremely
vulgar to wear the same ball-dress more than once. Society is cut up
into small tertulias or parties of intimate acquaintances, who meet
invariably at the same house, and talk, play the piano, sing, dance,
and smoke at their ease and pleasure.
Sometimes I attend the Theatre. This is divided into boxes, which
families hire for a year. If the play be uninteresting, they visit each
other's box, and pass the evening in conversation. It is diverting to
observe the gentlemen take from their pockets a flint and steel for
the purpose of lighting their cigars, and then to extend the favor of a
light to the ladies; and sometimes the whole theatre seems as if
filled with fire-flies.

Immediately on rising, a Mexican takes a small cup of chocolate with

a little bread and a glass of water. At ten, they take what they call
breakfast—it is in fact equivalent to a dinner, consisting not of tea or
coffee, but of meats, sweetmeats and wine. At about three, dinner is
served. At six or seven, they again take chocolate; and at ten, an
enormous supper is laid of hot meats, &c. equal to a third dinner. At
these meals, three or four dishes of meats, with very few
vegetables, are brought on in various courses—the olla podrida, a
mixture of meats, fruits, and vegetables boiled together—always
constitutes a part of the first course—frijoles—beans boiled—
invariably precede the sweetmeats, of which the Mexicans are
extremely fond. Perhaps this is the reason why good teeth are
seldom seen in Mexico.

* * * * *

23d November, 1825. I have stated that few parties are given in
Mexico. Balls are sometimes held by the American and English
Legations. If, on these occasions, fifty ladies attend, it is considered
a prodigious number to assemble together. The expenses of
preparation which they incur are enormous, and deter many,
however devoted they may be to pleasure, from partaking in
frequent diversions of this kind. Society, too, has not acquired that
equilibrium which the democratical institutions of the country must
produce eventually. A powerful aristocracy, as may reasonably be
supposed, still exists in the capital—time alone will level this—it will
die with the present generation, taking for granted that the
republicanism of Mexico will be permanent. Aristocracy, of course,
reduces the highest class of society to a limited number, so that a
large assemblage of ladies here would be thought small in the
United States.

At whatever hour you invite company, it will not collect before nine,
and the most fashionable appear between ten and eleven. The
music soon invites them to the waltz, or to the Spanish country-
dance, both of which are graceful, and perhaps voluptuous, when
danced, as in Mexico, to the music of guitars or of bandolines. They
dance upon brick floors—there are none other in Mexican houses—
generally bare, but foreigners have introduced the more comfortable
fashion of covering them with canvass; and as the steps are simple,
without the hopping and restlessness of our cotillons or quadrilles, it
is not so unpleasant as would be supposed; they glide over the
pavement without much exertion. The dancing continues, not
uninterruptedly as with us, but at intervals, until twelve o'clock,
when the ladies are conducted to the supper table, which must be
loaded with substantial as well as sweet things. After supper,
dancing is continued, and the company begins to disperse between
one and two in the morning, and sometimes not until near daybreak.

None of the wealthy families have followed the example set them by
foreigners. They give no balls or dinners. Although I have now been
here six months, I have never dined in a Mexican house in the city.
Their hospitality consists in this: they place their houses and all they
possess at your disposal, and are the better pleased the oftener you
visit them, but they rarely, if ever, offer you refreshments of any
kind. It is said that they are gratified if you will dine with them
unceremoniously, but they never invite you.

31st December, 1825. I can scarcely persuade myself that to-morrow

will be New-Year's day. The weather is most delightful. We are now
sitting with our windows open—at night too. About a fortnight ago
the mornings were uncomfortably cool; but the sun at mid-day is
always hot. What a delightful climate! And we are now eating the
fruits of a northern mid-summer. We have always had fresh oranges
since our arrival. A week since we had green peas; and to-day five
different kinds of fruit appeared upon our table—oranges, apples,
walnuts, granadites de China, and chirimoyas—the last, la reina de
los frutos, (the queen of fruit,) tasting like strawberries and cream.
The markets contain numerous other sorts. Our friends at home are
now gathering around the glowing coals, or treading the snow
without. We see the former in the kitchen only—the latter on the
valcanoes which tower in the distance.

* * * * *

7th December, 1827. A letter from home affords me the satisfaction

of knowing that our friends generally continue to enjoy good health,
and are subject to none other than the ordinary ills of life, such as
cut-throat weather, squalling brats, or a twinge or two of gout or
rheumatism. These are evils which humanity is decreed to suffer
throughout the world; but in Mexico we are more exempt from most
of them than elsewhere. The sun now shines twelve hours of every
day, and either the moon or stars give light to the other twelve.
Such will the weather continue to be until May or June, when the
rains fall with such regularity and certainty, that very slight
observation enables us to know when to go out, or to shelter
ourselves. The mornings now are only a little cool, although we are
in mid-winter; and our tables are supplied with fruit as bountifully as
in the months of July and August. Our other ills are in like manner
trivial. We are sometimes ennuyés for want of society, but books,
and sometimes a game of chess, enable us to live without being
driven to the commission of suicide. And as a dernier resort, we
throw ourselves into the arms of Morpheus, this being the peculiar
delightful climate for sleep—no mosquitos, nor extremes of heat or
cold. The thermometer ordinarily ranges at about 70° of Fahrenheit.
 SCENES FROM AN UNPUBLISHED DRAMA,

BY EDGAR A. POE.

I.

ROME. A Lady's apartment, with a window open and looking into a garden. Lalage, in
deep mourning, reading at a table on which lie some books and a hand mirror. In the
back ground Jacinta (a servant maid) leans carelessly upon a chair.

Lalage. Jacinta! is it thou?

Jacinta (pertly.) Yes, Ma'am, I'm here.

Lalage. I did not know, Jacinta, you were in waiting.

Sit down!—let not my presence trouble you—
Sit down!—for I am humble, most humble.

Jacinta (aside.) 'Tis time.

(Jacinta seats herself in a side-long manner upon the chair,

resting her elbows upon the back, and regarding her mistress
with a contemptuous look. Lalage continues to read.)

Lalage. "It in another climate, so he said,

Bore a bright golden flower, but not i' this soil!"

(pauses—turns over some leaves, and resumes.)

"No lingering winters there, nor snow, nor shower—

But Ocean ever to refresh mankind
Breathes the shrill spirit of the western wind."
Oh, beautiful!—most beautiful!—how like
To what my fevered soul doth dream of Heaven!
O happy land! (pauses.) She died!—the maiden died!
O still more happy maiden who could'st die!
Jacinta!

(Jacinta returns no answer, and Lalage presently resumes.)

Again!—a similar tale

Told of a beauteous dame beyond the sea!
Thus speaketh one Ferdinand in the words of the play—
"She died full young"—one Bossola answers him—
"I think not so!—her infelicity
Seem'd to have years too many"—Ah luckless lady!
Jacinta! (still no answer.)
Here's a far sterner story
But like—oh! very like in its despair—
Of that Egyptian queen, winning so easily
A thousand hearts—losing at length her own.
She died. Thus endeth the history—and her maids
Lean over her and weep—two gentle maids
With gentle names—Eiros and Charmion!
Rainbow and Dove!——Jacinta!

Jacinta (pettishly.) Madam, what is it?

Lalage. Wilt thou, my good Jacinta, be so kind

As go down in the library and bring me
The Holy Evangelists.

Jacinta. Pshaw! (exit.)

Lalage. If there be balm

For the wounded spirit in Gilead it is there!
Dew in the night time of my bitter trouble
Will there be found—"dew sweeter far than that
Which hangs like chains of pearl on Hermon hill."

(re-enter Jacinta, and throws a volume on the table.)

There, ma'am's, the book. Indeed she is very troublesome.

(aside.)

Lalage (astonished.) What didst thou say Jacinta? Have I done aught
To grieve thee or to vex thee?—I am sorry.
For thou hast served me long and ever been
Trust-worthy and respectful. (resumes her reading.)

Jacinta. I can't believe

She has any more jewels—no—no—she gave me all. (aside.)

Lalage. What didst thou say, Jacinta? Now I bethink me

Thou hast not spoken lately of thy wedding.
How fares good Ugo?—and when is it to be?
Can I do aught?—is there no farther aid
Thou needest, Jacinta?

Jacinta. Is there no farther aid?

That's meant for me. (aside.) I'm sure, Madam, you need not
Be always throwing those jewels in my teeth.

Lalage. Jewels! Jacinta,—now indeed, Jacinta,

I thought not of the jewels.

Jacinta. Oh! perhaps not!

But then I might have sworn it. After all,
There's Ugo says the ring is only paste,
For he's sure the Count Castiglione never
Would have given a real diamond to such as you;
And at the best I'm certain, Madam, you cannot
Have use for jewels now. But I might have sworn it. (exit.)
 (Lalage bursts into tears and leans her head upon the table—
after a short pause raises it.)

Lalage. Poor Lalage!—and is it come to this?

Thy servant maid!—but courage!—'tis but a viper
Whom thou hast cherished to sting thee to the soul! (taking up
the mirror.)
Ha! here at least's a friend—too much a friend
In earlier days—a friend will not deceive thee.
Fair mirror and true! now tell me (for thou canst)
A tale—a pretty tale—and heed thou not
Though it be rife with woe. It answers me.
It speaks of sunken eyes, and wasted cheeks,
And Beauty long deceased—remembers me
Of Joy departed—Hope, the Seraph Hope,
Inurned and entombed!—now, in a tone
Low, sad, and solemn, but most audible,
Whispers of early grave untimely yawning
For ruin'd maid. Fair mirror and true!—thou liest not!
Thou hast no end to gain—no heart to break—
Castiglione lied who said he loved——
Thou true—he false!—false!—false!

(while she speaks a monk enters her apartment, and

approaches unobserved.)

Monk. Refuge thou hast

Sweet daughter! in Heaven. Think of eternal things!
Give up thy soul to penitence, and pray!

Lalage (arising hurriedly.) I cannot pray!—My soul is at war with

God!
The frightful sounds of merriment below
Disturb my senses—go! I cannot pray—
The sweet airs from the garden worry me!
Thy presence grieves me—go!—thy priestly raiment
Fills me with dread—thy ebony crucifix
With horror and awe!

Monk. Think of thy precious soul!

Lalage. Think of my early days!—think of my father

And mother in Heaven! think of our quiet home,
And the rivulet that ran before the door!
Think of my little sisters!—think of them!
And think of me!—think of my trusting love
And confidence—his vows—my ruin—think! think!
Of my unspeakable misery!——begone!
Yet stay! yet stay!—what was it thou saidst of prayer
And penitence? Didst thou not speak of faith
And vows before the throne?

Monk. I did.

Lalage. 'Tis well.

There is a vow were fitting should be made—
A sacred vow, imperative, and urgent,
A solemn vow!

Monk. Daughter, this zeal is well!

Lalage. Father, this zeal is any thing but well!

Hast thou a crucifix fit for this thing?
A crucifix whereon to register
A vow—a vow. (he hands her his own.)
Not that—Oh! no!—no!—no! (shuddering.)
Not that! Not that!—I tell thee, holy man,
Thy raiments and thy ebony cross affright me!
Stand back! I have a crucifix myself,—
I have a crucifix! Methinks 'twere fitting The deed—the vow—the
symbol of the deed—
And the deed's register should tally, father! (draws a cross-
handled dagger and raises it on high.)
Behold the cross wherewith a vow like mine
Is written in Heaven!

Monk. Thy words are madness, daughter!

And speak a purpose unholy—thy lips are livid—
Thine eyes are wild—tempt not the wrath divine—
Pause ere too late—oh be not—be not rash!
Swear not the oath—oh swear it not!

Lalage. 'Tis sworn!

II.

ROME. An apartment in a palace. Politian and Baldazzar, his friend.

Baldazzar.——Arouse thee now, Politian!

Thou must not—nay indeed, indeed, thou shalt not
Give way unto these humors. Be thyself!
Shake off the idle fancies that beset thee,
And live, for now thou diest!

Politian. Not so, Baldazzar,

I live—I live.

Baldazzar. Politian, it doth grieve me

To see thee thus.

Politian. Baldazzar, it doth grieve me

To give thee cause for grief, my honored friend.
Command me, sir, what wouldst thou have me do?
At thy behest I will shake off that nature
Which from my forefathers I did inherit,
Which with my mother's milk I did imbibe,
And be no more Politian, but some other.
Command me, sir.

Baldazzar. To the field then—to the field,

To the senate or the field.

Politian. Alas! Alas!

There is an imp would follow me even there!
There is an imp hath followed me even there!
There is——what voice was that?

Baldazzar. I heard it not.

I heard not any voice except thine own,
And the echo of thine own.

Politian. Then I but dreamed.

Baldazzar. Give not thy soul to dreams: the camp—the court

Befit thee—Fame awaits thee—Glory calls—
And her the trumpet-tongued thou wilt not hear
In hearkening to imaginary sounds
And phantom voices.

Politian. It is a phantom voice,

Didst thou not hear it then?

Baldazzar. I heard it not.

Politian. Thou heardst it not!——Baldazzar, speak no more

To me, Politian, of thy camps and courts.
Oh! I am sick, sick, sick, even unto death,
Of the hollow and high sounding vanities
Of the populous Earth! Bear with me yet awhile!
We have been boys together—school-fellows—
And now are friends—yet shall not be so long.
For in the eternal city thou shalt do me
A kind and gentle office, and a Power—
A Power august, benignant, and supreme—
Shall then absolve thee of all farther duties
Unto thy friend.

Baldazzar. Thou speakest a fearful riddle

I will not understand.

Politian. Yet now as Fate

Approaches, and the hours are breathing low,
The sands of Time are changed to golden grains,
And dazzle me, Baldazzar. Alas! Alas!
I cannot die, having within my heart
So keen a relish for the beautiful
As hath been kindled within it. Methinks the air
Is balmier now than it was wont to be—
Rich melodies are floating in the winds—
A rarer loveliness bedecks the earth—
And with a holier lustre the quiet moon
Sitteth in Heaven.—Hist! hist! thou canst not say
Thou hearest not now, Baldazzar!

Baldazzar. Indeed I hear not.

Politian. Not hear it!—listen now,—listen!—the faintest sound

And yet the sweetest that ear ever heard!
A lady's voice!—and sorrow in the tone!
Baldazzar, it oppresses me like a spell!
Again!—again!—how solemnly it falls
Into my heart of hearts! that voice—that voice
I surely never heard—yet it were well
Had I but heard it with its thrilling tones
In earlier days!

Baldazzar. I myself hear it now.

Be still!—the voice, if I mistake not greatly,
Proceeds from yonder lattice—which you may see