Engineering

Journal
American Institute of Steel Construction

Third Quarter 2015 Volume 52, No. 3

175 Evaluating Accumulation of Fatigue Damage in

Steel Bridges Using Measured Strain Data
Jeremiah Fasl, Todd Helwig, Sharon L. Wood, and Karl Frank
185 Design of Split-Tee Connections for Special Composite
Moment Frames
Erica C. Fischer and Amit H. Varma
203 Structural Innovation: Combining Classic Theories with
New Technologies
William F. Baker, Lauren L. Beghini, Arkadiusz Mazurek, Juan Carrion
and Alessandro Beghini

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 ENGINEERING
JOURNAL
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Dedicated to the development and improvement of steel construction,

through the interchange of ideas, experiences and data.

Editorial Staff
Editor: Margaret A. Matthew, P.E.
Managing Editor: Keith A. Grubb, S.E., P.E.
Research Editor: Judy Liu, Ph.D.
Production Editor: Megan Johnston-Spencer

Officers
Jeffrey E. Dave, P.E., Chairman
Dave Steel Company, Inc., Asheville, NC
James G. Thompson, Vice Chairman
Palmer Steel Supplies, Inc., McAllen, TX
Roger E. Ferch, P.E., President
American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago
David B. Ratterman, Secretary & General Counsel
American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago
Charles J. Carter, S.E., P.E., Ph.D., Vice President and
Chief Structural Engineer
American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago
Jacques Cattan, Vice President
American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago
John P. Cross, P.E., Vice President
American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago
Scott L. Melnick, Vice President
American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago

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 Evaluating Accumulation of Fatigue Damage in
Steel Bridges Using Measured Strain Data
JEREMIAH FASL, TODD HELWIG, SHARON L. WOOD, and KARL FRANK

ABSTRACT
As traffic volumes increase, bridges age, and maintenance budgets are cut, transportation officials often need quantitative data to distinguish
between bridges that can be kept safely in service and those that need to be replaced or retrofitted. Strain gages can be utilized to evaluate
fatigue damage in steel bridges using the techniques that are discussed in this paper. To evaluate fatigue damage, the cycles induced by
vehicular traffic must be quantified using a cycle-counting algorithm, such as a rainflow algorithm. The amount of fatigue damage induced
during the monitoring period can then be calculated using the traditional method, the effective stress range, or using a new approach based
on the index stress range. One distinct advantage of the proposed method is that the relative amount of fatigue damage accumulated at dif-
ferent locations along the bridge can be easily compared. The advantages and limitations of both methods are demonstrated using measured
data from a fracture-critical steel bridge.

Keywords: strain gages, fatigue measurement, steel bridges.

INTRODUCTION Potential drawbacks of using the effective stress range,

which is the traditional technique used for tracking fatigue
T ransportation officials face the difficult task of main-
taining the nation’s inventory of highway bridges under
the pressure of reduced maintenance budgets, aging infra-
damage, are presented. The index stress range is introduced
as a means of easily determining the relative accumulation
of fatigue damage at multiple locations along a bridge. Tech-
structure, and increasing traffic volumes. One of the critical
niques for visualizing fatigue damage accumulation are also
types of structural deterioration for steel bridges is fatigue-
presented. The measured response of a fracture-critical steel
induced fracture. The primary method used to identify struc-
bridge is used to demonstrate the methods discussed in this
tural deterioration is hands-on visual inspections, the results
paper.
of which provide transportation officials with qualitative
data relative to the location and growth of cracks. However,
quantitative data are often needed to distinguish between BACKGROUND
bridges that can safely remain in service and bridges that
Before 1970, the fatigue guidelines in the AASHTO bridge
need to be replaced or retrofitted. Using the measured strain
design specifications were based on the measured response
response of the bridge under service loads to evaluate the
of small-scale specimens that were tested under constant-
accumulation of fatigue damage is one means of providing
amplitude loading (Schilling et al., 1978). These tests
this quantitative data.
revealed that the primary variables affecting fatigue life
Techniques for evaluating the accumulation of fatigue
were the stress range and configuration of the connection
damage from measured strain data are discussed in this
detail (Schilling et al., 1978). In addition, a stress range was
paper. In all cases, rainflow analyses are used to determine
identified, the constant-amplitude fatigue limit, Sth, below
the spectrum of stresses at the location of each strain gage.
which the fatigue life was expected to be infinite. These
concepts serve as the basis for the S-N curves (Figure 1)
used in the current bridge design specifications in the United
States (AASHTO, 2010).
Jeremiah Fasl, Associate III, Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates Inc., Austin, TX According to the AASHTO Load and Resistance Bridge
(corresponding). Email: [email protected] Design (LRFD) Specifications (2010), for a given constant-
Todd Helwig, Associate Professor, University of Texas–Austin. Email: thelwig@ amplitude stress range, Sr, that exceeds the constant-
mail.utexas.edu
amplitude fatigue limit, the number of cycles to failure, Nf,
Sharon L. Wood, Interim Dean, Cockrell School of Engineering, University of
can be calculated using Equation 1:
Texas–Austin. Email: [email protected]
Karl Frank, Chief Engineer, Hirschfeld Industries. Email: karl.frank@hirschfeld A
.com Nf = (1)
Sr3
Paper No. 2013-27 where A is the fatigue constant for the detail category defined

ENGINEERING JOURNAL / THIRD QUARTER / 2015 / 175

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 by AASHTO (2010). Equation 1 is used for the design of substituted into Equation 3, the damage accumulation ratio
new bridges; therefore, the fatigue constant for each detail can be expressed in terms of the number of cycles imposed
category corresponds to a low probability of failure. in each stress range, nj, and the cube of the individual stress
Although fatigue tests have traditionally been conducted ranges, Srj:
using a constant-amplitude stress range, highway bridges are
subjected to stress cycles with varying amplitudes under ser- k
n j × Srj3
vice loads. A cumulative damage theory is used to calculate D=∑ (4)
j =1 A
the effective stress range for a given spectrum of variable- 
amplitude stress cycles. The most common damage theory Note that the damage accumulation ratio is tied to the design
is Palmgren-Miner’s rule (ASCE, 1982), which is based on value of the fatigue life, rather than to the median fatigue
a linear damage hypothesis. The Palmgren-Miner rule for life, for a given connection detail.
linear damage accumulation is simple to use, and the results As indicated in Figure 1, the design S-N relationships are
agree with experimental data (ASCE, 1982). Nonlinear typically shown as log-log plots. If the damage accumulation
cumulative damage theories have been proposed (i.e., Li, ratio is included in the same graph, lines corresponding to
Chan and Ko, 2001); however, the equations are more com- constant values of D are parallel to the descending branch of
plicated to use and the results are not consistently better than the S-N relationship (Figure 2). Therefore, the damage accu-
a linear damage model (ASCE, 1982). mulation ratio can be considered the portion of the design
For a connection detail subjected to constant-amplitude fatigue life that has been consumed during the monitoring
stress cycles, the accumulated damage ratio, D, represents period of the bridge.
the portion of the design life that has been consumed by the In the previous discussion, it was assumed that the com-
imposed loading cycles: ponents of the stress spectrum were known. However, when
using measured strain data to evaluate the fatigue response
n
D= (2) of a bridge, a cycle-counting algorithm must be used to
Nf  transform the strain history into a stress spectrum, which is
where n is the number of imposed loading cycles. For a expressed in terms of a histogram of stress amplitudes. The
variable-amplitude stress spectrum, the accumulated dam- simplified rainflow method outlined by Downing and Socie
age ratio is the sum of the fatigue damage induced by each (1982) and included in ASTM E1049 (2011) was used for all
stress range within the spectrum: analyses discussed in this paper. The method is well suited
for fatigue analysis because it counts cycles based on closed
k
nj hysteresis loops (Dowling, 1972).
D=∑ (3) Schilling and colleagues (1978) introduced the concept of
j =1 Nfj an effective stress range for characterizing the fatigue resis-

tance of connection details subjected to variable-amplitude
where nj is the number of cycles imposed with a stress range
loading. The fatigue damage induced by a spectrum of stress
of Srj, Nfj is the number of cycles corresponding to failure
cycles is the same as the fatigue damage induced by the total
at a stress range of Srj and k is the number of distinct stress
number of stress cycles within the spectrum, nm, at the effec-
ranges included within the stress spectrum. If Equation 1 is
tive stress range, Sre:

100 Design fague life

A
Stress range, Sr (ksi)

Stress range (log)

10
C

E = 0.5

1 = 0.8
1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08
Number of cycles to failure, Nf Number of cycles to failure (log)

Fig. 1. Representative S-N design Fig. 2. Different levels of the damage accumulation
relationships from AASHTO (2010). ratio superimposed on S-N relationship used for design.

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 3
nm × Sre presented (Figure 4). Because both the effective stress range
D= (5) and number of cycles are larger for gage b than for gage a,
A 
it is obvious that gage b has a higher accumulation of dam-
Setting Equation 5 equal to Equation 4 leads to the defini- age than gage a. Likewise, because the number of cycles for
tion of the effective stress range: gage c is larger than gage a, while the effective stress ranges
are equal, gage c has a higher accumulation of damage than
⎛ k nj 3 ⎞
13 gage a. Nonetheless, comparing the relative accumulation of
Sre = ⎜ ∑ Srj ⎟ (6) damage between gages b and c is more complicated. Gage
⎝ j =1 nm ⎠  b has a higher effective stress range but a fewer number of
cycles than gage c. Using the historical method of evaluat-
The relationship between the total number of stress cycles, ing fatigue, the only way to compare the two gage locations
nm, the effective stress range, Sre, and the damage accumula- would be to calculate the remaining fatigue life or plot the
tion ratio, D, is illustrated in Figure 3. The total number of damage accumulation ratio (Figure 4). A new approach, the
stress cycles within the stress spectrum is calculated using index stress range, which is introduced later in this paper,
the rainflow counting algorithm to evaluate the measured was developed to quantify the relative accumulation of dam-
strain history. The damage accumulation ratio is calculated age between gages.
from the stress spectrum using Equation 5. The effective Data from a fracture-critical steel bridge that was moni-
stress range can also be calculated from the stress spectrum tored for nearly a year by the research team were used in this
using Equation 6. paper to highlight the advantages of using the index stress
The effective stress range is an efficient method to relate range to evaluate the accumulation of fatigue data.
the cycles from a spectrum of stress ranges to a single,
equivalent stress range. The single, equivalent stress range
is a useful metric because it can be used to calculate the DESCRIPTION OF BRIDGE
remaining fatigue life, as discussed in Fasl (2013). One of The strain response of a fracture-critical steel bridge with
the limitations of this traditional approach for evaluating the significant truck traffic was monitored as part of this inves-
accumulation of fatigue damage from measured strain data tigation. The average daily truck traffic was reported as
is that both the effective stress range and the total number of 4,000 trucks per day, with nearly 60 percent of those trucks
cycles during the monitoring period must be used to charac- featuring five or more axles. The bridge was constructed
terize the extent of fatigue damage at a given location. None- in 1935 and comprises three spans (73.5-ft end spans and a
theless, both of these parameters vary with location along 125-ft center span) for a total length of 272 ft (Figure 5). The
the bridge, which complicates comparison of fatigue data longitudinal girders in the end spans are continuous over
from multiple sensors using the effective stress range as the the interior supports and extend 30.5 ft into the center span.
sole parameter. The bridge is statically determinate, and the center section
To illustrate that limitation, the effective stress range and is suspended by hangers between the overhangs within the
number of cycles for three representative gage locations are middle span. The bridge is considered to be fracture critical

Design fague life

Effecve stress range calculaon:
(1) Determine
Stress range (log)

(2) Determine
(3) Calculate

(3)

(1)

Number of cycles to failure (log)

Fig. 3. Graphical representation of the method used to determine the effective stress range for a given stress spectrum.

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 because the superstructure includes only two longitudinal center of the suspended span to increase the moment capac-
girders and the failure of a flange from one girder would be ity. Transverse floor beams provide lateral support for the
expected to lead to the collapse of the entire bridge. longitudinal girders and are spaced 7.5 ft on-center along
The longitudinal girders are built-up sections (Figure 6) the length of the bridge. The webs of the floor beams are
that are spaced 23 ft apart (center-to-center). The girders riveted to angles that serve as stiffeners for the longitudinal
are haunched, with a girder depth of 8 ft over the interior girders. Traffic originally traveled in both the southbound
piers, 5 ft at midspan of the bridge and 5.54 ft at the end and northbound directions.
supports. Double angles serve as the flanges of the built-up In 1974, the deck of the bridge was widened and welds
section and were riveted to the web plate. Cover plates were were added to connect the top flange of the longitudinal
riveted to the flanges near the interior supports and at the girders to the top flange of the floor beams and to the top
flange of the brackets that support the overhang (Figure 6). A
plan view of the detail is presented in Figure 7. The widened
deck was not made composite with the longitudinal girders.
Design fague life When the bridge was widened, a separate bridge was added
for southbound traffic; therefore, traffic currently crosses
Stress range (log)

the bridge in the northbound direction of the two-lane steel

(b) bridge. Accordingly, over the entire life of the bridge, the
majority of the trucks are expected to cross the bridge in the
(a) (c) right lane, which is supported by the east girder.
The welds that were added for the bridge widening corre-
Constant spond to a category E detail (AASHTO, 2010). Reports from
Gages, typ.
recent inspections conducted by the bridge owner indicated
that cracks had formed and were growing at the welded con-
Number of cycles to failure (log) nections between the longitudinal girders and floor beams
at locations where the cover plates were not present (Fig-
Fig. 4. Comparison of relative damage
ure 8). Although the live load moments were calculated to
levels for three gage locations.

South span Center span North span

73′-6″ 125′-0″ 73′-6″

Direcon of traffic flow

Hanger
Loc. 1
37′-6″
104′-1″ 63′-10″
Interior support, typ. End support, typ.

Fig. 5. Elevation of the bridge and location of strain gages.

33′-1½″ (width of bridge)

Strain gage

Canlever bracket
23′-0″ (girder spacing) added to support
increased deck
from bridge
West girder East girder widening

Fig. 6. Cross-section of the bridge (looking north).

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 be greater at the interior supports, the flexural stresses in the MEASURED RESPONSE OF BRIDGE
longitudinal girders were calculated to be greater at the loca-
The research team collected strain data for 71 days at an
tions of the observed cracks because the moment of inertia
effective scan rate of 50 Hz. Strain histories were analyzed
was less.
in 30‑min segments to minimize the errors associated with
Strain gages were installed on both the top and bottom
temperature drift (Fasl et al., 2010). A minimum cycle ampli-
flanges of the longitudinal girders at several locations along
tude of 2 microstrain (0.06 ksi) was used when processing
the length of the bridge. The complete set of strain data is
the data to avoid counting cycles attributed to electrome-
presented in Fasl (2013). In this paper, only data collected
chanical noise within the data acquisition system. Strains
from strain gages installed on the top flange of each longi-
were converted to stresses using Hooke’s law and a modulus
tudinal girder (Figure 6) at location 1 near the north support
of elasticity for steel of 29,000 ksi.
(Figure 5) are presented. To monitor the live load response
The resulting histograms corresponding to the stress
of the longitudinal girder, the strain gages were installed 2 ft
spectra are shown in Figure 9. Two hundred bins were used
south of the connection between the stiffener angles and the
in the rainflow analyses; each bin was 5 microstrain (0.15
floor beams/brackets.
ksi) wide. The data are presented in terms of the average
At the location of the strain gages, negative moment is
number of cycles per day to facilitate comparisons with
induced when a vehicle is in the center span and positive
other bridges. Each gage experienced several extremely
moment is induced when a vehicle is in the north span. The
large-amplitude stress cycles (>15 ksi) during the 71-day
difference in strain readings between the maximum positive
monitoring period.
and maximum negative readings determines the maximum
The bridge was expected to have a finite fatigue life
stress range for a given vehicle crossing the bridge.
because a large portion of the cycles in the stress spectra for
each girder exceeded the constant amplitude fatigue limit
for category E details (4.5 ksi). This assumption was con-
firmed by the rate of crack growth observed at several of the
welded connections (Fasl, 2013).
Top flange of Top flange of longitudinal
girder (double angles) For this bridge, evaluation of the accumulated fatigue
floor beam
damage at the locations of the two strain gages was straight-
forward. The stress spectrum for the east girder included
an average of 56,000 cycles/day with an effective stress
Weld
range of 2.26 ksi. In contrast, the stress spectrum for the
west girder included an average of 38,000 cycles/day with
Crack an effective stress range of 1.44 ksi. Because both the effec-
tive stress range and the number of cycles were greater for
Top flange of the east girder, the east girder accumulated more fatigue
can lever bracket damage than the west girder during the monitoring period.
This observation was expected because traffic currently
crosses the bridge only in the northbound direction and the
Fig. 7. Plan view of category E detail. east girder is below the right lane of traffic; therefore, the

Floor beam
Crack

Longitudinal
girder

Fig. 8. Three-dimensional schematic of crack at weld between the floor beam and longitudinal girder.

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 volume of truck traffic is expected to be higher in the right fatigue damage induced is the same as that induced by the
lane rather than the left lane. However, the relative accu- measured stress spectrum:
mulation rates of fatigue damage in the two girders are not
readily apparent from the results of this analysis. k
n j × Srj3 nˆi × Sˆri3
D=∑ = (7)
j =1 A A

INDEX STRESS RANGE
The effective number of cycles at the index stress range
The index stress range method was proposed by Fasl and can be calculated by rearranging the terms in Equation 7:
colleagues (2012) as a means of expressing the fatigue
damage accumulation in terms of a single parameter. This k 3
method facilitates comparisons among multiple strain gages ( )
nˆi Sˆri = ∑
j =1
n j × Srj
Sˆri3 
(8)
positioned along the same bridge and can also be used to
compare the accumulation rate of fatigue damage among For the stress spectra shown in Figure 9, and an index
bridges within an inventory of bridges. stress range equal to Sth [4.5 ksi for category E details
The method is summarized in Figure 10. As a first step, (AASHTO, 2010)], the east girder experienced an aver-
the engineer selects the value of the index stress range, Ŝri, to age of 7,100 equivalent stress cycles a day compared with
be used in the calculations. Although the choice is arbitrary, an average of 1,250 equivalent stress cycles a day for the
the constant-amplitude fatigue limit, Sth, is a convenient west girder. The advantage of the method is that the relative
choice. Then the effective number of cycles at the index amount of damage can be determined directly because the
stress range, n̂i, is calculated such that the accumulated data are normalized to the same stress range. For instance,

100000 100000
West East
10000 10000
Average number of

Average number of

= 17.2 ksi = 23.7 ksi

1000 1000
cycles per day

cycles per day

= 1.44 ksi = 2.26 ksi

100 = 38,000/day 100 = 56,000/day
10 10
1 1
0.1 0.1
0.01 0.01
0.001 0.001
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
(a) (b)
Stress range (ksi) Stress range (ksi)

Fig. 9. Stress spectra calculated from the strain histories recorded from the top flange of the (a) west girder and (b) east girder.

Design fague life

Index stress range calculaon:
Stress range (log)

(1) Choose
(2) Determine
(3) Calculate
(1)

(3)

Number of cycles to failure (log)

Fig. 10. Graphical representation of the method used to determine the

effective number of cycles at the index stress range for a given stress spectrum.

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 at this bridge, the east girder accumulated 5.5 (7,100/ 1,250) and the number of cycles vary as the lower amplitude cycles
times as much damage as the west girder during the moni- are truncated from the stress spectrum. Data from the east
toring period. longitudinal girder are plotted in Figure 11. The horizontal
If a different value had been selected for the index stress axis corresponds to the ratio of the minimum stress range
range, the number of equivalent stress cycles would be dif- retained in the stress spectrum, Sr,min, to the constant-
ferent, but the fatigue damage accumulation ratio for each amplitude fatigue limit, Sth.
girder would remain unchanged. Therefore, direct compari- Because a large number of low-amplitude cycles are
sons of the relative amount of fatigue damage are always included in the stress spectrum (Figure 9b), the number of
possible. cycles included in the calculations decreased rapidly as the
lower-amplitude cycles were truncated from the spectrum.
If all cycles less than 0.1Sth were truncated, the total num-
VISUALIZATION OF FATIGUE DAMAGE
ber of cycles within the stress spectrum decreased by more
The advantages of the index stress method extend beyond the than 80%. In contrast, the effective stress range increased by
direct means of comparing the accumulation of fatigue dam- more than 100% if all cycles less than 0.2Sth were truncated.
age from different stress spectra. The index stress method These changes in nm and Sre imply that the accumulated
also provides a means of visualizing the impact of decisions fatigue damage is extremely sensitive to the value of Sr,min
made during the processing of raw strain data. used in the calculations. However, the damage accumulation
One concern associated with using the Palmgren-Miner ratio, D, decreased by less than 5% when Sr,min was taken
rule with stress spectra corresponding to measured strain as 0.5Sth. This example highlights the interactions between
data is the influence of low-amplitude stress cycles (Fisher, Sre and nm and demonstrates that using only the effective
Kulak and Smith, 1998). When tested in the laboratory stress range to characterize the accumulated fatigue damage
using constant-amplitude stress cycles, connection details is misleading.
exhibited an infinite fatigue life when the amplitude of the In contrast, the effective number of cycles at the index
applied stress cycles was less than Sth. However, for variable- stress level, n̂i, provides a clear interpretation of the rela-
amplitude fatigue, there is not agreement on the influence tionship between the accumulated fatigue damage and Sr,min
of cycles with stress ranges below Sth. Swenson and Frank (Figure 12). In this case, a single parameter is sufficient to
(1984) showed that all cycles contribute to the accumulation characterize the accumulation of fatigue damage.
of fatigue damage, while Connor and Fisher (2006) recom- The previous discussion focused on the influence of
mended truncating cycles with amplitudes less than 25 to low-amplitude stress cycles on the accumulation of fatigue
50% of Sth from the measured stress spectrum. damage. The techniques discussed in this paper can also be
Despite the lack of consensus, many engineers truncate used to identify the stress ranges within a measured spec-
data without analyzing the impact of all cycles on the accu- trum that have the largest influence on the fatigue damage
mulation of fatigue damage. As such, new visualization accumulation. When utilizing stress spectra acquired in the
techniques were developed and are discussed herein to allow field, engineers are typically concerned whether the lower
an engineer to assess the influence of all stress ranges to the and higher stress ranges are load induced or are due to
accumulation of fatigue damage. limitations of the data acquisition system. Electromechani-
If traditional approaches are used to characterize the cal noise in the data acquisition equipment can cause ficti-
accumulated fatigue damage, both the effective stress range tious low-amplitude cycles, whereas lightning strikes or CB

3.0
Normalized parameter

2.5
2.0 Change in
1.5
Change in
1.0
0.5 Change in
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fig. 11. Sensitivity of effective stress range and number of cycles to the
minimum stress range retained in the stress spectrum for the east girder.

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 radios can cause large-amplitude spikes. The contribution fatigue data are normalized in Figure 14 by dividing the data
of the stress cycles within each bin of the stress spectrum from each girder by ΣDj, which represents the total fatigue
(Figure 9) can be evaluated using Equation 9. damage induced during the 71‑day monitoring period. The
differences in the rates of fatigue damage accumulation
n j × Srj3 (9) between the two girders cannot be detected from the nor-
Dj = malized data, but approximately 95% of the fatigue damage
A 
in the east girder was induced by stress cycles between 1
where Dj is the portion of the damage accumulation ratio and 9 ksi, while approximately 95% of the fatigue damage
attributable to bin j and Srj is the average stress for the cycles in the west girder was induced by stress cycles between 2 to
grouped in bin j. The data for the east and west girders are 10 ksi. For this bridge, it did not matter if the lower bins
plotted in Figure 13 and provide additional evidence that the were truncated or considered in the analysis because cycles
fatigue damage accumulated much more rapidly in the east below 1 ksi contributed less than 2.5% to the total damage.
girder than the west girder. The plot also provides evidence The damage at the site is dominated by typical truck traffic,
that the extremely large amplitude stress cycles (greater than whereas cycles greater than 10 ksi only contributed approxi-
15 ksi) did not influence the accumulation of fatigue damage mately 2.5% of the damage.
because the number of those cycles was so low. Stress cycles
with amplitudes of approximately 7.5 ksi had the highest
influence on the east girder, while stress cycles with ampli- CONCLUSIONS
tudes of approximately 6.5 ksi had the highest influence on Using the procedures described in this paper, the amount
the west girder. of fatigue damage can be determined and characterized.
The same data can be plotted in terms of the cumulative The index stress range provides a method for assessing
fatigue damage in order to better understand the impact of the relative damage accumulation between gage locations
stress ranges within the stress spectrum. The cumulative and/or bridges. Because the damage is normalized using the

3.0
Normalized parameter

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fig. 12. Sensitivity of effective number of cycles at the index stress range to
the minimum stress range retained in the stress spectrum for the east girder.

2.5E-3

2.0E-3
East girder
Fague damage,

1.5E-3

1.0E-3 West girder

5.0E-4

0.0E+0
0 10 20 30
Stress range (ksi)
Fig. 13. Contribution of each bin to the total fatigue damage accumulated during the monitoring period.

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 method, the number of cycles at the index stress range is a D Accumulated damage ratio
better indicator of damage. The method can also be used to
Dj Portion of accumulated damage ratio corresponding
calculate the contribution of damage from each stress range.
to bin j of a stress spectrum
Because both low-amplitude (electromechanical noise) and
high-amplitude (electomechanical spikes within the data Nf Number of cycles to failure for a given constant-
acquisition system) stress ranges are questioned during a amplitude stress range, Sr, calculated using
monitoring program, the impact of all stress ranges can be AASHTO (2010) design specifications
evaluated using the visualization techniques. If the cycles
Nfj Number of cycles to failure for stress range
are contributing more to the damage than expected, those
Srj, calculated using AASHTO (2010) design
cycles can be analyzed further. Engineers can use judg-
specifications
ment on how to handle cycles below the constant-amplitude
fatigue limit, Sth, in the absence of international agreement. Sr Constant-amplitude stress range
However, the lower cycles may not significantly contribute
Sre Effective stress range
to fatigue damage (as demonstrated using the data from
the fracture-critical steel bridge monitored by the research Ŝri Index stress range
team).
Srj Average stress range within bin j of a stress spectrum
Sr,min Minimum stress range retained in a measured stress
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
spectrum
This research was funded by the National Institute of Stan-
Sth Constant-amplitude fatigue limit defined in
dards and Technology (NIST) through the Technology Inno-
AASHTO (2010)
vation Program (TIP). The opinions expressed in this paper
are those of the researchers and do not necessarily represent k Number of distinct stress ranges included within a
those of the sponsor. The researchers would like to thank the stress spectrum
bridge owner for providing access to the bridge. In addition,
n Number of loading cycles imposed at a constant-
Vasilis Samaras, Matt Reichenbach and Ali Abu Yosef made
amplitude stress range, Sr
significant contributions to the research project.
nj Number of loading cycles imposed at a stress range
Srj within a stress spectrum
SYMBOLS
n̂i Effective number of loading cycles at the index
A Fatigue constant used in AASHTO (2010) design
stress range, Ŝri, for a given stress spectrum
specifications to calculate fatigue life for a given
detail category nm Total number of measured stress ranges with a stress
spectrum

1
1.2 ksi 17.2 ksi 2.9 ksi 23.7 ksi
Cumulave damage

0.8
95% of damage 95% of damage
0.6

0.4
2.5% of damage 2.5% of damage
0.2 9.4 ksi 10.2 ksi
West East
0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Stress range (ksi) Stress range (ksi)
(a ) (b )

Fig. 14. Normalized cumulative damage during the monitoring period for the west (a) and east (b) girders.

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 REFERENCES Fasl, J., Helwig, T., Wood, S. L., Samaras, V., Yousef, A.,
Frank, K., Potter, D. and Lindenberg, R. (2010), “Devel-
AASHTO (2010), AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Speci-
opment of Rapid, Reliable, and Economical Methods for
fications, American Association of State Highway and
Inspection and Monitoring of Highway Bridges,” Proc.,
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
IABMAS 2010, Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia, PA.
ASCE Committee on Fatigue and Fracture Reliability
Fasl, J., Helwig, T., Wood, S. L. and Frank, F. (2012), “Using
(1982), “Fatigue Reliabilty: Variable Amplitude Load-
Strain Data to Estimate the Remaining Fatigue Life of
ing,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 108,
a Fracture-Critical Bridge,” Transportation Research
No. ST1, pp. 47–69.
Record, No. 2313, pp. 63–71.
ASTM (2011), Standard Practices for Cycle Counting in
Fisher, J., Kulak, G. and Smith, I. (1998), “A Fatigue Primer
Fatigue Analysis, E1049-85, ASTM International, West
for Structural Engineers,” National Steel Bridge Alliance,
Conshohocken, PA.
Chicago, IL.
Connor, R. and Fisher, J. (2006), “Identifying Effective and
Li, Z., Chan, T. and Ko, K. (2001), “Fatigue Analysis and
Ineffective Retrofits for Distortion Fatigue Cracking in
Life Prediction of Bridges with Structural Health Moni-
Steel Bridges Using Field Instrumentation,” Journal of
toring Data—Part I: Methodology and Strategy,” Interna-
Bridge Engineering, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 745–752.
tional Journal of Fatigue, Vol. 23, pp. 45–53.
Dowling, N. (1972), “Fatigue Failure Predictions for Com-
Schilling, C., Klippstein, K., Barsom, J. and Blake, G.
plicated Stress-Strain Histories,” Journal of Materials,
(1978), “Fatigue of Welded Steel Bridge Members Under
Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 71–87.
Variable-Amplitude Loadings,” NCHRP Report 188,
Downing, S. and Sqocie, D. (1982), “Simple Rainflow Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
Counting Algorithms,” International Journal of Fatigue,
Swenson, K. and Frank, K. (1984), “The Application of
Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 31–40.
Cumulative Damage Fatigue Theory to Highway Bridge
Fasl, J. (2013), “Evaluating the Remaining Fatigue Life of Fatigue Design,” FHWA/TX-86/07+306-2F, Center for
Steel Bridges Using Field Measurements,” PhD Disserta- Transportation Research, Austin, TX.
tion, The University of Texas at Austin.

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 Design of Split-Tee Connections
for Special Composite Moment Frames
ERICA C. FISCHER and AMIT H. VARMA

ABSTRACT
The beam-to-column connections of special composite moment frames (C-SMFs) serving as the primary seismic force resisting system
(SFRS) of a building structure are required to meet the performance criteria specified in the 2010 AISC Seismic Provisions. Chapter K of the
Seismic Provisions states that experimental results should be used to provide evidence that the specific beam-to-column connection satis-
fies the requirements for strength and story-drift angle. This paper focuses on the split-tee connection for C-SMFs with wide flange (WF)
beams and rectangular concrete-filled tube (CFT) columns. The paper provides a general description of the split-tee connection identifying
its key features and components. This is followed by discussion of expected behavior in the elastic and inelastic ranges of cyclic loading. This
discussion is based on prior research and large-scale testing, and it focuses on the various limit states controlling the strength and deforma-
tion capacity of the connection. The paper includes the complete design procedure for split-tee connections along with a detailed design
example. The information presented in this paper can be used to create a body of evidence to apply for prequalification of similar split-tee
connections in C-SMFs.

Keywords: seismic design, special composite moment frames, moment connection, composite construction, prequalification.

INTRODUCTION This paper, along with the results of the test results from
Peng (2001), provides the tools required for structural engi-
T he AISC Seismic Provisions (AISC, 2010a) provide
design requirements and performance criteria for
beam-to-column connections in moment frames that serve
neers to create a body of evidence to apply for prequalifica-
tion of similar split-tee connections in C-SMFs. The testing
requirements outlined in Section K2 of the AISC Seismic
as the primary seismic force resisting systems (SFRSs) for
Provisions are satisfied by the experimental program dis-
steel building structures. The AISC Prequalified Connec-
cussed here and in detail by Peng. This paper includes a com-
tions (AISC, 2010b), however, does not include examples of
prehensive design procedure that satisfies the requirements
beam-to-column connections for composite moment frame
of Section K1.5 of the AISC Seismic Provisions. It also out-
construction. The engineer is required to (1) present experi-
lines many of the necessary sections of the “Prequalifica-
mental results for the desired beam-to-column connection
tion Record” required by Section K1.6 of the AISC Seismic
configuration and (2) demonstrate that the connection meets
Provisions, including the following:
the performance requirements set forth in the AISC Seis-
mic Provisions. This paper provides an overview of previ- • A general description of the prequalified connection.
ous research performed on split-tee connections for special
• A description of expected behavior of the connection
composite moment frames (C-SMFs) and highlights poten-
in the elastic and inelastic ranges.
tial failure modes of the connection. It also includes compre-
hensive guidance and a complete example for the design and • A definition of the region of connection that
detailing of split-tee connections in C-SMFs. The connec- comprises the protected zone.
tion is detailed to achieve the strength and story-drift angle
• A detailed description of the design procedure for the
requirements of the AISC Seismic Provisions.
connection.
• A list of references of test reports, research reports
and other publications that provide a basis for
prequalification.
Erica C. Fischer, P.E., Ph.D. Candidate, Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Pur-
due University, West Lafayette, IN (corresponding author). Email: fischere@
purdue.edu
BACKGROUND
Amit H. Varma, Ph.D., Professor, Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, IN. Email: [email protected] Composite construction originated in Chicago in the late
1800s and is currently being used around the world in a vari-
Paper No. 2013-29R ety of applications. Examples of buildings with composite

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 construction for seismic resistance include the Two Union Typical beam-to-column connections used in C-SMFs can
Square in Seattle, Washington, and the Jinyuan Building in be categorized as beam uninterrupted or beam interrupted
Xiamen, Fujian, China. Composite construction optimizes connections. Beam uninterrupted connections consist of
the contributions of steel and concrete materials and provides beams that are continuous through the composite column;
members that are structurally efficient in terms of stiffness, beam flange welded joints are not used, and the connec-
strength and self-weight (Varma et al., 2002). In concrete- tion is not susceptible to premature fracture. Beam uninter-
filled tube (CFT) columns, the concrete restrains the steel rupted connections were tested by Schneider and Alostaz
tube flanges from local buckling inward, and the steel tube (1998) and others, and they demonstrated good ductility
confines the concrete infill (Lai, Varma and Zhang, 2014). when subjected to cyclic loading. Beam interrupted connec-
The steel tube also acts as formwork for placing the concrete tions consist of beams that are interrupted at the composite
during construction. CFT columns and frames have been column faces and connected to them using welded or bolted
used in different building structures around the world; how- connections.
ever, this paper focuses on their use as C-SMF construction There are no prequalified beam-to-column connections
for seismic design. for C-SMFs. As a result, beam-to-column connections in
Section G3 of the AISC Seismic Provisions provides the C-SMFs must satisfy requirements 1 and 2 listed earlier
design basis for C-SMFs. C-SMFs are expected to develop in accordance with Chapter K of the AISC Seismic Provi-
their seismic performance through inelastic deformations in sions. Chapter K provides guidelines for using experimental
the beams, column bases and limited yielding in the column results from large-scale beam-to-column connection tests
panel zones. The beam-to-column connections are required to satisfy both the requirements. For beam uninterrupted
to (1) satisfy the story-drift angle requirement of 0.04 rad, connections, the AISC Seismic Provisions require testing
(2) develop at least 80% of the nominal plastic moment results in accordance with Section K2 but also permit other
capacity of the beam at 0.04-rad drift and (3) develop the substantiating data in the literature (e.g., Kanno and Dei-
required shear strength of the connection. The required erlein, 1997). For beam interrupted connections, the AISC
shear strength is based on the load combinations that include Seismic Provisions require testing results to be submitted
the amplified seismic load, Emh, calculated using Equation 1 in accordance with Section K2. Minimums of two tests are
(AISC-341 Equation G3-3): required with the same or very similar beam and column
sizes as those designed for in the building structure.
⎡ 1.1Mp,exp ⎤
E mh = 2 ⎢ ⎥ (1)
⎣ L h ⎦ SPLIT-TEE CONNECTION

where, Mp,exp is the expected plastic moment capacity of the AISC Seismic Provisions require fully restrained (FR) con-
beam and Lh is the distance between the plastic hinge loca- nections to be used in C-SMF systems. FR connections have
tions in the beam. the capacity to deform elastically as the structure deflects
The AISC Seismic Provisions require the beam-to- and story drift increases. This deformation redistributes
column connections in composite moment frames to engage the moment from the beam to the column as a plastic hinge
both the steel and concrete portions of the column and thus forms in the C-SMF beams. The split-tee connection is an
transfer forces effectively during a seismic event. This can example of an FR connection with interrupted beams. A
be achieved through direct bearing from internal bearing schematic of the split-tee connection is shown in Figure 1.
mechanisms, shear connections, shear friction or a combi- As shown in Figure 1, the (interrupted) wide-flange (WF)
nation of these means (Peng, 2001). beams—the C-SMF beams—are connected to the compos-
ite CFT columns with split-tee moment connections. These
connections utilize pretensioned through bolts to attach the
AISC SEISMIC PROVISIONS
split-tee flanges to the column. These bolts pass through
Section G3.6b of the 2010 AISC Seismic Provisions requires holes cast into the concrete infill and are pretensioned to
the beam-to-column connections of C-SMFs to satisfy the the CFT columns. Figure 1a shows a bolted split-tee connec-
following: tion where the split-tees are also bolted to the beam flanges.
Figure 1b shows a bolted-welded split-tee connection where
1. The connection shall be capable of accommodating a
the split-tees are welded to the beam flanges. As shown, the
story-drift angle of at least 0.04 rad.
connection length may be longer for the all-bolted split-tee
2. The measured flexural resistance of the connection, connection. Shear studs are used within the CFT column to
determined at the column face, shall equal at least engage the concrete infill. Figures 1a and 1b show the pre-
0.8Mp of the connected beam at a story-drift angle tensioned through bolts and shear studs.
of 0.04 rad, where Mp is nominal plastic moment The split-tee connection is designed so that seismic load-
capacity of the beam. ing causes plastic hinges in the WF steel beams outside of

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 the connection region. The plastic hinge zones extend from exhibit ductile behavior under cyclic loading. Relative rota-
the face of the column to one-half the beam depth beyond tion between the wide-flange beams and CFT column is cal-
the plastic hinge point and are considered protected zones. culated as the sum of (1) beam rotation, (2) column rotation,
The expected plastic moment, Mp,exp, in the beam hinges is (3) panel-zone shear deformation and (4) connection defor-
resolved into effective forces, Mp,exp /d, in the beam flanges. mation. For the all-bolted split-tee connection shown in Fig-
These forces are transferred to the stems of the split-tees ure 1a, the relative rotation is larger due to slip between the
using bolts in Figure 1a and welds in Figure 1b. The shear split-tee and WF beam flange and the flexibility of the split-
force associated with the plastic mechanism in the frame tee itself. The relative rotation of split-tee connections can
and the gravity loads is transferred to the column through be reduced by welding the split-tee to the WF beam flange,
the split-tee stems as well. The split-tee is pretensioned to which eliminates the slip between them. This detail, shown
the CFT column, and the pretensioning is designed to resist in Figure 1b, will also eliminate pinching in cyclic (hyster-
the beam flange force without decompression and to transfer esis) response, which was observed in the all-bolted split-
the shear force through friction between the column faces tee connections. As discussed in Ricles, Peng and Lu, this
and the split-tee flanges. The panel-zone shear in the CFT pinching was primarily due to the elongation of bolt holes
column is resisted primarily by the webs of the steel tube during large story drifts.
and the compression strut in the concrete infill. Figure 2 As shown in Figure 1a, through bolts and shear studs are
illustrates this force transfer mechanism for the split-tee used in split-tee connections to engage both the steel and
connection. concrete portions of CFT columns in C-SMFs. This allows
The experimental data presented in detail by Peng (2001) for a concrete compression strut to form in the panel zone
and summarized by Ricles, Peng and Lu (2004) shows that of the CFT column with minimal yielding of the steel tube.
beam-column subassemblies with split-tee connections This was observed in the tests performed by Peng (2001).

Fig. 1. Split-tee connection schematic of WF beam to CFT column (columns shown

as transparent): (a) bolted split-tee connection; (b) welded split-tee connection.

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 EXPERIMENTAL DATA at the connection, Mmax, to the measured plastic flexural
capacity of the connected beam calculated using measured
The tests performed by Peng (2001) included a number of
material properties, Mp,meas. Specimens 1, 2, 3, 3R, 4, 5, 6
configurations for WF beam-to-rectangular CFT column
and 7 were weak-beam tests that formed plastic hinges in
connections. These also included the all-bolted and bolted-
the beams outside of the connection regions. The maximum
welded split-tee connections in Figure 1. The square CFT
flexural resistance, Mmax, at the connections for the weak-
columns were 12‑ft long, 16‑in. × 16-in. steel tube columns
beam specimens ranged from 1.18 Mp,meas for specimen 2 to
with 8‑ksi concrete infill. The W24×62 beams were 10 ft
1.56 Mp,meas for specimen 7.
long. The specimens were designed as weak-beam, weak-
Specimens 4 through 7 used split-tee moment connec-
panel zone or weak-connection specimens. Gravity load-
tions. Specimen 4 had pinched hysteresis loops due to the
ing (axial compression) was applied to the column first. It
slip between the split-tee and the WF beam top flange. Spec-
was followed by cyclic lateral loading in accordance with
imens 5, 6 and 7 used a welded washer detail to prevent this
ATC‑24 (Applied Technology Council [ATC], 1992) pro-
behavior. Specimen 5 was an all-bolted split-tee connection
visions; consisting of six elastic loading cycles, followed
without a shear tab. It did not have bolt-hole elongation dur-
by inelastic displacement (or drift) cycles with increasing
ing cyclic testing and, therefore, no pinching of the hysteresis
amplitude. Lateral bracing prevented out-of-plane move-
loops. Specimens 6 and 7, which were bolted-welded split-
ment of the connection region during the experiments.
tee beam-to-column connections also showed the formation
Table 1 shows the connection types tested by Peng (2001)
of plastic hinges in the beams. These plastic hinges included
along with the ratio of the measured flexural resistance
inelastic local buckling of the beam web and flanges with

Fig. 2.Force transfer mechanism in split-tee connection along with panel zone in CFT.

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 Table 1. Test Matrix for Rectangular WF Beam-to-CFT Column Connection Experiments
(Peng, 2001; Ricles et al., 2004)
Mmax
Specimen
Number Connection Detail Mp,meas
1 Interior diaphragms (four-sided weld) 1.25
1R Retrofitted interior diaphragms (four-sided weld), weak beam 1.08
1R2 Interior diaphragms with tapered plates (four-sided weld), weak-panel zone 1.03
2 Interior diaphragms (three-sided weld), weak beam 1.18
2R Interior diaphragms with tapered plates (three-sided weld), weak-panel zone 0.89
3 Extended tee, weak beam 1.21
3R Extended tee with tapered plates, weak beam 1.23
4 Bolted split-tee connection with shear tab, weak beam 1.34
5 Bolted split-tee connection without shear tab, weak beam 1.29
6 Welded split-tee connection without shear tab, weak beam 1.44
7 Welded split-tee connection with shear tab, weak beam 1.56

increasing inelastic deformations (story drifts). Flange local significant inelastic deformation capacity through flexural
buckling eventually extended into the split-tee stem, with yielding of the C‑SMF beams and limited yielding of the
increasing story drifts. At story-drift angle of 0.05 rad, two column panel zone. Flexural yielding of the column bases
cracks were observed in the specimen: (1) a crack in the is permitted. The split-tee design example presented in this
beam top flange at approximately 1.5 in. from the edge of section assumes that plastic hinges form in the WF beams
the split-tee stem and (2) a crack in the beam bottom flange outside of the protected connection zone. The failure modes
approximately 2 in. from the edge of the split-tee stem. of split-tee connections are listed here in order, from most
Specimens 4 through 7 all showed local yielding at the base ductile to least ductile:
of the split-tee stem during inelastic deformation cycles.
1. Plastic hinge formation in beam.
There was limited panel-zone shear yielding observed in
the split-tee connection specimens (specimens 4 through 2. Stem yielding of split-tee.
7). Because the through bolts connecting the split-tee to the
3. Flange yielding of split-tee due to prying action.
CFT column were pretensioned, limited prying action of the
split-tees was observed during the test. 4. Panel-zone failure of column.
Figure 3 shows the story-drift angles corresponding to
5. Bolt fracture in split-tee due to prying action of
the maximum load as well as 0.8 Mp (post-peak) for all the
split-tee flange.
tested specimens. As shown, except for specimens 1, 1R and
2R, all other specimens met the AISC Seismic Provisions The following example presents the design procedure
requirements for composite intermediate moment frames for split-tee connections bolted to the CFT columns and
(C-IMFs) by having story-drift angles exceeding 0.02 rad at welded to WF beams. The split-tee connection is designed
0.8 Mp. Additionally, specimens 4, 5, 6 and 7 met the AISC and detailed to resist the expected shear force due to the
Seismic Provisions requirements for C‑SMFs by having expected plastic moment capacity of the beam and the grav-
story-drift angles exceeding 0.04 rad at 0.8 Mp. The full- ity loads. The connection is also designed and detailed so
scale tests demonstrated that split-tee moment connections that the governing failure modes occur in the just-listed
could develop the expected plastic moment capacity, Mp,exp, order 1 through 5 from most ductile (desirable) to least duc-
of the beams, and accommodate story-drift angles exceed- tile. Figures 4 through 12 provide a step-by-step approach
ing 0.04 rad while maintaining (post-peak) flexural resis- for designing this connection. In this example, the beams
tance at 0.8 Mp. are W24×76 ASTM A992 wide-flanged sections that are
30 ft in length (Fy = 50 ksi, Fu = 65 ksi, Ry = 1.1), and the
CFT column is HSS16×16×0.75 made from ASTM A500
SPLIT-TEE CONNECTION DESIGN EXAMPLE
Grade B steel (Fy = 46 ksi, Fu = 65 ksi) and filled with
Section G3 of the AISC Seismic Provisions states that the normal-weight, 7‑ksi concrete (f c′ = 7 ksi). The gravity loads
basis of design for C‑SMFs is that the frame will provide considered on the beam are 0.84 kip/ft distributed dead load

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 Table 2. Beam and Column Section Properties for C-SMF
Width of column, B 16 in.
Depth of column, h 16 in.
Thickness of web of column, tw 0.75 in.
Depth of beam, d 23.9 in.
Width of beam flange, bf 8.99 in.
Thickness of beam web, tw 0.44 in.
Thickness of beam flange, tf 0.68 in.
Beam plastic section modulus, Zx 200 in.3

and 0.60 kip/ft distributed live load. The dimensions of the that stem yielding of the split-tee occurs prior to
beam and column sections taken from the 14th edition AISC bolt fracture due to prying forces. The maximum
Steel Construction Manual are shown in Table 2. thickness of the split-tee flange is determine to
Figure 4 shows the final dimensions and details for the prevent bolt fracture due to prying forces prior to
split-tee connection. Figure 5 shows the general procedure yielding of the split-tee flanges. The minimum
for design and detailing split-tee connections. This proce- thickness of the split-tee flange is determined so
dure addresses the primary failure modes (1 through 5 men- that split-tee stem yielding occurs prior to bolt
tioned earlier) and references Figures 5 through 12, which fracture. (See Figure 8.)
specifically address each of these failure modes and provide
Step 7: Detail the final dimensions of the connection
procedures for detailing split-tee connections. The following
based upon the minimum and maximum split-tee
steps provide an overview of split-tee connection design and
flange and stem thicknesses calculated in steps 4,
a description of each of the Figures 6 through 12.
5 and 6.
Step 1: Calculate the flexural and shear demands for the
Step 8: Calculate the actual flange forces in the
connection at the face of the column. Figure 6
connection based upon the final geometry of the
provides the procedure for calculating these
connection detailed in step 7.
demands using the expected plastic flexural
capacity, Mp,exp , of the beams and the gravity Step 9: Calculate prying forces in the flanges of the split-
loads on the structure. Calculate the flange forces tee using the final dimensions of the connection.
in the split-tee connection. Figure 6 shows how Yielding of the split-tee flanges due to prying
to calculate the flange forces from the flexural should occur prior to bolt fracture as a potential
demand. failure mechanism. Figure 9 shows the procedure
for checking the final dimensions of the split-tee
Step 2: Determine the number of pretensioned through
connection for this.
bolts required to resist the flange forces in the
connection. The bolts are sized to resist the shear Step 10: Figure 10 shows the steps for checking the
demand calculated in step 1 and the flange forces detailed geometry for stem fracture, stem yield,
calculated in step 1. balanced failure (split-tee stem yielding before
flange yielding) and shear.
Step 3: Establish the layout of pretensioned through bolts
in the split-tee flanges to satisfy force-equilibrium Step 11: Figure 11 shows the procedure for sizing the
equations. The force-equilibrium equations are weld between the split-tees and the WF beam
based upon the geometry of the split-tee as shown flanges based on the thicknesses of the connecting
in Figure 7. material and the flange forces calculated in step 8.
Step 4: Design the thickness of the split-tee stem. Step 12: Figure 12 shows the calculations for the panel-
Consider failure modes of stem fracture and stem zone shear strength of the CFT column. The shear
yielding. strength of the panel zone should be greater than
the flange forces calculated in step 8. This is
Step 5: Determine the minimum flange width based on the
consistent with the initial assumption that plastic
bolt layout determined in step 3.
hinge formation occurs in the WF beams of the
Step 6: Design the thickness of the split-tee flange so C-SMF.

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 Fig. 3. Summary of story-drift angle for connections tested (Peng, 2001).

Fig. 4. Split-tee connection detail.

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 CALCULATE ACTUAL FORCE
IN SPLIT-TEE FLANGES CHECK CHOSEN
START CONNECTION
BASED UPON CHOSEN
GEOMETRY GEOMETRY FOR
= PRYING FORCES &
BENDING OF SPLIT-TEE
CALCULATE FLANGE FORCES FOR FLANGES
SPLIT-TEE CONNECTION
CALCULATE MOMENT AT FACE OF COLUMN SEE FIGURE 9 FOR
(Mf) & REQUIRED SHEAR STRENGTH OF PROCEDURE
CONNECTION (Vp). ASSUME PLASTIC HINGE IS
LOCATED AT END OF CONNECTION. USE A CHOOSE CONNECTION
FACTOR OF 1.1 TO ACCOUNT FOR STRAIN
DIMENSIONS BASED UPON
HARDENING AND AN Rn FACTOR TO ACCOUNT
FOR MATERIAL OVERSTRESSING. REQUIRED MINIMUM & MAXIMUM:
Bf = Width of split-tee flange = 14.5”
tf = Thickness of split-tee flange = 2.625”
= = 513 ts = Thickness of split-tee stem = 1” CHECK CAPACITY
+ OF SPLIT-TEE STEM
STEM YIELD, STEM FRACTURE,
BALANCED SPLIT-TEE FAILURE
SEE FIGURE 6
AND SHEAR CAPACITY ARE
CHECKED AND COMPARED TO
THE CALCULATED FLANGE
FORCE.
SEE FIGURE 10 FOR
DETERMINE NUMBER OF BOLTS DETERMINE MINIMUM AND PROCEDURE
REQUIRED TO RESIST SHEAR DEMAND MAXIMUM FLANGE THICKNESS FOR
CHECK BOLT SHEAR THROUGH FRICTION USING
AISC SPECIFICATION J3.7 & J3.8. CHECK TENSION- SPLIT-TEE
SHEAR INTERACTION OF BOLTS. 1.25” DIAMETER
BOLTS ARE USED. SOLVING FOR nbolt A TOTAL OF SEE FIGURE 8 FOR PROCEDURE
6.6 BOLTS ARE REQUIRED. THEREFORE 8 ARE DETERMINE
USED.
REQUIRED WELD SIZE
1.3 AND LENGTH
= ≤ DETERMINE MINIMUM FLANGE WIDTH BETWEEN SPLIT-TEE
BASED UPON PREVIOUSLY CALCULATED AND BEAM FLANGE
= 0.75 EDGE DISTANCES & STEM THICKNESS (IF APPLICABLE)

, =2 ′
+ ′
+ , = 13.9 . SEE FIGURE 11 FOR
PROCEDURE
DETERMINE LOCATION OF BOLTS IN
SPLIT-TEE FLANGES FROM FORCE-
EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS CHOOSE SPLIT-TEE STEM THICKNESS &
(1) MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN THE CHECK FOR STEM FRACTURE AND STEM
FACE OF THE SPLIT-TEE AND THE BOLT LINE YIELD CHECK PANEL
OF THE SPLIT-TEE FLANGE ZONE
(2) MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN THE STRENGTH OF
PRYING FORCES AT THE END OF THE SPLIT- = = 0.72 . CFT COLUMN
TEE FLANGES AND THE MOMENT AT THE
BOLT LINE OF THE SPLIT-TEE FLANGE SEE FIGURE 12
(3) FORCE EQUILIBRIUM OF ENTIRE SPLIT-TEE
FOR
FLANGE = = 0.78 .
PROCEDURE
SEE FIGURE 7 FOR PROCEDURE WHERE:
ϕf = 0.75
ϕy = 0.9
Fu = ulmate strength of split-tee
Fy = yield strength of split-tee
END

Fig. 5. Main flow chart for split-tee connection design.

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 COMPUTE MOMENT AT PLASTIC HINGE
(MP,exp)
THE MOMENT COMPUTED AT THE PLASTIC HINGE IS
START CALCULATED USING THE EXPECTED MATERIAL
PROPERTIES OF THE BEAM.

, = = 916 .7 kip − ft

COMPUTE EXPECTED SHEAR FORCE AT PLASTIC HINGE (Vp)

THE EXPECTED SHEAR FORCE IS DUE TO THE EXPECTED PLASTIC MOMENT CAPACITY
OF THE BEAM AND THE GRAVITY LOADS

= 1. + 0.5 = 1.3

= = 19.6
2

USE AISC SEISMIC PROVISIONS EQUATION G3-2:

= +

= −2 = 28

= .

COMPUTE REQUIRED FLANGE FORCE

(Preq)
THE REQUIRED FLANGE FORCE IS COMPUTED BASED UPON A
COMBINATION OF THE EXPECTED PLASTIC FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF
THE BEAM AND THE GRAVITY LOAD
RETURN TO MAIN FLOW
2
= = 7.8 − CHART
2
(Figure 5)
= 1.1 + +

= = 513
+

Fig. 6. Calculate moment at the face of the column and required shear strength of the connection.

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 SECTION B-B
(a) SPLIT-TEE GEOMETRY & FORCES (b) SPLIT-TEE GEOMETRY

START SOLVE FOR TRIBUTARY WIDTH OF SPLIT-

TEE TO ONE PAIR OF BOLTS IN TENSION
(p)
CHOOSE LENGTH OF
SPLIT-TEE BASED UPON 2
NUMBER OF BOLTS = = 3.75 .
REQUIRED FOR
CONNECTION (Wst)
= 15 .
SOLVE FOR RATIO OF THE NET SECTION
SOLVE FOR a’ OF THE FLANGE AT THE BOLT LINE TO
FOR A DUCTILE FLANGE THE TENSION THE GROSS SECTION AT THE FACE OF
SOLVE FOR TENSION
BOLTS WILL BE LOCATED NEAR THE THE BEAM (δ)
EDGE OF THE FLANGE. IF MINIMUM FORCE IN EACH BOLT
EDGE DISTANCE IS 1.5dbolt TO ENSURE PRODUCED BY FLANGE
DUCTILITY USE THE FOLLOWING: FORCES δ= 1− = 0.633
′ = 2 = 2.5 .
= = 66. WHERE dhole IS THE DIAMETER OF THE BOLT HOLE:

1
= + = 1.375 .
SET UP FORCE-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS TO 8
DETERMINE REQUIRED SPLIT-TEE DIMENSIONS
SOLVE FOR REQUIRED b’ USING FORCE-
1) MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN THE FACE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS
SPLIT-TEE STEM AND THE BOLT LINE OF THE SPLIT-TEE BY COMBINING EQUATIONS (1) AND (3) FROM THE
FLANGE PREVIOUS STEP AND REARRANGING FOR b’:

1+ = ′
′
− 1+ ′
= = 3.68 .
2) MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN THE PRYING FORCE
AT THE END OF THE SPLIT-TEE FLANGES AND THE
MOMENT AT THE BOLT LINE OF THE SPLIT-TEE FLANGE

′ =

3) FORCE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE ENTIRE SPLIT-TEE FLANGE RETURN TO MAIN FLOW

RESULTS IN
CHART
= + = = 0.75 (Figure 5)

Fig. 7. Force equilibrium equations for location of bolts.

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 START CALCULATE NET CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
OF SPLIT-TEE (An,stem)

, = = 11.7 2.

CALCULATE MINIMUM REQUIRED THICKNESS OF SPLIT-TEE FLANGE

THE MINIMUM REQUIRED SPLIT-TEE FLANGE THICKNESS IS CONTROLLED BY BOLT
FRACTURE DUE TO PRYING FORCES.

DESIGN STRENGTH CONTROLLED BY BOLT FRACTURE DUE TO PRYING IS:

′ 2
= ′ ′ + ′ ′
+ 4 +

DESIGN STRENGTH FOR NET STEM YIELDING IS:

= ,

COMBINING THE ABOVE TWO EQUATIONS:

4 ′ +2 2
, = − ′ = 2.06 .
+2

WHERE: ϕbt = 0.75; ϕy = 0.9

CALCULATE MAXIMUM THICKNESS OF SPLIT-TEE

FLANGE
THE MAXIMUM SPLIT-TEE FLANGE THICKNESS CONTROLLED
RETURN TO MAIN FLOW
BY FLANGE YIELDING DUE TO PRYING FORCES
CHART ′
4
(Figure 5) , = = 3.3 .

Fig. 8. Check minimum and maximum flange thickness for split-tee.

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 SECTION B-B
(a) SPLIT-TEE GEOMETRY & FORCES (b) SPLIT-TEE GEOMETRY

CALCULATE EFFECTIVE THICKNESS OF CALCULATE gt FROM MINIMUM

START
SPLIT-TEE STEM, ts,eff REQUIRED EDGE DISTANCE
DIMENSIONS
TO ENSURE DUCTILITY IN THE FAILURE OF
, = 1 + = 0.5 . THE CONNECTION, THE EDGE DISTANCE a
2
AND b MUST SATISFY THE FOLLOWING:
WHERE:
−
k1 = fillet dimension from AISC Specificaon = ≤ 1.
= 0 for built up secons 2
− ,
=
2
CALCULATE FLANGE CAPACITY USING
MODIFIED KULAK ET AL MODEL FROM THESE ABOVE RESTRICTIONS THE
(Swanson & Leon, 2000) (Kulak, Fisher, & CALCULATE REMAINDER OF MINIMUM OF THE DIMENSION gt CAN BE
Struik, 1987) PRYING DIMENSIONS: CALCULATED:

+ 1.25 ,
THE MODIFIED KULAK ET AL. MODEL SHOWS THAT − , = = 6.72 .
= = 3.25 . ≤ 1. 2.25
THE SPLIT-TEE FLANGE CAPACITY SHALL BE THE 2
MINIMUM OF THE FOLLOWING THREE FAILURE
MODES MULTIPLIED BY THE NUMBER OF − ,
= = 3.75 .
THROUGH BOLTS. THIS SHOULD BE COMPARED 2
WITH THE FLANGE FORCES CALCULATED.
′ = + = 3.875 .
1) PLASTIC FLANGE MECHANISM 2

′
2 ′ − = +
2
= 3.125 . CHOOSE A gt DIMENSION
4
1 = ′ ′ ′ ′ = CONSISTENT WITH THE
4 − +
CONNECTION
2) BOLT FRACTURE DUE TO PRYING ON SPLIT-
TEE FLANGE gt = 8 in.
′ 2
= + =
CHECK FLANGE CAPACITY
2 ′ ′ ′ ′
+ 4 +
, = ≥
3) BOLT FRACTURE WITHOUT EFFECTS OF
PRYING
, = ≥ 513
3 = = RETURN TO MAIN FLOW
CHART
(Figure 5)

Fig. 9. Check prying forces and flange bending on split-tee.

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 START CALCULATE NET AREA OF CALCULATE NET STEM FRACTURE
SPLIT-TEE STEM CAPACITY

, = = 15 .2 , = , =

WHERE: ϕf = 0.75

CALCULATE NET STEM YIELD

CAPACITY CHECK SPLIT-TEE STEM
CAPACITY FOR FRACTURE
, = , =
, ≥
WHERE: ϕy = 0.9

CHECK SPLIT-TEE STEM

CHECK SPLIT-TEE STEM
CAPACITY FOR BALANCED
CAPACITY FOR YIELD
FAILURE

, ≥
, ≤ ,

CALCULATE SHEAR CAPACITY OF

SPLIT-TEE STEM
CHECK SPLIT-TEE STEM AISC SPECIFICATION SECTION G2.1
CAPACITY FOR SHEAR
= = 324.
≥ 3

WHERE:

RETURN TO MAIN FLOW

CHART
(Figure 5)

Fig. 10. Split-tee stem capacity check.

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 DETERMINE MINIMUM AND
START MAXIMUM WELD SIZE
AISC SPECIFICATION TABLE J2.4 AND CHOOSE WELD SIZE
AISC SPECIFICATION SECTION J2.2B
OUTLINE THE MINIMUM, MAXIMUM
AND EFFECTIVE THICKNESS OF THE
5
= .
WELD 16
= 0.62 .
= 0.3125 .

CALCULATE SHEAR RESISTANCE OF FILLET

WELD THROUGH THROAT OF WELD PER UNIT
LENGTH
AISC SPECIFICATION SECTION J2.4
CALCULATE EFFECTIVE
THROAT OF WELD
, = 0. = 11. / .
2
WHERE: = = 0.35 .
2
ϕw = 0.75
FEXX = Maximum tensile strength of welding
electrode (usually 70 ksi)

CALCULATE SHEAR RUPTURE STRENTH OF

ADJACENT MATERIAL PER UNIT LENGTH
AISC SPECIFICATION SECTION J4

= 0. = 19. / .
,
CHECK WELD STRENGTH
WHERE:
, < ,
ϕw = 0.75
Fu = Ul†mate strength of base material. If two parts
being joined have different ul†mate strengths, the minimum
shall be used
t = Minimum thickness of the two parts being joined

CALCULATE AVAILABLE LENGTH OF WELD

CALCULATE REQUIRED
=2 + − − 2 = 44.8 .
LENGTH OF WELD
WHERE:
sh = Length of connec†on = 12 inch = = 47.7 .
,

CHECK LENGTH OF
RETURN TO MAIN FLOW
WELD
CHART
≥ (Figure 5)

Fig. 11. Fillet weld at split-tee stem and beam flange.

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 START CALCULATE SHEAR FORCE IN
COLUMN

= =

CALCULATE PANEL ZONE SHEAR

AISC SEISMIC PROVISIONS SECTION E3.6E SPECIFIES THE REQUIRED
PANEL ZONE SHEAR STRENGTH IS CALCULATED BY SUMMING THE
MOMENTS ABOUT THE COLUMN FACE BY PROJECTING THE PLASTIC
MOMENT, PRODUCED AT THE PLASTIC HINGE, TO THE COLUMN
FACE.

=Σ + =

CALCULATE PANEL ZONE CAPACITY

FROM RICLES, PENG & LU (2004) THE NOMINAL SHEAR STRENGTH CAPACITY OF
THE PANEL ZONE IS:

= + = 918
3

WHERE:

B,h = In plane dimension of CFT column [in.]

f‘c = Compressive strength of concrete [psi]
Aweb = Area of steel web of CFT column
= htw
Fy = Yield strength of steel in CFT column [psi]

CHECK PANEL
ZONE STRENGTH
RETURN TO MAIN FLOW
CHART
≥
(Figure 5)

Fig. 12. Check panel zone of CFT column.

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 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS SYMBOLS
The experimental program conducted by Peng (2001) Beam and Column Dimensional Notation
showed that split-tee connections satisfy the requirements B Width of column (in.)
of the AISC Seismic Provisions (AISC, 2010a) for beam-
to-column moment connections in C-SMFs. The all-bolted Fu Ultimate stress of steel (ksi)
split-tee connection had pinching in the cyclic (hysteresis) Fy Yield stress of steel (ksi)
response due to elongation of the bolt holes and slipping
between the stems of the split-tee and the WF beam flanges. Ry Material correction factor
The bolted-welded split-tee connection resolved this (pinch- bf Width of beam web (in.)
ing) issue by welding the split-tee stem to the WF beam
flanges. d Depth of beam (in.)
The AISC Prequalified Connections (AISC, 2010b) does f c′ Compressive stress of concrete (ksi)
not include examples of beam-to-column connections for
C-SMF construction. The engineer is required to create a h Depth of column (in.)
“Prequalified Record” for the designed beam-to-column tf Thickness of beam flange (in.)
connection. This paper along with the test results from
Peng (2001) provides many of the necessary sections for the tw Thickness of column or beam web (in.)
“Prequalified Record” outlined in Section K1.6 of the AISC
Seismic Provisions, including the following: Split-tee Notation

• A general description of the prequalified connection. Bf Width of split-tee flange (in.)

• A description of expected behavior of the connection Lconnection Length of the connection (in.)
in the elastic and inelastic ranges. Wst Depth of split-tee (in.)
• A definition of connection region that comprises the Zx Plastic section modulus (in.3)
protected zone.
tf Thickness of split-tee flanges (in.)
• A detailed description of the design procedure for the
connection. ts Thickness of split-tee stem (in.)

• A list of references of test reports, research reports tstem Assumed thickness of split-tee stem (in.)
and other publications that provide basis for
prequalification. Capacity Notation

This paper presented a comprehensive design procedure [ts]fracture Minimum required stem thickness for fracture
and associated design example for bolted-welded split-tee limit state (in.)
connections in C-SMFs. The design procedure accounts for [ts]yield Minimum required stem thickness for yield limit
the potential failure modes of the connection and organizes state (in.)
them in hierarchal order from most ductile (desirable) to
least ductile, namely: (1) plastic hinge formation in beam, Abolt Area of bolt
(2) stem yielding of the split-tee, (3) flange yielding of split- An,stem Net area of stem (in.2)
tee due to prying action, (4) panel-zone failure of column
and (5) bolt fracture due to prying action of split-tee. Both Bf,min Minimum flange width (in.)
the design procedure and the design example establish plas- Fn Nominal stress of bolt (ksi)
tic hinge formation in the WF beams outside of the con-
nection region as the controlling limit state for the split-tee Mf Moment at face of column (k-ft)
moment connection. The comprehensive design procedure Mp Plastic flexural strength using nominal material
and example are illustrated using flowcharts in Figures 5 properties (k-ft)
through 12.
Mp,exp Plastic flexural strength using expected material
properties (k-ft)
Mp,meas Plastic flexural strength using measured material
properties (k-ft)

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 Preq Required flange forces for double split-tee American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. (2010c), Spec-
connection design (kip) ification for Structural Steel Buildings, ANSI/AISC 360-
10, Chicago, IL.
Vcol Shear force in column (kip)
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. (2011), Steel
Vpz Shear force in panel zone (kip) Construction Manual, 14th Ed., Chicago, IL.
Vt Column panel-zone capacity (kip) Applied Technology Council (1992). “Guidelines for Seis-
mic Testing of Components of Steel Structures,” Red-
αmax Maximum required weld size (in.)
wood City, CA.
αmin Minimum required weld size (in.) Kanno, R. and Deierlein, G.G. (1997), “Seismic Behavior
αweld Actual weld size (in.) of Composite (RCS) Beam-Column Joint Subassemblies,”
Composite Construction III, ASCE, Reston, VA.
lprovided Provided length of weld (in.)
Kulak G., Fisher, J. and Struik, J. (1987), Guide to Design
lreq Required length of weld (in.) Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints, Indianapolis: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
nbolt Number of bolts
Lai, Z., Varma, A.H. and Zhang, K. (2014), “Noncompact or
te Effective throat of weld (in.) Slender Rectangular CFT Members: Experimental Data-
ϕRn,base Shear rupture strength of adjacent material per base, Analysis and Design,” Journal of Constructional
unit length (kip/in.) Steel Research, Vol. 101, pp. 455–468.
Peng, S.W. (2001), “Seismic Resistant Connection for Con-
ϕRn,flange Flange capacity of split-tee (kip)
crete-Filled Tube Column-to-WF Beam Moment Resist-
ϕRn,stem Net stem fracture capacity (kip) ing Frames,” Ph.D. Dissertation. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh
University.
ϕRn,weld Fillet weld shear resistance through throat of
weld per unit length (kip/in.) Ricles, J.M., Peng, S.W. and Lu, L.W. (2004), “Seismic
Behavior of Composite Concrete Filled Steel Tube
ϕRy,stem Net stem yield capacity (kip) Column-Wide Flange Beam Moment Connections,” Jour-
ϕVn Shear capacity of split-tee stem (kip) nal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 130, pp. 223–232.
Schneider, S.P. and Alostaz, Y.M. (1998), “Experimental
ϕβn Capacity of bolt (kip)
Behavior of Connections to Concrete-filled Steel Tubes.”
ϕβnreq Required capacity of bolt (kip) Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 45, No. 3,
pp. 321–352.
REFERENCES Swanson J.A. and Leon, R.L. (2000), “Bolted Steel Connec-
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. (2010a), Seis- tions: Tests on T-Stub Components,” Journal of Struc-
mic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings, ANSI/ tural Engineering, Vol. 126, pp. 50–56.
AISC 341-10, Chicago, IL. Varma, A.H., Ricles, J.M., Sause, R. and Lu, L.W. (2002),
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. (2010b), “Seismic Behavior and Modeling of High Strength Com-
Prequalified Connections for Special and Intermediate posite Filled Steel Tube Beam-Columns,” Journal of Con-
Steel Moment Frames for Seismic Applications, ANSI/ structional Steel Research, Vol. 58, No. 5–8, pp. 725–758.
AISC 358-10, Chicago, IL.

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 Structural Innovation: Combining Classic Theories
with New Technologies
WILLIAM F. BAKER, LAUREN L. BEGHINI, ARKADIUSZ MAZUREK, JUAN CARRION and ALESSANDRO BEGHINI
Baker received AISC’s T.R. Higgins Lectureship Award in 2013. Learn more about this prestigious award at www.aisc.org/higgins.

ABSTRACT
In the early stages of the design process, an engineer sets the geometry of the structure. The decisions made about the layout of the structure
will determine the overall efficiency that can be achieved and the magnitude of the forces that must be accommodated. For example, the
deflection of a truss can actually be decreased by removing material if a geometry is created that has a shorter total load path. This paper
presents concepts and methodologies for creating and understanding efficient geometries. It starts with a review of the 19th- and 20th-
century load path theories of Rankine, Maxwell, Cremona and Michell. It then combines their insights with current topology optimization and
shape-finding tools as a means of exploring how engineers can create structural geometries that improve the behavior and reduce the ton-
nage of their designs. Several examples of classical theoretical solutions are explored along with their application to new designs.

Keywords: structural geometry, structural efficiency, structural analysis.

INTRODUCTION extending their studies into structural mechanics, as well

as optics, electricity and magnetism. Their interest in struc-
T he success of any project depends on starting with a good
concept. For the design of structural steel trusses and
other structures, the geometrical arrangement of the mem-
tures was undoubtedly further influenced by the advent of
the railroad.
The emergence of railroads led to technological chal-
bers is often the most important consideration in producing
lenges and advancements. The railroads needed bridges and,
an efficient and well-behaved design. Although efficiency
as a response, the first metal truss bridge was built in the
has always been a chief design consideration, its importance
United States in 1840 and in the United Kingdom in 1845
has increased lately as designers seek to minimize the carbon
(Timoshenko, 1953). The great thinkers of the time began
footprint in the construction of new structures. Where can
focusing their thoughts upon the practical issues of trusses
the designer seek guidance in creating layouts that achieve
and bridges and, in doing so, pushed the limits of struc-
the goals of efficiency and good behavior? A good place to
tural engineering. One such example is the British Astrono-
begin is at the start of modern structural engineering.
mer Royal, George Biddell Airy, who not only studied the
The mid-19th century was a key period in the advance-
stars, but also developed his famous Airy stress function in
ment of the understanding of structural behavior. The the-
response to Stephenson’s Britannia Bridge (Airy, 1863).
ory of elasticity had already been highly advanced through
This paper reviews some important works by Rankine,
the development of elastic “aether” theories, and many
Maxwell, Cremona and Michell that still have great rel-
mathematicians, scientists and natural philosophers were
evance to modern design. Today’s structural engineer can
combine the ideas of these great innovators with modern
topology optimization tools to develop structural concepts
for steel trusses and other structures. By combining these
concepts with practical considerations of constructability
William F. Baker, P.E., S.E., Partner, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP, Chicago,
IL (corresponding). Email: [email protected] and cost, the structural engineer can develop responsible
Lauren L. Beghini, Ph.D., Structural Engineer, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP,
designs that can minimize the carbon footprint in the con-
Chicago, IL. Email: [email protected] struction of new structures and help reduce the consumption
Arkadiusz Mazurek, Ph.D., P.E., S.E., Associate, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill of our natural resources.
LLP, Chicago, IL. Email: [email protected] Please note the theories and findings included in this
Juan Carrion, Ph.D., P.E., Structural Consultant, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill paper are based on equilibrium and compatibility and,
LLP, Chicago, IL. Email: [email protected] when calculating volume, strength or deflection, constitu-
Alessandro Beghini, Ph.D., P.E., S.E., Associate, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill tive relationships assuming linearly elastic material. The
LLP, San Francisco, CA. Email: [email protected]
analysis and exploration of the effects of geometric and
material nonlinearites on optimal topology layouts is under
Paper No. 2014-14 investigation by a number of researchers.

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 MAXWELL’S THEOREM ON LOAD PATHS While this theorem has generally been lost to the engi-
neering profession, it represents a very powerful idea that
When famously asked if he had stood on the shoulders of
has great potential in the design of trusses. It tells us that the
Newton, Albert Einstein replied, “That statement is not
longer the total tension load path, the longer the compression
quite right. I stood on Maxwell’s shoulders” (Forfar, 2012).
load path must be for a set of external loads of given magni-
James Clerk Maxwell was one of the greatest thinkers of the
tude, direction and position. Stated another way, if a tension
19th century and, although best known for his work in elec-
(or compression) load path is “too long,” the truss will be
tromagnetic theory, his influence extends to various other
penalized twice—once in tension and once in compression.
scientific subjects, including significant work in structural
Thus, if we can find a configuration that minimizes the ten-
engineering.
sion load path, the compression load path will automatically
In his 1864 paper, “On Reciprocal Figures and Diagrams
be minimized and vice versa.
of Forces,” Maxwell [who begins his paper with a reference
A further observation is that if a structure only has tension
to Rankine’s (1864) work on the equilibrium of polyhedral
members or only has compression members, it is already a
trusses] developed a theorem that essentially states that the
structure of minimal load path, assuming that the points of
sum of a structure’s tension load paths minus the sum of
applied loads and reactions do not change as the geometry
the compression load paths is equal to a value related to the
of the structure changes.
applied external forces (including reactions). In this paper,
Figure 2 shows an illustration of Maxwell’s theorem using
the term load path for a structure or group of members
the loads and supports of a cantilever with a 3:1 span. If the
refers to the sum of the axial force in each member times its
origin is placed at the lower left point of the cantilever, the
length. Expressed as an equation, Maxwell’s theorem can be
dot product can be easily calculated and is equal to PB. Thus,
written as follows (Cox, 1965):
according to Maxwell’s theorem, the difference between the
∑ FT LT − ∑ FC LC = ∑ Pi ⋅ ri  (1) tension load path and the compression load path is PB.
It can also be shown that the constant PB represents the
The value on the right side is the dot product of all the negative of the work needed for the applied loads and reac-
external forces, Pi , with position vectors from an arbitrary tions to cancel each other. For example, by moving the two
origin, ri . This dot product (∑ Pi ⋅ ri = Pi ri cos θ, where horizontal forces together to cancel one another, zero work
θ is the angle between vectors Pi and ri ) can be viewed as is done because the movement is perpendicular to the direc-
a representation of the negative of the work it takes for all tion of the forces. Furthermore, if the vertical force at the
the external forces to cancel all the reactions. Its proof is lower right of the cantilever were to be moved and placed
straightforward: If there is a truss with a series of applied directly below the upper vertical load, zero work is still done
external loads that are in equilibrium with a set of inter- but, as this load is moved to the point in which the vertical
nal forces (see Figure 1) and, from an arbitrary point, if the loads are canceled, negative work equal to Maxwell’s con-
space is dilated so that all the nodes become twice as far stant PB is done.
from the origin as they were originally, all the tension forces
will do positive work equal to the tensile force in each mem- LOAD PATHS OF DIFFERENT
ber times the member length. The compression members TRUSS GEOMETRIES
will also double in length but will do negative work. From The efficiency of the cantilever constructed to carry the
conservation of energy, the total internal work will be equal loads shown in Figure 2 can be examined by considering
to the work done by the external forces, which is equal to the a series of different truss geometries. For example, the
dot product on the right side. first considered geometry might be the moment diagram,
which, although it has the shortest path, is not the shortest

Fig. 1. Geometrical proof of Maxwell’s theorem. Fig. 2. Illustration of Maxwell’s theorem using a 3:1 cantilever.

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 load path structure (Figure 3). Here, the force in the ten- to the reactions at the supports. The verticals do not carry
sion member times its length gives the total tensile load path the loads closer to the supports of the truss; can they,
∑ FT LT = 10 PB, while the force in the compression then, be replaced with a different layout? This observation
member times its length results in a total compressive prompts an examination of a Warren truss (Figure 5). In this
type of truss, the tension load path is further reduced to
load path of ∑ Fc L C = 9 PB, resulting in a difference of
∑ FT LT − ∑ FC LC = PB, as predicted by Maxwell’s theo- ∑ FT LT = 8PB, and the compression load path is reduced
to ∑ FC LC = 7 PB. While the difference remains at PB, the
rem. The total load path is ∑ FT L T + ∑ FC L C = 19 PB. But total load path has been further reduced to 15PB, and the
how much would such a truss deflect? Using the Principle corresponding deflection is reduced to 15σB/E. By chang-
of Virtual Work, the deflection can be expressed as follows: ing the geometry of the structure, it is possible to reduce
the volume of material and make it stiffer—a remarkable
nFL
Δ= ∑ (2) achievement.
EA  Figure 6 shows a truss with a still shorter load path. It
represents a minimum load path solution for a structure with
and, if this is a fully stressed structure with equal stresses in
a geometry bounded to a depth B and 12 members. Although
tension and compression, the truss will deflect by 19σB/E.
it appears a bit unusual, the geometry is very regular with
Another classic solution to the 3:1 cantilever is the Pratt
the intersection of all the tension and compression mem-
truss (Figure 4). Here, the summation of the tension member
bers happening at nearly the same angle. If the angles are
forces times their corresponding lengths is ∑ FT LT = 9 PB,
made to be the same, the load path only increases 0.03%.
and the summation of the compression member forces times
For a span to depth ratio of 2.63:1, the angle between the
their corresponding lengths is ∑ FC LC = 8 PB. The differ-
tension and compression members will be 60 degrees, and
ence is once again Maxwell’s constant, PB, but the total
the triangles become 30/60/90 right triangles. The solution
load path has decreased to 17PB, while the deflection has
in Figure 6 provides a benchmark for judging the efficiency
decreased to 17σB/E. Although the Pratt truss has a higher
of other geometries.
total length of members, it has a shorter load path; the
Minimum load path is not the only consideration in
change in geometry decreases the total load path and, cor-
selecting a final solution. For example, the designer needs
respondingly, the deflection.
to consider issues such as complexity, cost, usability, aes-
A closer examination of the Pratt truss reveals that the
thetics, multiple loading conditions and permitted stresses
diagonals carry the loads from the point of load application

Fig. 3. Truss geometry selected for shortest path,

which coincides with the moment diagram. Fig. 5. Geometry of a Warren truss.

Fig. 4. Geometry of a Pratt truss. Fig. 6. Bounded optimal truss with 12 members.

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 Table 1. Load Path and Deflection Comparisons for 3:1 Cantilever
Tensile Load Compressive Difference in Sum of Load
Path, Load Path, Load Paths, Paths,
Deflection,
∑ FT LT ∑ FCLC ∑ FTLT − ∑ FCLC ∑ FTLT + ∑ FCLC ∆
σB
Moment diagram truss 10PB 9PB PB 19PB 19
E
σB
Pratt truss 9PB 8PB PB 17PB 17
E
σB
Warren truss 8PB 7PB PB 15PB 15
E
σB
Bounded optimal truss 7.7PB 6.7PB PB 14.47PB 14.47
E
σB
Compression chord cantilever 8.52PB 7.52PB PB 16.04PB 16.04
E

for tension and compression. For example, if the designer α1PB

V1 = (3)
decides to limit the number of compression members to a σ1 
minimum, Figure 7 provides a solution. Once again, this
structure is very regular, with all the tension members from and
the support intersecting the compression chord at the same
angle. A comparison to the geometry in Figure 6 shows that α 2 PB
V2 = (4)
the Figure 7 geometry has a load path that is 10.9% larger. σ2 
A comparison of these geometries is provided in Table 1.
It is advised that the reader study the relationships among the where α represents the coefficient of the sum of the load
internal forces, total load paths and deflections to develop paths in Table 1. Because the deflection is set to be equal,
his or her own insight into the problem.
Deflections are often an important consideration in the B B α
Δ = α1σ1 = α 2 σ 2 ⇒ σ 2 = 1 σ1 (5)
design of structures. If a structure is uniformly stressed, E E α2 
the relative volume of steel needed by alternate truss geom-
etries to achieve a target deflection can be shown equal to Thus, the ratio of the volumes can be computed as
the square of the ratio of the load paths. This can be shown
as follows. α 22 PB
2
If the volumes of any two structures in Table 1 are com- V2 ασ ⎛α ⎞
= 1 1 =⎜ 2⎟ (6)
pared with one another, we have: V1 α1PB ⎝ α1 ⎠
σ1 
This example shows that load path is a major consider-
ation in the efficiency of deflection-controlled designs. For
example, the Pratt truss in Table 1 needs 28% more ton-
nage to achieve the same deflection as the Warren truss or
38% more material than the Bounded Optimal truss with 12
members.
The preceding examples certainly beg the question: How
low can one go? The geometry of the lowest unbounded
load path structure and the magnitude of its load path have
been studied in the work of Mazurek and colleagues (2011;
2012) (see Figure 8). This research shows that the struc-
ture of minimal load path has a value of approximately
Fig. 7. Cantilever with only compression chord.
∑ FT LT + ∑ FC LC = 13.17PB. Once again, all the tension
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 members intersect the compression members at the same minimized. To simplify calculations, the parameters B, H
angle. Although a structure in Figure 8 would generally be and W are used to describe the span and height of the build-
deemed impractical, it does provide a benchmark for judg- ing and the width tributary to an arch; z denotes the depth of
ing alternate solutions. This will be discussed further in a the arch; and γ is the average density (weight including live
later section. load) of the building. In what follows, the columns and hang-
ers will be simplified by considering them as a continuum.
The tension load path can be readily calculated, as shown
AN APPLICATION OF MAXWELL’S THEOREM
in Figure 10. The force in the tie is equal to the overall
For structures in which the external loads do not change as moment in the system divided by the depth of the arch,
the geometry changes (generally simply supported struc- γWHB2/ 8z; the length of the tie is equal to the width of the
tures), the dot product of the external forces and an arbi- building, B. The total load path for the tie is γWHB3/ 8z. The
trarily selected origin will be a constant. Using this constant, load path of the hangers in Figure 10 can also be calculated
Maxwell’s theorem can determine the entire load path of a as follows:
structure by calculating the constant and either the compres-
sion or tension load paths. The total load path is equal to
twice the tension load path minus the constant or twice the
compression load path plus the constant.
For example, consider Exchange House in London for
which the first author (Baker) led the structural engineering
team in the 1980s (Figure 9). This is a 10-story office build-
ing that spans over a series of rail lines and is supported by
four 7-story parabolic arches. The author was not aware of
Maxwell’s load path theorem at the time of the design, so
the geometry was developed using labor-intensive paramet-
ric studies. These parametric studies can be replaced by a
simple application of Maxwell’s theorem.
It can be inferred from Maxwell’s theorem that if the ten- Fig. 8. Optimal geometry for 3:1 cantilever
sion load path is minimized, the total load path will also be based on the three-point load solution.

Fig. 9. Exchange House in London.

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 ⎛ 2x 2 ⎞   H
z ⎜ 1− ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎟
B /2 ⎝ ⎝ B ⎠ ⎠ ∑ P ⋅ r = −γBHW ⋅ 2 (10)
4
∑ FT LT = 2 ∫ ∫ γWy dy dx = γWBz 2 (7)
15 γ BH 2W
hangers 0 0  =−
2 
Thus, the total tension load path is the sum of the tie and the
hangers: Using twice the tension load path minus the constant, the
total load path of the structure can be calculated as follows:
4 γWB3 H
∑ FT LT = ∑ FT LT + ∑FT LT = γWBz 2 +
∑ FL = 2 ( ∑ FT LT ) − ∑ P ⋅ r
 
hangers tie 15 8z  (11)
total
(8)
 4 γ WB 3 H   γ WBH 2 
The depth of the arch that will minimize the total load = 2 γWBz 2 + − −
 15 8 z   2 
path of the structure (tension and compression load paths)
can be found by taking a simple derivative of Equation 8:  8 z 2 B2 H 
= γ BHW  + + 
 15 H 4 z 2 
d (∑ F L ) = 0 ⇒ 8Bz − B H = 0 ⇒ z =
3
15 B 2 H
T T 3

The total steel tonnage of the structure can now be esti-
2
dz 15 8z 64  mated. For a structure of this scale, it is not unusual for the
(9) permitted tensile and compressive stresses for steel to be
How does this result, based on a continuum, compare to very similar. The tension members are controlled by the net-
the discrete problem with a finite number of columns and section issues; the compression members are controlled by
floors? Although not presented here, the authors have com- buckling capacity. Dividing the total load path by an esti-
pared the results from Equations 8 and 9 to a calculation mated average stress, σ, will provide an estimated total ton-
based on the discrete members of the Exchange House proj- nage of steel.
ect and have found that the results are within 2%. Hopefully, this example helps the reader appreciate the
It should also be noted that the actual height of the power of Maxwell’s theorem. The theorem enables the opti-
Exchange House arch is lower than the optimum height mization for the conceptual design of a large structure and
because of a design requirement to find a close match of the an estimate of the total tonnage of steel in a few short calcu-
parabolic arch to the grid of the columns and floors. The lations without actually sizing a single member.
premium of the lower arch was deemed appropriate for the It is worth reflecting that the preceding process calcu-
resulting simplicity of the connections, location of work- lated the load path in the arch without directly calculating
points, etc. the forces in the arch. How is this possible? It is instructive
Maxwell’s theorem can also be used to calculate the total to examine Figure 12. The load path in a diagonal member
load path of the structure. For this structure, the dot prod- (such as a segment of an arch) is equal to the vertical compo-
nent of the force times the vertical dimension of the member
uct, ∑ Pi ⋅ ri , is a constant that is very easily calculated; it is
plus the horizontal component of the force times the hori-
equal to the load path that would exist if the building sat on
zontal dimension of the member. Using this knowledge, the
the ground and was only supported by columns (Figure 11).
following analysis shows how the arch load path is implicitly
included.

Fig. 10. Schematic of the building dimensions and tension members (tie and hangers) for Exchange House.

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 For the total structure (Figure 13), from Maxwell’s  
theorem, it can be shown that ∑ P ⋅ r = − ∑ FC LC − ∑ FC L C (14)
columns columns
 
above arch below arch 
∑ FL = 2∑FT LT + 2 ∑ FT L T − ∑ P ⋅ r (12)
Therefore, substituting into the total load path equation, the
total tie hangers 
load path of the arch is simply
This must also be equal to
∑ FC L C = ∑FT L T + ∑ FT LT + ∑ FC L C (15)
∑ FL =∑FT L T + ∑ FT L T + ∑ FC L C + ∑ FC LC (13) arch tie hangers columns
below arch 
total tie hangers columns arch
above arch 
which is shown graphically in Figure 14.
The dot product in Equation 12 can be split into two val- Here, we can see that the horizontal load path of the arch
ues: the load path above the arch and the load path below is equal to the horizontal load path of the adjacent tie plus
the arch, as if the structure was supported directly on the the vertical load paths of the adjacent hangers plus the ver-
ground: tical load paths of the columns that were eliminated when
the arch system was used instead of sitting directly on the
ground. This is a remarkably sophisticated result from Max-
well’s very simple equation.

MICHELL TRUSSES
In 1904, A.G.M. Michell wrote a seminal paper in which
he outlined the principles of trusses with the shortest pos-
sible load paths and presented a limited number of solutions.
Michell started with Maxwell’s load path theorem and con-
cluded that, if a continuous orthogonal deformation field is
produced where all the tension elements are equally strained
(elongated) and all the compression elements experience the
same strain but are compressed, then the structure defined
by these strain fields will be minimal, with the total load
path of the structure equal to the work done by the exter-
Fig. 11. Schematic for Exchange House nal forces moving in this assumed displacement field. These
with column support only. displacement fields must satisfy certain mathematical rela-
tions and result in orthogonal tension and compression strain
fields. It should be noted that the mathematics of these strain

Fig. 12. Segment of an arch decomposed into a horizontal and vertical component.

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 fields are related to the slip lines in the Theory of Plasticity. given structure. In the design of practical trusses, however,
Discussed next are some of the truss geometries of mini- the final structures are composed of a finite number of ele-
mal load path structures included in Michell’s 1904 paper ments. Thus, it is useful to look at the discretized versions
(see Figure 15). Because Michell approached the problem of these optimal solutions, commonly referred to as discrete
from the point-of-view of continuum mechanics, it should Michell trusses or discrete optimal trusses.
be noted that the following solutions permit an infinite num-
ber of elements (only a few of the members are drawn in
DISCRETE OPTIMAL TRUSSES
the bicycle wheel like structures or the equilateral spirals
of Figure 15). Nevertheless, Michell trusses are quite use- Research on discrete Michell trusses has produced results
ful because they provide insight into optimal geometries that are also useful in understanding optimal load path
and are benchmarks of the shortest possible load path for a structures. Though these discrete Michell truss structures

Fig. 13. Total load path of Exchange House.

Fig. 14. Calculation of load path of the arch for Exchange House

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 are often impractical to build, they provide excellent bench- TOPOLOGY OPTIMIZATION APPROACHES
marks for designers in terms of efficiently utilizing materi-
According to Bendsoe and Sigmund (2002), topology opti-
als. Recent work by Mazurek and colleagues (2011; 2012)
mization consists of studying the optimal arrangement of
and has shown that these discrete trusses can have amazing
isotropic material in space for the design of the topology of a
regularity and order. In the class of problems in which there
structure. A geometric representation of such a structure can
is a symmetrical cantilever with two points of support and a
be thought of as a black-and-white rendering of an image,
single load, the complete geometry can be described using
in which the “pixels” are given by finite elements. This
only one angle (denoted by α in Figure 16); the adjacent
methodology essentially starts with a uniformly distributed
angles are right angles or complements of the first angle. An
“gray” material in which the optimal layout is determined
example can be seen in Figure 16, which was also studied
through an iterative process to reveal a potentially optimal
by Chan (1960).
load path, represented by “black” and “white” densities. An
It is interesting to note that the optimal structure for the
example of this methodology can be seen in Figure 17 using
discrete Michell cantilever in Figure 16 is composed of
the educational codes provided in Talischi and colleagues
several substructures, each of which is also optimal for the
(2012a; 2012b) for the topology optimization of a 6:1 simple
given number of members and connectivity. For example,
span problem with five sets of uniformly spaced point loads.
the optimal geometry for a structure of two members is
One of the major advantages of this methodology is that the
shown in the substructure, ξ2, of Figure 16. Likewise, for
feasible solutions can have any size, shape or connectivity.
eight members, the optimal structure is embedded in the
For an example of the use of topology optimization in the
larger optimal structures, composed of 18, 32, 50 and so on
design of steel bracing systems of high-rise buildings, refer
members. For a complete set of graphical rules to construct
to Stromberg and colleagues (2012).
such geometries for three-point or three-force structures, the
An alternative approach based on ground structures con-
reader is referred to Mazurek and colleagues (2011; 2012).
siders a form of gridlike continua for the topology optimi-
The exact derivation of the optimal geometry for discrete
zation of trusses using discrete members; this can also be
trusses using Michell’s theories or graphical rules, such as
viewed as a sizing problem where the connectivity must be
those shown by Mazurek and colleagues (2011), is often
specified a priori. Within these techniques, there are liter-
quite difficult for complicated loadings. Fortunately, today,
ally thousands of interconnected truss elements that coalesce
designers have some powerful tools to assist in approximat-
into patterns based on the final optimal cross-sectional areas
ing optimal topologies for these more complex structures.
that reveal optimal (minimal) load path structures. To gener-
Several of these tools include topology optimization using
ate such topologies using this approach, refer to the educa-
material distribution methods, such as the SIMP (Solid Iso-
tional code provided in Sokol (2011); see Figure 18.
tropic Material with Penalization) material model (Bend-
The interpretation of the results computed using either
soe and Sigmund, 2002; Rozvany, Zhou and Birker, 1992),
of these tools requires a significant amount of engineering
or discrete truss topology optimization methods based on
judgment and an understanding of practical issues such as
ground structures (see Chapter 4 of Bendsoe and Sigmund,
constructability and functionality of the truss. Using these
2002, or Chapter 5 of Christensen and Klarbring, 2009). A
solutions, a discrete truss, which provides the general con-
brief overview of these tools is given in the following section.
nectivity of the structure, can be interpreted. However, the

Fig. 15. Minimal load path structures taken from Michell (1904): semi-infinite fan (left),
orthogonal systems of equiangular spirals (center) and centrally loaded beam (right).

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 determination of the precise location of the joints (nodes) can only simple geometrical relationships. It produces two dia-
be quite subjective because it is often an “eyeball” estimate grams—one that represents the geometry of the truss and
of the location. Therefore, after the connectivity is identi- the other that represents the axial forces in the members of
fied, the final “optimal” locations of the nodes might then the truss. Maxwell determined that these two diagrams are
be refined using various searching or gradient optimization reciprocal.
techniques. One useful method that also gives great insight Cremona later modified this concept so that, for each line
into the forces in the individual members is Graphic Statics. in the form diagram (truss geometry), there is a parallel line
in the force diagram, the length of which is proportional to
axial force in the original form line (truss member). Max-
GRAPHIC STATICS
well also determined that each node in the form diagram
Graphic Statics is a powerful tool for studying both the maps into a closed polygon in the force diagram, which rep-
geometry and the forces in a structure using only graphical resents the equilibrium of the forces at the node. Also, every
methods. It was once in wide usage, initially based on the polygon in the form diagram maps into a node in the force
work of Rankine and Maxwell and later adopted and refined diagram. Because these two diagrams are reciprocal, the
by Culmann and Cremona. Graphic Statics has recently mapping can also be reversed. This means that the designer
been revived in the design of compression-only masonry can manipulate the force diagram in order to determine the
shells in the work of Block and Ochsendorf (2007). geometry that produces a desired set of forces.
Graphic Statics uses graphical techniques to determine As described by Baker and colleagues (2013), for a given
the axial forces in certain common trusses geometries. It connectivity of nodes, Graphic Statics provides all the infor-
was originally done with simple drafting tools and can now mation needed to determine the total load path of the struc-
be easily done with computer graphic programs or simple ture in the form and force diagrams; that is, using the form
spreadsheets. It does not require the calculation of stiffness, diagram, the member lengths can be found while the force
diagram provides the corresponding member forces. Thus,
all of the information is graphically available to determine
the total load path.
To understand the mappings between the reciprocal dia-
grams, consider the simple six-panel gable truss (Zalewski
and Allen, 1998) shown in Figure 19. On the left, the geom-
etry of the structure, or the form diagram, is shown. The
lines in the form diagram represent structural members or,
rather, lines of action of the structural members. The lines
in the second diagram (on the right of Figure 19), known as
the force diagram, represent forces carried by the members
from the form diagram. In this figure, dashed line vectors
are used to represent these external forces both in the form
and force diagrams.
The notation used in Figure 19 and following diagrams
is an interval notation based on a version of Bow’s notation
(Bow, 1873). For the form diagram, the capital letters, A,
B, C, … , are sequentially placed clockwise in the intervals
between external forces (open polygons) and numbers, 1, 2,
Fig. 16. Optimal discrete Michell truss. 3, … , are placed in the internal spaces (closed polygons)

Fig. 17. Topology optimization approach by

distribution of isotropic material using the educational Fig. 18. Topology optimization approach using ground
code, PolyTop (Talischi et al., 2012a; 2012b). structures, computed by the educational code in Sokol (2011).

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 between members. Each line in the form diagram is bor- toward the joint in the form diagram, so member 3-2 is also
dered by two polygons. Thus, a member may be referred in compression. For more details on reciprocal relationships,
to using the corresponding letter or number of the adjacent refer to Baker and colleagues (2013) and Zalewski and Allen
polygons—for example, A-1 or 2-3—and a joint called with (1998).
a series of letters and numbers—for example, A-B-3-2-1-A. A useful application of Graphic Statics for structural
Similarly, the external forces are referenced using the adja- design has also been described in Chapter 14 of the book
cent open polygons—for example, FAB. The open polygons by Zalewski and Allen (1998) for form-finding of trusses
denoted by capital letters in the form diagram correspond to by graphically solving for the nodal locations that give a
points (nodes) on the load line of the force diagram, denoted constant chord-force truss. For example, the gable truss of
by the lowercase letters, a, b, c, … . The numbers denoting Figure 19 is revisited in Figure 20, in which the objective
the closed polygons in the form diagram also have corre- becomes to find the geometry of a truss in which the force
sponding nodes in the force diagram. in the top chord is constant. This can be accomplished by
This graphical methodology allows the user to determine manipulating the force diagram so that the lengths of lines
the axial force in a truss member by measuring the length of a-1, b-3, c-5, d-6, e-8 and f-10 are the same, representing
the reciprocal line in the force diagram. The relative mag- equal forces. After the force diagram is modified to achieve
nitude of the force diagram is set by drawing the load line, the desired properties, work backward to find the reciprocal
which represents the external forces, to scale. For example, form diagram, resulting in the desired geometry. This has
the force in member A-1 in the form diagram of Figure 18 is been applied in the design of the structure by Robert Mail-
proportional to the length of the line between points a and lart shown in Figure 21. Note that the forces in members 2-3,
1 in the corresponding force diagram. Similarly, the force 4-5, 6-7 and 8-9 are zero because the nodes are overlaid in
in the member between polygons 2 and 3 is proportional to the force diagram on the right. These members were elimi-
the length of the line between points 2 and 3 of the force nated from Maillart’s structure.
diagram. The remaining forces in the other members can Similarly, to find the geometry of the truss in which there
be computed likewise. It should be noted that nodes 1 and 2 is a constant force in both the top and bottom chords, the
overlay each other in the force diagram; this indicates that force diagram can be modified accordingly so that all lines
member 1-2 has zero force (the same is true for member in the force diagram corresponding to the members in the
9-10). Thus, the forces acting on a node in the form diagram chords have the same length. This example can be seen in
correspond to a polygon in the force diagram, where each Figure 22.
force is a side of the polygon. For example, at node A-B-3- The authors note that the force polygon and form dia-
2-1-A, the polygon of forces is given by points a-b-3-2-1-a. grams can be manipulated in this figure to achieve higher or
Reading clockwise around joint A-B-3-2-1-A in the form lower forces and shallower or deeper trusses, depending on
diagram, we can determine if members A-1 and 2-3 are in the needs of the designer. Also, members 2-3, 4-5, 6-7 and
tension or compression. If read from 1 to a on polygon a-b-3- 8-9 are all zero force members. They may still be required
2-1-a, we move from the lower left to the upper right, toward for considerations of stability or unbalanced loads, unless
the joint A-B-3-2-1-A of the form diagram. Thus, member the chords have sufficient flexural strength and stiffness to
A-1 is in compression. Likewise, moving from 3 to 2 on the address these issues.
force polygon goes from the lower right to the upper left, or As previously mentioned, an interpretation of topology

Fig. 19. Form and force diagrams for gable truss.

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 Fig. 20. Constant force gable truss (force is constant in top chord).

Fig. 21. Design using form-finding of a constant-force gable truss (Zalewski and Allen, 1998).

Fig. 22. Truss designed for constant and equal force in top and bottom chord.

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 optimization solutions from continuum or ground structure the effective length factor K can be set equal to 1.0 for all
approaches provides approximate nodal locations and con- the members, and by considering a second-order numerical
nectivity. Refinement of the nodal locations can be achieved analysis with modified members’ stiffness, it is possible to
through manipulation of the force diagram in graphic statics. capture the increased strength in the members.
Figures 17 and 18 show the results of a continuum topol- The Pratt truss with tension diagonals (truss F) is often
ogy optimization by means of material distribution and an appropriate geometry for trusses with slender members
ground structures, respectively. These results were then where the permitted compressive stresses are very sensi-
interpreted into general truss configurations, which give the tive to unbraced length. In such situations, truss F may have
general connectivity of nodes. To find a more precise loca- less tonnage than the trusses with compression diagonals.
tion of nodes, various optimization techniques can be used. Truss F also benefits from fewer connections than trusses A
One method is to manipulate the force diagram of a graphic and B and may be easier to erect than trusses with compres-
statics analysis until a minimum total load path is achieved. sion diagonal at the support. When considering a geometry
The reason the force diagram is manipulated rather than the similar to truss F, the designer should understand that the
form diagram is because we can always be assured that the truss has a fundamentally longer total load path; some of the
solution is in equilibrium because the force polygons will savings in web members will be offset with additional forces
always close. It can also be noted that because the solution in chords and web members, as well as increased deflec-
is automatically constrained to be in equilibrium, there are tions. These “hidden” penalties are often overlooked when
fewer independent variables than if we tried to manipulate the designer only studies the web members when determin-
the form diagram. The result of this exercise is shown as ing the geometry of a truss.
truss A in Table 2. These solutions provide benchmarks
against which the other truss geometries in Table 2 can be
CONCLUSIONS
compared. It is worth noting that the geometry has a substan-
tial influence on the potential efficiency of a truss, particu- Several years ago, the first author (Baker) heard a reference
larly when the design is deflection controlled. The geometry to Michell trusses while attending an overseas conference.
of the discrete optimal truss (truss A) is not common but is An attempt to learn more about the subject prompted the
extremely regular, with the tension members intersecting the purchase of an out-of-print book that included Michell’s
compression members at consistent angles. 1904 paper. The work was both illuminating and thought-
The structural volume comparisons in Table 2 are appro- provoking. Exploration of Michell’s work led the authors
priate for situations in which the permissible tensile and to Maxwell. Unfortunately, while Maxwell produced an
compressive stresses are similar in magnitude. The Warren immense body of work, much of it is unrelated to struc-
truss, the combined Warren/Pratt truss and the compres- tural engineering. Seeking a guide to Maxwell, the authors
sion diagonal Pratt truss (trusses C, D and E, respectively) turned to the History of Strength of Materials by Timosh-
have relatively short load paths and are appropriate for enko (1953). This inquiry into Maxwell ultimately led the
heavy trusses with stocky web members. They also have the authors to Rankine, Cremona and a reexamination of Airy.
advantage of having compression connections for the web Amazingly, several of their important ideas are no longer
members with the largest forces. Compression connections common currency (or may have never been widely known).
are often more efficient than tension connections for large The search for lost ideas continues.
forces. Maxwell’s load path theorem is simple and powerful.
The ranking of the truss geometries would change if Inefficiencies must be paid for twice—once in tension and
the permitted compressive stresses were sensitive to the once in compression. Minimize one and the other is also
unbraced lengths. Trusses A and B would still have rela- minimized. Michell trusses provide benchmarks for least
tively low volumes because of the reduced unbraced lengths load path solutions. Discrete Michell trusses are amazingly
of the web members. To take full advantage of these geom- regular and ordered; their shapes both surprising and infor-
etries, designers need to consider the stabilizing effects of mative. While Graphic Statics has been replaced by the com-
the tension diagonals and the benefits of connection con- puter as an analysis tool, it remains a powerful design tool.
tinuity when determining the capacity of the compression Modern topology optimization tools make finding efficient
diagonals in trusses A and B. These effects greatly increase layouts for complex problems accessible to the designer. The
the in-plane and out-of-plane buckling strength of the com- authors have found that these ideas and tools greatly aid in
pression diagonals; the AISC direct analysis method is a the conceptual design of trusses and other structures.
good approach for capturing this benefit. Using this method, The working title for this paper was “things I wish I had

ENGINEERING JOURNAL / THIRD QUARTER / 2015 / 215

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 Table 2. Relative Efficiency of Various Trusses Compared to Minimum Load Path Structures
Volume Ratio Deflection Volume Ratio
for Constant for Constant for Equal
Discretized Solution Stress Stress Deflection

100% 100% 100%

Ground structures solution

102.6% 102.6% 105.3%

Truss A: Discretized optimal truss

111.6% 111.6% 124.7%

Truss B: Lattice truss

111.6% 111.6% 124.7%

Truss C: Warren truss

113.7% 113.7% 129.2%

Truss D: Combined Warren/Pratt truss

119.7% 119.7% 143.3%

Truss E: Compression diagonal Pratt truss

129.8% 129.8% 168.4%

Truss F: Tension diagonal Pratt truss

216 / ENGINEERING JOURNAL / THIRD QUARTER / 2015

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 known when I started designing structures.” None of the Cox, H.L. (1965), The Design of Structures of Least Weight,
preceding theorems, tools or techniques was included in the Pergamon Press, Oxford, United Kingdom.
authors’ engineering education, but all are useful in develop- Forfar, D.O. (2012), “Maxwell, Einstein, Newton and Fara-
ing an efficient structural design. Quite simply, the potential day,” Newsletter of the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation,
efficiencies or inefficiencies of a design are determined by Vol. 1, p. 2.
the structural geometry. No amount of optimizing the size
Maxwell, J.C. (1864), “On Reciprocal Figures and Diagrams
of individual members will compensate for a bad structural
of Forces,” Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 26, pp. 250–261.
layout. The authors hope that the paper makes this infor-
mation available to today’s structural engineering educators Maxwell, J.C. (1870), “On Reciprocal Figures, Frames, and
and practicing structural engineers so that they can create Diagrams of Forces,” Edinbrook Royal Society Proceed-
efficient designs that conserve our resources and reduce the ings, Vol. 7, pp. 160–208.
carbon footprint of our construction. Mazurek A. (2012). “Geometrical Aspects of Optimum
Truss-Like Structures for Three-Force Problem,” Struc-
tural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, Vol. 45, No. 1,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
pp. 21–32.
The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of the Mazurek, A., Baker, W.F. and Tort, C. (2011), “Geometri-
following individuals to the work discussed in this paper: cal Aspects of Optimum Truss-Like Structures,” Struc-
Glaucio H. Paulino, Cenk Tort, Neil Katz and Joshua tural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, Vol. 43, No. 2,
Schultz. Particular appreciation is extended to Beth Murin pp. 231–242.
for editing the text.
Michell, A.G.M. (1904), “The Limits of Economy of Mate-
rial in Frame-Structures,” Philosophical Magazine,
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Bendsoe, M.P. and Sigmund, O. (2002), Topology Optimiza- Talischi, C., Paulino, G.H., Pereira, A., and Menezes, I.M.F.
tion: Theory, Methods and Applications, Springer, Berlin. (2012a), “PolyMesher: A General-Purpose Mesh Gen-
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Council Report, No. 3303, pp. 1–40. Timoshenko, S.P. (1953), History of Strength of Materials.
Christensen, P.W. and Klarbring, A. (2009), An Introduction McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
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* Many of the older references are within the public domain and can be
downloaded from Google Books.

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