Course Module

Inclusiveness

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

December, 2020

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 Inclusiveness
A Course for Higher Education of all Disciplines

Developed By:

1. Dr. Alemayehu Teklemariam (Asso. Professor) Addis Ababa University: Chapter Five

and Eight

2. Dr. Bitew Atnaf Bahirdar (Asst. Professor) University : Chapter Two and six

3. Jafar Lola (Asst. Professor) Jimma University: Chapter One

4. Dr. Mesfin Dejene (Asst. Professor) Kotebe Metropolitan University : Chapter Four

5. Teketel Agafari (Asst. Professor) Haromaya University : Chapter Three

6. Yitayal Alemu (Asst. Professor) University : Chapter Seven

Editor: Alemayehu Teklemariam (PhD) Associate Professor, AAU

January 2020

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I. Course information
1.1. Course Title: Inclusiveness 1.2. Credit hours: 2 (4 ECTS) 1.3. Target group:
Compulsory for all undergraduate students 1.4. Course code: SNIE 1012 1.5. Contact
hours: 48 Hours 1.6. Course offering: A course should be offered only by certified
Special
Needs/Inclusive Education Professionals
1.7. Mode of delivery: Semester based/Parallel
Students Lectures Tutorial Library/ Assignment Home Total work Load
work Group report study
Load works
48hrs - 20hrs 17hrs 50hrs 135hrs
II. Course Description
Development efforts of any organization need to include and benefit people with various types
of disabilities, people at risks of exclusion/discrimination and marginalization, through
providing quality education and training, creating equity, accessibility, employability,
promoting prosperity, reducing poverty and enhancing peace, stability and creating inclusive
society. Unfortunately, this has not been the practice for the majority of people with
disabilities and vulnerable groups, due to unfavorable attitude, negligence, inaccessibility and
exclusion from all development endeavors. It is obvious that people with disabilities are the
large stand most disadvantaged minority in the world. They are about 15 percent of the global
population (about one billion people), and 17.6 million in Ethiopia, with most extended
families including someone with a disability (World Health Organization and World Bank
and 2011). An exclusion practice of this large number of persons with disabilities in Ethiopia
is an indicator of violating fundamental human rights that undermines their potential/ability
to contribute to poverty reduction and economic growth within their household, their
community and the country. It is clear that it is not impairment, but, the exclusion practices
that has contributed for insecurity (conflict), poverty aggravation for persons with disabilities
and vulnerabilities, that has highly demanding inclusive practices. Exclusion practices of
persons with disabilities have a long history, affecting the life of people with disabilities and
the society at large. In the past and even today people have been discriminated due to their
disabilities.

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 Inclusiveness promotes effective developments through full participation of all
members of a population, people with disabilities and vulnerabilities, where all are equal
contributors of development and equitable beneficiaries. Through inclusive practices, it is
possible to identify and remove social and physical barriers so that people with disabilities
and vulnerabilities can participate and benefit from all developments. Genuine inclusion of
people with disabilities and vulnerabilities allow of them to actively participate in
development processes and eliminate dependence syndrome, leads to broader benefits for
families and communities, reduces the impacts of poverty, and positively contributes to a
country‘s economic growth, development and ultimately create inclusive society. All stages
of development processes of any organization should be inclusive through creating equal
access to education, health care services, work and employment, social protection and all
development center of human being.
Hence, in this course, the higher education students will learn how to assess,
understand and address the needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities; and provide
relevant support or seek extra support from experts. He/she also learns how to adapt and
implementing services for an inclusive environment that aimed to develop holistic
development such as affective, cognitive and psychosocial skills of the population with
disabilities and vulnerabilities. Identification and removal/management of environmental
barriers would find a crucial place in the course. The students learn how to give more attention
and support for persons with; hearing impairments, visual impairment, deaf-Blind, autism,
physical and health impairments, intellectually challenged, emotional and behavior disorders,
learning difficulty, communication disorders, vulnerable persons including gifted and
talented, and those at risk due to different reason (persons who are environmentally and
culturally deprived, abused, torched, abandoned, and orphaned..etc.). All University students
should be given the chance to study the specific developmental characteristics of each group
of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities. Furth more, they also indentify the major
environmental and social barriers that hinder the development of individuals; and come up
with appropriate intervention strategies in inclusive settings of their respective professional
environment and any development settings where all citizens are equally benefited.

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III. Course objective and Expected Learning outcomes
The objective of this course is to develop knowledge, skill and attitude of the learners so that
they can provide appropriate services, the tools and strategies that help to create a convenient
inclusive environment. This course encourages learners exploring the benefits of
collaborating with colleagues to design and implement inclusion an all sphere of life. It also
guides the discovery of ways to modify environment as well as services and practices to meet
the needs of all persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities in inclusive environment. As a
result of reviewing various reading materials, completing the assignments, engaging in related
discussions, and strongly workings on activities, towards the completion of the course, the
students will be able to:

• Identify the needs and potentials of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.
• Identify environmental and social barriers that hinder the needs, potentials and full
participations, in all aspects of life of persons disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Demonstrate desirable inclusive attitude towards all persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities in full participations
• Apply various assessment strategies for service provisions for evidence-based planning
and implementation to meet the needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Adapt environments and services according to the need and potential of the persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Utilize appropriate assistive technology and other support mechanisms that address the
needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Respect and advocate for the right of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Collaboratively work with special needs experts and significant others for the life success
of all persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities in every endeavors and in all
environments.
• Create and maintain successful inclusive environment for persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities

• Promote the process of building inclusive society

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 Chapter 1: Understanding Disabilities and Vulnerabilities

Time allotted: 10 contact hours

Chapter objectives
At the end of completing this chapter, the students will be able to:
• Define disability and vulnerability
• List different types of disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Explain brief causes of disability and vulnerability
• Describe the brief historical movements from segregation to inclusion
• Describe the effect of attitude on the move towards inclusion
• Discuss models of disability
Chapter Contents
1.1 Definitions of disability and vulnerability
1.2 Types of disabilities and vulnerabilities
1.3 Causes of disability and vulnerability
1.4 Historical movements from segregation to inclusion
1.5 The effects of attitude on the move towards inclusion
1.6 Models of disability
Overview of the Chapter
This chapter discusses issues that help to understand about disabilities and vulnerabilities. It
starts by defining terms and concepts as these are basics to understand the other chapters also.
It then proceeds to present types/classifications or characteristics and causes of the disabilities
and vulnerabilities to help the learners understand the disabilities as well as vulnerabilities
and what causes them. The chapter then moves to trace historical movement from segregation
to inclusion including the attitude issues. The major models of understanding disability were
also discussed in this chapter.
Learning outcomes
At the end of completing this chapter, the students will be able to:
• Define disability and vulnerability
• List different types of disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Explain brief causes of disability and vulnerability
• Describe the brief historical movements from segregation to inclusion

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 • Describe the effect of attitude on the move towards inclusion
• Discuss models of disability
1.1 Definitions of Basic Terms (Impairment, Disability and Handicap)

Impairment
Impairment means a lack/abnormality of an anatomic, physiological or psychological
structure or function or deviation on a person.
It refers to any loss or abnormality of physiological, psychological or anatomical
structure or function. It is the absence of particular body part or organ. It could also a
condition in which the body exists but doesn‘t function. Some children, for instance, have
impairments such as eyes that do not see well, arms and legs that are deformed, or
a brain not developing in a typical way etc.
Disability
The term disability is ambiguous as there is no single agreement on the concept (Mitra, 2006)
It is not synonymous with AKAL-GUDATENGA
(የአካል ጉዳተኛ) meaning impairment
The concept of disability is complex, dynamic, multidimensional, and contested (WHO and
World Bank, 2011).
The full inclusion of people with impairments in society can be inhibited by:
1. Attitudinal (societal barriers, such as stigma)
2. Physical barriers (environmental barriers, such as absence of stairs), and
3. Policy barriers (systemic barriers),
Where all together can create a disabling effect and inhibit disability inclusive development.
They are disabling factors
If these problems addressed, impairment may not lead to disability
Where all together can create a disabling effect and inhibit disability inclusive development.
Societal, environmental, and systemic barriers are the most popular disabling factors:
 A disabled persons
Persons with disability

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What is disability?
1. Medical Approach
Disability is pathology (physiological, biological and intellectual). Disability means
functional limitations due to physical, intellectual or psychic impairment, health or psychic
disorders on a person (WHO,1996). The medical definition has given rise to the idea that
people are individual objects to be ―treated‖, ―changed" or ―improved" and made more

―normal‖. The medical definition views the disabled person as needing to ―fit in ‖rather
than thinking about how society itself should change. This medical definition does not
adequately explain the interaction between societal conditions or expectations and unique
circumstances of an individual
The social definition of disability:
• Disability is a highly varied and complex condition with a range of implications for
social identity and behavior.
• Disability largely depends on the context and is a consequence of discrimination,
prejudice and exclusion.
• Emphasizes the shortcomings in the environment and in many organized activities in
society, for example on information, communication and education, which prevent
persons with disabilities from participating on equal terms.
Medical model: Social model:

Child is faulty Child is valued

Diagnosis and labeling Strengths and needs identified

Impairment is focus of attention Barriers identified and solutions developed

Medical model: Social model:

Segregation and alternative services Resources made available

Re-entry if normal enough or permanent Diversity welcomed; child is welcomed

exclusion

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 Society remains unchanged Society evolves

Causes of disability
What do you think is the causes of disability?
Some people, especially in the past times, wrongly believe that disability is a punishment
from God.
There are some who still believe that disability is a form of personal punishment for
individual with disability, a kind of karma for their past mistakes, which is totally
unacceptable now days.
Disability can be caused by the following factors.
Genetic Causes
Abnormalities in genes and genetic inheritance can cause intellectual disability in children.
In some countries, Down syndrome is the most common genetic condition. Sometimes,
diseases, illnesses, and over-exposure to x-rays can cause a genetic disorder. .

Environmental
Poverty and malnutrition in pregnant mothers can cause a deficiency in vital minerals and
result in deformation issues in the unborn child. After birth, poverty and malnutrition can also
cause poor development of vital organs in the child, which can eventually lead to disability.
The use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, the exposure to certain toxic chemicals and illnesses,
toxoplasmosis, cytomegalovirus, rubella and syphilis by a pregnant mother can cause
intellectual disability to the child. Childhood diseases such as a whooping cough, measles,
and chicken pox may lead to meningitis and encephalitis. This can cause damage to the brain
of the child. Toxic material such as lead and mercury can damage the brain too. Unfortunate
life events such as drowning, automobile accidents, falls and so on can result in people losing
their sight, hearing, limbs and other vital parts of their body and cause disability.
Unknown Causes
The human body is a phenomenal thing. Scientists have still not figured out what and how
some things in the body, cells, brain, and genes come about. Humans have still not found all
the answers to all the defects in the human body .

Inaccessible environments
Sometimes society makes it difficult for people with some impairment to function freely.
When society develops infrastructure such as houses, roads, parks and other public places
without consideration to people with impairment, the basically make it impossible for them
to take care of themselves. For example, if a school is built with a ramp in addition to stairs,
it makes it easy for people with wheelchairs to move about freely. This way, their impairment

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is not made worse. Lack of education, support services, health and opportunities for people
with impairment can cause additional disability to people with disabilities and even people
with no disability.
Some type of disabilities: Some nine major disabilities are listed and briefly discussed in
the coming pages below.
1.Visual impairment
Visual impairment in general designates two sub- classifications. These are blindness and
low vision.
• Blindness, total or partial inability to see because of disease or disorder of the eye,
optic nerve, or brain. The term blindness typically refers to vision loss that is not
correctable with eyeglasses or contact lenses. Blindness may not mean a total absence
of sight, however. Some people who are considered blind may be able to perceive
slowly moving lights or colors.
• The term low vision is used for moderately impaired vision. People with low vision
may have a visual impairment that affects only central vision—the area directly in
front of the eyes—or peripheral vision—the area to either side of and slightly behind
the eyes.
Activities
1. How can we educate people with visual impairment?
2. What will be the consequences if we do not educate them?
3. What will be the consequences if ewe excludes them from all walks of life?
4. What support they demand for education, work and living daily life?
5. What is your role as an individual and group to create inclusiveness?

2. Hearing Impairment
Different people define the term hearing impairment differently. The definitions given to
hearing impairment convey different meaning to different people. Different definitions and
terminologies may be used in different countries for different purpose. Pasonella and Carat
from legal point of view, define hearing impairment as a generic term indicating a continuum
of hearing loss from mild to profound, which includes the sub-classifications of the hard of
hearing and deaf.
• Hard of Hearing: "A hearing impairment, whether permanent of fluctuating, which
adversely affects a child's educational performance but which is not included under the

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 definition of 'deaf'." Whelan, R. J. (1988). This term can also be used to describe persons
with enough (usually with hearing aids) as a primary modality of acquisition of language
and in communication with others.
• Deaf: Those who have difficulty understanding speech, even with hearing aids but can
successfully communicate in sign language. Cultural definitions of deafness, on the other
hand, emphasize an individual‘s various abilities, use of sign language, and connections
with the culturally deaf community.

Activities
1. How can we educate people with hearing impairment?
1. What will be the consequences if we do not educate them?
2. What will be the consequences if ewe excludes them from all walks of life?
3. What support they demand for education, work and living daily life?
4. What is your role as an individual and group to create inclusiveness?

3. Specific learning disability

Specific Learning Disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may
manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do
mathematical calculations.

The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include learning
problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of intellectual
disability; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.
Learning disabilities should not be confused with learning problems which are primarily the
result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps; of intellectual disability; of emotional
disturbance; or of environmental, cultural or economic disadvantages.

Generally speaking, people with learning disabilities are of average or above average
intelligence. There often appears to be a gap between the individual‘s potential and actual
achievement. This is why learning disabilities are referred to as ―hidden disabilities‖: the
person looks perfectly ―normal‖ and seems to be a very bright and intelligent person, yet
may be unable to demonstrate the skill level expected from someone of a similar age. A

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learning disability cannot be cured or fixed; it is a lifelong challenge. However, with
appropriate support and intervention, people with learning disabilities can achieve success in
school, at work, in relationships, and in the community.

Types of Specific Learning Disabilities Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)

Also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, this is a condition that adversely affects
how sound that travels unimpeded through the ear is processed or interpreted by the brain.
Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle differences between sounds in words, even
when the sounds are loud and clear enough to be heard. They can also find it difficult to tell
where sounds are coming from, to make sense of the order of sounds, or to block out
competing background noises.

A. Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person‘s ability to understand
numbers and learn math. Individuals with this type of LD may also have poor
comprehension of math symbols, may struggle with memorizing and organizing numbers,
have difficulty telling time, or have trouble with counting.
B. Dysgraphia
Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person‘s handwriting ability and
fine motor skills. Problems may include illegible handwriting, inconsistent spacing, poor
spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and difficulty composing writing as well as
thinking and writing at the same time.
C. Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that affects reading and related language-based
processing skills. The severity can differ in each individual but can affect reading fluency;
decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and sometimes speech and can
exist along with other related disorders. Dyslexia is sometimes referred to as a Language
Based Learning Disability.
D. Language Processing Disorder
Language Processing Disorder is a specific type of Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) in
which there is difficulty attaching meaning to sound groups that form words, sentences and
stories. While an APD affects the interpretation of all sounds coming into the brain, a

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Language Processing Disorder (LPD) relates only to the processing of language. LPD can
affect expressive language and/or receptive language.
E. Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities
Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities is a disorder which is usually characterized by a significant
discrepancy between higher verbal skills and weaker motor, visual-spatial and social skills.
Typically, an individual with NLD (or NVLD) has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like
facial expressions or body language, and may have poor coordination.
F. Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit
Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit is a disorder that affects the understanding of
information that a person sees, or the ability to draw or copy. A characteristic seen in people
with learning disabilities such as Dysgraphia or Non-verbal LD, it can result in missing subtle
differences in shapes or printed letters, losing place frequently, struggles with cutting, holding
pencil too tightly, or poor eye/hand coordination.
4.Speech and Language Impairments

Speech and language impairment means a communication disorder such as stuttering,

impaired articulation, language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a
child‘s educational performance. It is disorder that adversely affects the child's ability to talk,
understand, read, and write. This disability category can be divided into two groups: speech
impairments and language impairments.

Speech Impairments

There are three basic types of speech impairments: articulation disorders, fluency disorders,
and voice disorders. Articulation disorders are errors in the production of speech sounds that
may be related to anatomical or physiological limitations in the skeletal, muscular, or
neuromuscular support for speech production. These disorders include:

• Omissions: (bo for boat)

• Substitutions: (wabbit for rabbit)
• Distortions: (shlip for sip)

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Fluency disorders are difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech characterized by
hesitations, repetitions, or prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases. Common
fluency disorders include:

• Stuttering: rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds especially at the

beginning of words, prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and complete verbal
blocks
• Cluttering: excessively fast and jerky speech

Voice disorders are problems with the quality or use of one's voice resulting from disorders
in the larynx. Voice disorders are characterized by abnormal production and/or absences of
vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or duration.

Language Impairments

There are five basic areas of language impairments: phonological disorders, morphological
disorders, semantic disorders, syntactical deficits, and pragmatic difficulties. Phonological
disorders are defined as the abnormal organization of the phonological system, or a
significant deficit in speech production or perception. A child with a phonological disorder
may be described as hard to understand or as not saying the sounds correctly. Apraxia of
speech is a specific phonological disorder where the student may want to speak but has
difficulty planning what to say and the motor movements to use.

Morphological disorders are defined as difficulties with morphological inflections

(inflections on nouns, verbs, and adjectives that signal different kinds of meanings).

Semantic disorders are characterized by poor vocabulary development, inappropriate use of

word meanings, and/or inability to comprehend word meanings. These students will
demonstrate restrictions in word meanings, difficulty with multiple word meanings, excessive
use of nonspecific terms (e.g., thing and stuff), and indefinite references (e.g., that and there).

Syntactic deficits are characterized by difficulty in acquiring the rules that govern word order
and others aspects of grammar such as subject-verb agreement. Typically, these students

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produce shorter and less elaborate sentences with fewer cohesive conjunctions than their
peers.

Pragmatic difficulties are characterized as problems in understanding and using language in

different social contexts. These students may lack an understanding of the rules for making
eye contact, respecting personal space, requesting information, and introducing topics.

Inclusive life for persons with speech and language difficulties

1. How can schools create inclusive education for students with speech and language
difficulties? Discuss
2. How persons with speech and language difficulties should be employed and live
independent life?
3. How can persons with speech and language difficulties lead independent life in the
community?
4. What kind of technology they require for speech and language communication and
daily life activities?

5.Autism

Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal

communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three that adversely
affects a child‘s educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism
are engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental
change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. The term
autism does not apply if the child‘s educational performance is adversely affected primarily
because the child has an emotional disturbance, as defined in #5 below. A child who shows
the characteristics of autism after age 3 could be diagnosed as having autism if the criteria
above are satisfied.

Autism is a neurodevelopment disorder defined by impairments in social and

communication development, accompanied by stereotyped patterns of behavior and interest
(Landa, 2007). Autism is pervasive developmental disorder characterized by lack of normal
sociability, impaired communication and repetitive obsessive behavior such as politeness,
turn-taking (Young & Nettlebeck , 2005). Linked to Profound Learning Disability (PLDs) are

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further impairments in the production of speech. Among these are (i) personal pronouns
reversal for instance the use of ―I‖ instead of ―you‖ and vice-versa, (ii) the misuse of such
prepositions as ―in‖, ―on‖, ―under‖, ―next to‖ (...), and (iii) the prevalence, in speech, of
echolalia formal repetition of other‘s utterances (Arron and Gittens, 1999).
Children with autism vary literally in their use of words, (Rutter, 1966). Communication
deficiencies may leave a lasting mark of social retardation on the child. The link, between
social skills and language is made evident by the often spontaneous appearance of affectionate
and dependent behavior in these children after they have been trained to speak (Churchill,
1966 & Hewett, 1965).

6. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

According to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the term Emotional and
Behavioral Disorders means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following
characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects
educational performance
1) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors;

2) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and

teachers;
3) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;

4) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or

5) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school

problems.
Classification of behavioral and emotional disorders
An individual having behavioral or emotional disorders can exhibit widely varied types
of behavior. Therefore, different classification systems of behavioral and emotional
disorders can be used for special education. Different professionals have developed a
classification system, which shows some promise for educational practice. These include:
• Conduct disorder: individuals may seek attention, are disruptive and act out. The
disorder is classified by type: overt (with violence or tantrums) versus covert (with
lying, stealing, and/or drug use).

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• Socialized aggression: individuals join subculture group of peers who are openly
disrespectful to their peers, teachers, and parents. Common are delinquency and
dropping out of school.
Early symptoms include stealing, running away from home, habitual lying, cruelty to
animals, and fire setting.
• Attention problems- These individuals may have attention deficit, are easily destructible
and have poor concentration. They are frequently impulsive and may not think the
consequence of their actions.
• Anxiety/Withdrawn- These individuals are self-conscious, reserved, and unsure of
themselves. They typically have low self-esteem and withdraw from immediate
activities. They are also anxious and frequently depressed.
Psychotic behavior: These individuals show more bizarre behavior. They may hallucinate,
deal in a fantasy world and may even talk in gibberish.

Motor excess: These students are hyperactive. They cannot sit nor listen to others nor keep
their attention focused.

Kauffman (1993) conclude that emotion or behavioral disorders fall into two broad
classifications:
1) Externalizing Behavior: also called under controlled disorder, include such problems
disobedience, disruptiveness, fighting, tempers tantrums, irresponsibility, jealous, anger,
attention seeking etc…
2) Internalizing Behavior: also known as over controlled disorders, include such problems
anxiety, immaturity, shyness, social withdrawal, feeling of inadequacy (inferiority),
guilt, depression and worries a great deal
Causes of behavioral and emotional disorders
Behavioral and emotion disorders result from many causes, these includes the following.
1. Biological- includes genetic disorders, brain damage, and malnutrition, allergies,
temperament and damage to the central nervous system.
2. Family factors- include family interactions, family influence, child abuse, neglect, and
poor disciplinary practices at home.
3. Cultural factors- include some traditional and cultural negative practices, for example
watching violence and sexually oriented movies and TV programs.

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4. Environmental factors- include peer pressure, living in impoverished areas, and schooling
practices that are unresponsive to individual needs.
Inclusive life for persons with behavioral difficulties
1. Do you think it is right to dismiss students with behavioral disorder from schools?
2. How can schools create inclusive education for students with behavioral disorders?
Discuss
3. How persons with behavioral disorder should employed and live independent life?
4. How can persons with behavioral disorder lead independent life in the community?
7.Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability is a disability characterized by significant limitations in both

intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and
practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18. An individual is considered
to have an intellectual disability based on the following three criteria:

1. Sub average intellectual functioning: It refers to general mental capacity, such as

learning, reasoning, problem solving, and so on. One way to measure intellectual
functioning is an IQ test. Generally, an IQ test score of around 70 or as high as 75
indicates a limitation in intellectual functioning.

2. Significant limitations exist in two or more adaptive skill areas: It is the collection of
conceptual, social, and practical skills that are learned and performed by people in their
everyday lives.

• Conceptual skills—language and literacy; money, time, and number concepts; and
self-direction.
• Social skills—interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility,
innocence (i.e., suspicion), social problem solving, and the ability to follow
rules/obey laws and to avoid being victimized.
• Practical skills—activities of daily living (personal care), occupational skills,
healthcare, travel/transportation, schedules/routines, safety, use of money, use of the
telephone.

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People with intellectual disabilities academic learning can be affected, as well as their
ability to adapt to home, school, and community environments are presented under the
following sub-headings:

General Cognition: People with intellectual disabilities vary physically and emotionally, as
well as by personality, disposition, and beliefs. Their apparent slowness in learning may be
related to the delayed rate of intellectual development (Wehman, 1997).

Learning and Memory: The learning and memory capabilities of people with intellectual
disabilities are significantly below average in comparison to peers without disabilities.
Children with intellectual disabilities may not spontaneously use appropriate learning or
memory retention strategies and may have difficulty in realizing the conditions or actions
that aid learning and memory. However, these strategies can be taught (Fletcher, Huffman,
&
Bray, 2003; Hunt & Marshall, 2002; Werts, Wolery, Holocombe, & Gast, 1995; Wolery &
Schuster, 1997).

Attention: To acquire information, children must attend to the learning task for the required
length of time and control distractions. Children with intellectual disabilities may have
difficulty distinguishing and attending to relevant questions in both learning and social
situations (Saunders, 2001). The problem is not that the student will not pay attention, but
rather that the student does not understand or does not filter the information to get to the
salient features (Hunt & Marshall, 2002; Meyen & Skrtic, 1988).
Adaptive Skills: The adaptive skills of people with intellectual disabilities are often not
comparable to those of their peers without disabilities. A child with intellectual disabilities
may have difficulty in both learning and applying skills for a number of reasons, including a
higher level of distractibility, inattentiveness, failure to read social cues, and impulsive
behavior (Hardman et al., 2008). The lack or underdevelopment of these skills notably
affects memory, rehearsal skills, organizational ability, and being in control of the process
of learning (Erez & Peled, 2001; Hunt & Marshall, 2002).
Speech and Language: People with intellectual disabilities may have delayed speech,
language comprehension and formulation difficulties. Language problems are generally

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associated with delays in language development rather than with a bizarre use of language
(Beirne-Smith et al., 2006; Moore-Brown & Montgomery, 2006). People with intellectual
disabilities may show delayed functioning on pragmatic aspects of language, such as turn
taking, selecting acceptable topics for conversation, knowing when to speak knowing when
to be silent, and similar contextual skills (Haring, McCormick, & Haring, 1994; Yoder,
Retish, & Wade, 1996).
Motivation: People with intellectual disabilities are often described as lacking motivation,
or outer-directed behavior. Past experiences of failure and the anxiety generated by those
failures may make them appear to be fewer goals directed and lacking in motivation. The
result of failure is often learned helplessness. The history of failure is likely to lead to
dependence on external sources of reinforcement or reward rather than on internal sources
of reward. They are less likely to self-starters motivated by self-approval (Beirne-Smith et
al., 2002; Taylor et al., 2005).
Academic Achievement: The cognitive difficulties of children with mild to moderate
intellectual disabilities lead to persistent problems in academic achievement (Hughes et al.,
2002; Macmillan, Siperstein, & Gresham, 1996; Quenemoen, Thompson, & Thurlow, 2003;
Turnbull et al., 2004), unless intensive and extensive supports are provided.
Physical characteristics: Children with intellectual disabilities with differing biological
etiologies, may exhibit coexisting problems, such as physical, motor, orthopedic, visual and
auditory impairments, and health problems (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006). A relationship
exists between the severity of the intellectual disabilities and the extent of physical differences
for the individual (Drew & Hardman, 2007; Horvat, 2000). The majority of children with
severe and profound intellectual disabilities have multiple disabilities that affect nearly every
aspect of intellectual and physical development (Westling & Fox, 2004). Levels of support
for individuals with intellectual disabilities

Levels of support range from intermittent (just occasional or ―as needed‖ for specific
activities) to pervasive (continuous in all realms of living).

Levels and areas of support for intellectual disabilities

Level of Duration of Frequency of Setting of support Amount of professional
support support support assistance

20
Intermittent Only as needed Occasional or Usually only one or Occasional consultation or
infrequent two (e.g. 1–2 classes monitoring by professional
or activities)
Limited As needed, but Regular, but Several settings, but Occasional or regular contact
sometimes frequency varies not usually all with professionals
continuing
Extensive Usually Regular, but Several settings, but Regular contact with
continuing frequency varies not usually all professionals at least once a
week
Pervasive May be lifelong Frequent or Nearly all settings Continuous contact and
continuous monitoring by professionals
Source: American Association on Mental Retardation, 2002: Schalock & Luckassen, 2004.

Activities
Inclusive life for persons with intellectual disabilities
1. How can schools create inclusive education for students with intellectual
disabilities? Discuss
2. How persons with intellectual disabilities should employed and live independent
life?
3. What kind of employment opportunities you can create for persons with
intellectual disabilities
4. How can persons with intellectual disabilities lead independent life in the
community?
8. Physical disability/Orthopedic Impairment and Health impairment
Physical disability is a condition that interferes with the individual‘s ability to use his or her
body. Many but not all, physical disabilities are orthopedic impairments. (The term
orthopedic impairment generally refers to conditions of muscular or skeletal system and
sometimes to physical disabling conditions of the nervous system).
Health impairment is a condition that requires ongoing medical attention. It includes asthma,
heart defects, cancer, diabetes, hemophilia. HIV/AIDS, etc.
Classification and Characteristics
How can you classify physical impairment?
Physical disabilities:- based on the impact of physical disability on mobility and motor skills,
it is divided into three. These are:-
A. Mild physical disability:- these individuals are able to walk without aids and may make
normal developmental progress.
B. Moderate physical disability:- individuals can walk with braces and crutches and may
have difficulty with fine-motor skills and speech production.

21
 C. Severe physical disability:-these are individuals who are wheel-chair dependent and
may need special help to achieve regular development.
The physical disability could be broadly classified in to two
I. The neurological system (the brain ,spinal cord & nerve) related problems.
II. Musculo skeletal system ( the muscles, bones and joints) are deficient due to
various causes.
I. Neurological system:-with a neurological condition like cerebral palsy or a traumatic
brain injury, the brain either sends the wrong instructions or interprets feedback
incorrectly. In both cases, the result is poorly coordinated movement. With the spinal
cord injury or deformity, the path ways between the brain and the muscles are
interrupted, so messages are transmitted but never received. The result is muscle
paralysis and loss of sensation beyond the point where the spinal cord or the nerve is
damaged. These individuals may have motor skill deficits that can range from mild in
coordination to paralysis of the entire body. The most severely affected children are
totally dependent on other people or sophisticated equipment to carry out academic
and self-care task
Additional problems that can be associated with cerebral palsy include learning disabilities,
mental retardation. Seizures, speech impairments, eating problems, sensory impairments, and
joint and bone deformities such as spinal curvatures and contractures (permanently fixed,
tight muscles and joints). Approximately 40 percent of those with cerebral palsy have normal
intelligence; the remainders have from mild to severe retardation. This is an extremely
heterogeneous group having unique abilities and needs.
Epilepsy:-is disorder that occurs when the brain cells are not working properly and is often
called a seizure disorder.
- Some children and youth will epilepsy have only a momentary loss of attention
(petit mal seizures); others fall to the floor and then move uncontrollably
- Fortunately, once epilepsy is diagnosed, it can usually be controlled with
medication and does not interfere with performance in school. Most individuals
with epilepsy have normal intelligence.

22
 - Epilepsy is a condition that affects 1 to 2 percent of the population. It is
characterized by recurring seizures, which are spontaneous abnormal discharge of
electrical impulses of the brain.
Spinal bifida and spinal cord injury:- damage to the spinal cord leads to paralysis and loss
of sensation in the affected areas of the body. The spinal blfida is a birth defect of the
backbone (spinal column). The cause si unknown but it usually occurs in the first twenty-six
days of pregnancy.

II. Musculoskeletal system: - it includes the muscles and their supporting framework
and the skeleton.
2. Progressive muscle weakness (muscular dystrophy);
3. Inflammation of the joints (arthritis), or
4. Loss of various parts of the body (amputation)
The list of the impairment and associated with musculoskeletal malformation are the
following:
A. Muscular dystrophy:- is an inherited condition accruing mainly in males, in which
the muscles weaken and deteriorate. The weakness usually appears around 3 to 4 years
of age and worsens progressively. By age 11 most victims can to longer walk. Death
usually comes between the ages of 25 and 35 from respiratory failure or cardiac arrest.
B. Arthritis:-is an inflammation of the joints. Symptoms include swollen and stiff joints,
fever, and pain in the joints during acute periods. Prolonged inflammation can lead
joint deformities that can eventually affect mobility.
C. Amputation:- a small number of children have missing limbs because of congenital
abnormalities or injuiry or disease (malignant bone tumors in the limbs). These
children can use customized prosthetic devices (artificial hands, arms, or legs) to
replace limp functions and increase independence in daily activities.
Other muscle-skeletal disorders are:-
D. Marfan syndrome is a genetic disorder in which the muscles are poorly developed and
the spine is curved. Individuals with marfan syndrome may have either long, thin
limbs, prominent shoulder blades, spinal curvature, flat feet, or long fingers & thumbs.
The heart and blood vessels are usually affected. The greatest danger is damage to

23
 aorta, which can lead to heart failure. Individuals with marfan syndrome need to avoid
heavy exercise and lifting heavy objects.
E. Achondroplasis:- is a genetic disorder that affects 1 in 10,000 births. Children with
this disorder usually develop a normal torso but have a straight upper back and a
curved lower back (sway back).
These children are at risk of sudden death during sleep from compression of the spinal
cord interfering with their breathing. The disability may be lessened through the use
of the back braces or by surgery.
Polio:- is viral disease that invade the brain and cause severe paralysis of the total body
system. In its mild form results in partial paralysis. Post polio muscles that were previously
damaged weaken, and in some persons, other muscles that were not previously affected
weaken as well.
Club foot:- is a major orthopedic problem affecting about 9,000 infants each year. This term
is used to describe various ankle or foot deformities, i.e
Twisting inward (equino varus), the most severe form
Sharply angled at the heel (calcanel vaigus), most common
The front part of the foot turned inward.
These conditions can be treated with physical therapy, and a cast on the foot can solve the
problem in most instances. In more severe cases, surgery is necessary. With early treatment,
most children can wear regular shoes and take part in all school activities.
Cleft lip and cleft palate:- are openings in the lip or roof of the mouth, respectively, that fail
to close before birth, the cause is unknown. Most cleft problems can be repaired through
surgery.
Health Impairments
What are the common health problems of students?
Any disease that interferes with learning can make students eligible for special services. These
disease caused problems are as follow.
1. Heart disease:- this is common among young people. It is caused by improper
circulation of blood by the heart some of the disorders are congenital )present at
birth);others are the product of inflammatory heart disease. Some students have

24
 heart value disorders; others have disorders of the blood vessels. His time heart
implantation helps children to get cured.
2. Cystic fibrosis:- is a hereditary disease that affects the lungs and pancreas. It leads
to recurrent respiratory and digestive problems including abnormal amounts of thick
mucus, sweet and saliva. The disease is so progressive and few who have it survive
beyond age 20. Children with such disease often spend significant timeout of school.
3. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS):- is a very severe disease caused
by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and transmitted primarily
through exchange of bodily fluids in transfusions or unprotected sex, and by
contaminated needles in addictive drug use.
4. Hemophilia:- is a hereditary disease in which the blood clots very slowly or not all.
The disorder is transmitted by sex-linked recessive gene and nearly always occurs
in males.
5. Asthma: is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by repeared eplosde of
breathing difficulties especially while exhaling.
6. Diabetes: Developmental or hereditary disorder characterized by inadequate
secretion or use of insulin
7. Nephrosis & Nephritis Kidney disorders or diseases caused by infections,
poisoning, burns, accidents or other diseases
8. Sickle-cell anemia Hereditary and chronic blood disease (occurring primarly in
African Americans) characterized by red blood cells that are distored and that do
not circulate properly
9. Leukemia: Disease characterized by excessive production of white blood Cells
10. Lead poisoning Disorder caused by ingesting lead-based paint chips or other
substances containing lead
11. Rheumatic fever Disease characterized by painful swelling and inflammation of the
joints that can spread to the hear and central nervous system.
12. Tuberculosis Infectious disease that commonly affects the lungs and may affect
other tissues of the body.
13. Cancer Abnormal growth of cells that can affect any organ system Activities
Inclusive life for persons with mobility difficulties and health impairments

25
 1. How can schools create inclusive education for students with physical disabilities?
Discuss
2. How persons with physical disabilities should employed and live independent life?
3. How can persons with physical disabilities lead independent life in the community?
4. What kind of technology they require for mobility and daily life activities?
9. Vulnerability
Vulnerable means being at risk of being harmed. Everyone can be harmed, so being
vulnerable is part of being human. In principle, everyone is vulnerable to some adverse event
or circumstance, but some people are more vulnerable than others. For instance, people with
disabilities are more likely as a group to experience greater vulnerability. They are also often
more severely affected by the vulnerability they experience. Based on the existing literature,
vulnerability can be generally defined as a complex phenomenon that refers to the following
dimensions:
1. Economic difficulties/lack of financial resources: poverty, low living standards,
housing problems (e.g. too damp, too expensive, too cold or difficult to heat) etc.;
2. Social exclusion: limited access to facilities such as transporatation, schools, libraries
or medical services;
3. Lack of social support from social networks: no assistance from family members,
friends, neighbors or colleagues (referring to practical help as well as emotional
support) like highly gifted individuals;
4. Stigmatization: being a victim of stereotypes, being devalued, confronted with
disgraceful behavior because of belonging to a particular social or ethnic group;
5. Health difficulties: disadvantages resulting from poor mental health, physical health
or disabilities;
6. Being a victim of crime: in family context especially of violence.

Causes of Vulnerability
Vulnerability may be causes by rapid population growth, poverty and hunger, poor health,
low levels of education, gender inequality, fragile and hazardous location, and lack of access
to resources and services, including knowledge and technological means, disintegration of
social patterns (social vulnerability). Other causes includes; lack of access to information and
knowledge, lack of public awareness, limited access to political power and representation
(political vulnerability), (Aysan,1993). When people are socially disadvantaged or lack

26
political voice, their vulnerability is exacerbated further. The economic vulnerability is
related to a number of interacting elements, including its importance in the overall national
economy, trade and foreign-exchange earnings, aid and investments, international prices of
commodities and inputs, and production and consumption patterns. Environmental
vulnerability concerns land degradation, earthquake, flood, hurricane, drought, storms
(Monsoon rain, El Niño), water scarcity, deforestation, and the other threats to biodiversity.

Characteristics of Vulnerable People

The following are thought to be characteristics of vulnerable people (with examples of groups
of potentially vulnerable people):
1. Less physically or mentally capable (infants, older adults, people with disabilities)
2. Fewer material and/or financial resources (low-income households, homeless)
3. Less knowledge or experience (children, illiterate, foreigners, tourists)
4. Restricted by society to grow and develop according to their needs and potentials
People who are helped by others (who are then restricted by commitments) are still vulnerable
people, which includes the following extracted from various researches.
A. Women: particularly women in developing nations and those who are living in rural
areas are vulnerable for many backward traditional practices. These women are
oppressed by the culture and do not get access to education and employment (Comfort
et al., 1999; Morrow, 1999; McEntire et al. (2002; Thomalla et al. (2006; Laukkonen
et al. (2009; Rubin, 2010; GNCSODR, 2013; GP DRR, 2013).
B. Children: Significant number of children are vulnerable and at risk for development
(Morrow, 1999; McEntire et al., 2002; Thomalla et al., 2006; Laukkonen et al., 2009
Dinh et al., 2012; Rubin, 2010; GP DRR, 2013; GNCSODR, 2013; Dinh et al. (2012).
Children are vulnerable for psychological and physical abuse This include illegally
working children, children who are pregnant or become mothers, children born out
of marriage, children from a single-parent, delinquent children, homeless children,
HIVinfected children, uneducated children, institutionalized children, married
children, mentally ill children, migrant children, orphans, sexually exploited children,
street children, war-affected children…etc.
C. Minorities: some people are vulnerable due to their minority background.
Particularly, ethnic (cultural and linguistic minority), religious minority. These people

27
 are political and socially discriminated (Comfort et al., 1999; Cardona, 2003; Brooks,
2003; National Research Council, 2006; Cutter et al., 2010; ).
D. Poverty: People are vulnerable for many undesirable phenomena due to poverty. This
may be resulted in, poor households and large households, inequality, absences of
access to health services, important resources for life, lack of access to education,
information, financial and natural resources and lack of social networks (Morrow,
1999; McEntire et al., 2002; Brooks, 2003; Dwyer et al., 2004; Vincent, 2004;
Leichenko et al., 2004; National ResearchCouncil, 2006; Naudé et al., 2007; Kahn
and Salman, 2012; MacDonald, 2013).
E. Disabilities: People with disabilities very much vulnerable for many kind of risks.
This includes abuses, poverty, illiteracy, health problems, psychological and social
problems (Comfort et al., 1999; McEntire et al., 2002; Naudé et al., 2007; Cutter et
al., 2010; Dinh et al., 2012; . Balica et al., 2012; GNCSODR, 2013).
F. Age: Old people or very young children are vulnerable for all kinds evils (Comfort et
al., 1999; Morrow, 1999; McEntire et al. 2002; Cardona (2003; Vincent, 2004; Naudé
et al., 2007; Dinh et al., 2012; Adikari et al., 2013; GNCSODR,2013).
G. Illiteracy and less education: People with high rates of illiteracy and lack quality
educational opportunities are vulnerable for absence all kinds of developments
(Cardona, 2003; Adger et al., 2004; Leichenko et al., 2004; Naudé et al., 2007; Kahn
and Salman, 2012; Adikari et al., 2013).
H. Sickness: Uncured health problems for example people living with HIV/AIDS are
much vulnerable for psychosocial problems, poverty and health (Vincent, 2004;
Adger et al., 2004; Naudé et al., 2007).
I. Gifted and Talentedness: Gifted and talented children are vulnerable for
socioemotional developments. Due to lack of psychological support they may feel
isolation as they are pulled from their regular classrooms and given instruction in
separate settings and due to myths and expectations of themselves and the public
(Shechtman & Silektor, 2012, p. 63; Schuler, 2000).

Activity
Persons with disabilities are highly excluded in Ethiopia from education, economic,

28
 1. psychological and political development?
The Natural rights of persons with disabilities are violated. Can you give some
2. explanation on these points?
How can we make inclusion a reality for persons with disabilities in Ethiopia?
3. What can you do as an individual in your respective profusion?
4.
Chapter Summary
Persons with disabilities, health impairments and vulnerable people are people who should be
productive and able to live independent life. Their impairment is not something that has
disabled them; rather, the social system is the major disabling factor. Disabilities do not only
affect an impaired persons; it affect the whole nation, when this people are neglected from
education and employment and when they are not actively participate in the social, political
and economic activities. These situations make them to lead dependent lives which in turn
affect the life of the nation. Hence, inclusiveness is an outlet for creating a society of
productivity who leads independent life.

References
David F. &, Jenifer L. (2016). A Teacher's Guide to Special Education. Association for Supervision &
Curriculum Development
Hallahan D. and Kauffman J. (2018). Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education (14 th
ed).Pearson

Heward, L.W. (2006). Exceptional Children: An introduction to special education (8th ed).USA: Pearson
Education, Inc.

Heward,L.H.(2006). Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education. New Jersey; Pearson

prentice Hall.

Salisbury, R. (2008). Teaching pupils with visual impairment: a guide to making the school curriculum
accessible. Bell & Bain ltd, Glasgow.
Smart J. (2019). Disability, Society and the Individual (3rd). Pro Ed
Tirussew T. (2002). Human Disabilities: Developmental, Educational and psychological Implications.
Department of Educational Psychology, Addis Ababa University.
Toby J. (2017). Building on the Strengths of Students with Special Needs: How to Move Beyond Disability
Labels in the Classroom : ASCD

Yeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2006). Teaching Students With Learning Disabilities: A Practical Guide
for Every Teacher Paperback

29
YsseldykeYeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2007). Teaching Students With Sensory Disabilities A
Practical Guide for Every Teacher New Delhi:

Yeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2007). Teaching Students With Communication Disorders A Practical
Guide for Every Teacher New Delhi:

Yeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2011). Teaching Students With Mental Retardation A Practical Guide for
Every Teacher New Delhi:

Yeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2011). The Fundamentals of Special Education A Practical Guide for
Every Teacher New Delhi:

Yeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2014). Effective Assessment for Students With Special Needs New
Delhi:

Chapter 2: Concept of Inclusion

Chapter Overview
This chapter tries to introduce students with the concept inclusion. The specific contents
addressed in the chapter Include: definition of inclusion, concept of inclusion, inclusion shift
from special education and integrated education, rationale for inclusion, factors that
influenced development of inclusion, benefits of inclusion to students, teachers‘ parents and
society, inclusive school and classroom environment, strategies to implement inclusion in
teaching and learning processes and barriers to inclusion. Learning Objectives

After the students have studied this chapter, they will be able to:

 Define inclusion,
 Discuss the concept of inclusion in education,
 Identify reason regarding shift from special education and integrated education
inclusion,
 Differentiate the major rationales for inclusion,
 List factors that influenced development of inclusion,
 Identify benefits of inclusion to students, teachers‘ parents and society,
 Name major characteristics of inclusive school and inclusive classroom environments,
 Point out strategies to implement inclusion in teaching and learning processes

 Differentiate the major barriers to inclusion.

30
2.1. Definition of Inclusion
Brainstorming Questions
 What comes to your mind when you hear about the word inclusion?
 Do you know to whom inclusion is required? Why?
 Who do you think benefit from inclusion?
 Why inclusion has got the world wide attention?
 Where do you think inclusion originated from?
 How do you think inclusion can be implemented?
 What are the barriers to inclusion?

Inclusion in education/service refers to ―an ongoing process aimed at offering quality

education/services for all while respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities,
characteristics and learning expectations of the students and communities and eliminating all
forms of discrimination‖ (UNESCO, 2008, P.3, as cited in EADSNE, 2010, p.11). Inclusive
services at any level are quality provisions without discrimination or partiality and meeting
the diverse needs of people.
Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs
of all persons through increasing participation in learning, employment, services, cultures and
communities, and reducing exclusion at all social contexts. It involves changes and
modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with a common vision which
covers all people, a conviction that it is the responsibility of the social system to educate all
children (UNESCO 2005), employ and provide social services. Besides, inclusion is defined
as having a wide range of strategies, activities and processes that seek to make a reality of the
universal right to quality, relevant and appropriate education and services. It acknowledges
that learning begins at birth and continues throughout life, and includes learning in the home,
the community, and in formal, informal and non-formal situations. It seeks to enable
communities, systems and structures in all cultures and contexts to combat discrimination,
celebrate diversity, promote participation and overcome barriers to learning and participation
for all people. It is part of a wider strategy promoting inclusive development, with the goal of
creating a world where there is peace, tolerance, and sustainable use of resources, social
justice, and where the basic needs and rights of all are met. This definition has the following
components:

31
1) Concepts about learners
• Education is a fundamental human right for all people Learning begins at birth
and continues throughout life
• All children have a right to education within their own community
• Everyone can learn, and any child can experience difficulties in learning
• All learners need their learning supported child-focused teaching benefits all
children. 2) Concepts about the education system and schools
• It is broader than formal schooling
• it is flexible, responsive educational systems
• It creates enabling and welcoming educational environments
• It promotes school improvement – makes effective schools
• It involves whole school approach and collaboration between partners.
3) Concepts about diversity and discrimination
• It promotes combating discrimination and exclusionary pressures at any social sectors
• It enables responding to/embracing diversity as a resource not as a problem
• It prepares learners for an inclusive society that respects and values difference. 4)
Concepts about processes to promote inclusion
• It helps to identifying and overcoming barriers to participation and exclusionary
pressures
• It increases real participation of all collaboration, partnership between all stakeholders
• It promotes participatory methodology, action research, collaborative enquiry and
other related activities
5) Concepts about resources
• Promotes unlocking and fully using local resources redistributing existing resources
• It helps to perceive people (children, parents, teachers, members of marginalized groups,
etc) as key resources
• It helps to use appropriate resources and support within schools and at local levels for
the needs of different children, e.g. mother tongue tuition, Braille, assistive devices.
McLeskey and Waldron (2000) have identified inclusion and non-inclusive practices.
According to them inclusion includes the following components:
• Students with disabilities and vulnerability attend their neighborhood schools

32
• Each student is in an age-appropriate general education classroom
• Every student is accepted and regarded as a full and valued member of the class and the
school community.
• Special education supports are provided to each student with a disability within the
context of the general education classroom.
• All students receive an education that addresses their individual needs No student is
excluded based on type or degree of disability.
• All members of the school (e.g., administration, staff, students, and parents) promote
cooperative/collaborative teaching arrangements
• There is school-based planning, problem-solving, and ownership of all students and
programs
• Employed according to their capacities without discriminations
On the other hand, they argue that inclusion does not mean:
• Placing students with disabilities into general education classrooms without careful
planning and adequate support.
• Reducing services or funding for special education services.
• Placing all students who have disabilities or who are at risk in one or a few designated
classrooms.
• Teachers spending a disproportionate amount of time teaching or adapting the curriculum
for students with disabilities.
• Isolating students with disabilities socially, physically, or academically within the general
education school or classroom.
• Endangering the achievement of general education students through slower instruction or
a less challenging curriculum.
• Relegating special education teachers to the role of assistants in the general education
classroom.
• Requiring general and special education teachers to team together without careful
planning and well-defined responsibilities.

33
2. Principles of Inclusion

The fundamental principle of inclusion is that all persons should learn, work and live together
wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have. Inclusive
education extends beyond special needs arising from disabilities, and includes consideration
of other sources of disadvantage and marginalization, such as gender, poverty, language,
ethnicity, and geographic isolation. The complex inter-relationships that exist among these
factors and their interactions with disability must also be a focus of attention. Besides,
inclusion begins with the premise that all persons have unique characteristics, interests,
abilities and particular learning needs and, further, that all persons have equal access
education, employment and services. Inclusion implies transition from separate, segregated
learning and working environments for persons with disabilities to community based systems.
Moreover, effective transitions from segregated services to inclusive system requires careful
planning and structural changes to ensure that persons with disabilities are provided with
appropriate accommodation and supports that ensure an inclusive learning and working
environment. Furthermore, UNESCO (2005) has provided four major inclusion principles
that support inclusive practice. These include:
1. Inclusion is a process. It has to be seen as a never-ending search to find better ways of
responding to diversity. It is about learning how to live with difference and learning
how to learn from difference. Differences come to be seen more positively as a
stimulus for fostering learning amongst children and adults.
2. Inclusion is concerned with the identification and removal of barriers that hinders the
development of persons with disabilities. It involves collecting, collating and
evaluating information from a wide variety of sources in order to plan for
improvements in policy and practice. It is about using evidence of various kinds to
stimulate creativity and problem - solving.
3. Inclusion is about the presence, participation and achievement of all persons.
‗Presence‘ is concerned with where persons are provided and how reliably and
punctually they attend; ‗participation‘ relates to the quality of their experiences and
must incorporate the views of learners/and or workers and ‗achievement‘ is about the
outcomes of learning across the curriculum, not just test and exam results.

34
 4. Inclusion invokes a particular emphasis on those who may be at risk of
marginalization, exclusion or underachievement. This indicates the moral
responsibility to ensure that those ‗at risk‘ are carefully monitored, and that steps are
taken to ensure their presence, participation and achievement.
2. Rationale for Inclusion

Reflection activities:
Dear students, why do you think inclusion in education is implemented in many countries of
the world? Implementation of inclusion has number of rationales. The major ones include:
educational, social, legal, economic and inclusive society building foundations
Rationales for Inclusion and Their Respective Descriptions
Educational Foundations
• Children do better academically, psychologically and socially in inclusive
settings.
• A more efficient use of education resources.
• Decreases dropouts and repetitions
• Teachers competency( knowledge, skills, collaboration, satisfaction
Social Foundation
• Segregation teaches individuals to be fearful, ignorant and breeds prejudice.
• All individuals need an education that will help them develop relationships
and prepare them for life in the wider community.
• Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build friendship, respect
and understanding.
Legal Foundations
• All individuals have the right to learn and live together.
• Human being shouldn‘t be devalued or discriminated against by being excluded
or sent away because of their disability.
• There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for their education
Economic Foundation
• Inclusive education has economic benefit, both for individual and for society.
• Inclusive education is more cost-effective than the creation of special schools
across the country.
• Children with disabilities go to local schools
• Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout
• Children with disabilities live with their family use community infrastructure
• Better employment and job creation opportunities for people with disabilities
Foundations for Building Inclusive Society
• Formation of mutual understanding and appreciation of diversity
• Building up empathy, tolerance and cooperation

35
 Promotion of sustainable development 2.3.
Factors that Influenced Development of Inclusion
Brainstorming questions:
Dear student:
1. As stated earlier, inclusive education has got priority as the main education policy in
many countries of the world. Why do you think it has got the world‟s attention?
2. Is it possible to solve different crises that the world is acing these days by implementing
inclusion philosophy? If your answer is “Yes,” how it is possible? If your answer is
“No,” why it is not possible?
3. What do you think are the drivers of inclusion to be materialized in reality?

Inclusiveness originated from three major ideas. These include: inclusive education is
a basic human right; quality education results from inclusion of students with diverse needs
and ability differences, and there is no clear demarcation between the characteristics of
students with and without disabilities and vulnerabilities. Therefore, separate provisions for
such students cannot be justified. Moreover, inclusion has got the world‘s attention because
it is supposed to solve the world‘s major problems occurring in social, economic, religious,
educational and other areas of the world. For instance, it is supposed to : counteract-social,
political, economical and educational challenges that happen due to globalization impact;
enhance psychosocial, academic and other benefits to students with and without special needs
education; help all citizens exercise educational and human rights; enhance quality
education for all in regular class rooms through inclusion; create sustainable environmental
development that is suitable for all human beings; create democratic and productive society
that promote sustainable development; build an attitude of respecting and valuing of
differences in human beings; and ultimately build an inclusive society.

Inclusive education is facilitated by many influencing actors. Some of the major drivers
include:
1. Communities: pre-colonial and indigenous approaches to education and
community-based programs movement that favor inclusion of their community
members.
2. Activists and advocates: the combined voices of primary stakeholders –
representatives of groups of learners often excluded and marginalized from education
(e.g. disabled activists; parents advocating for their children; child rights advocates;
and those advocating for women/girls and minority ethnic groups).
3. The quality education and school improvement movement: in both North and
South, the issues of quality, access and inclusion are strongly linked, and contribute

36
 to the understanding and practice of inclusive education as being the responsibility of
education systems and schools.
4. Special educational needs movement: the ‗new thinking‘ of the special needs
education movement – as demonstrated in the Salamanca Statement – has been a
positive influence on inclusive education, enabling schools and systems to really
respond to a wide range of diversity.
5. Involvement of International agencies: the UN is a major influence on the
development of inclusive education policy and practice. Major donors have formed a
partnership – the Fast Track Initiative – to speed progress towards the EFA goals. E.g.
UNESCO, etc.
6. Involvement of NGOs movements, networks and campaigns: a wide range of civil
society initiatives, such as the Global Campaign for Education, seek to bring policy
and practice together and involve all stakeholders based on different situations
7. Other factors: the current world situation and practical experiences in education.
The current world situation presents challenges such as the spread of HIV/AIDS,
political instability, trends in resource distribution, diversity of population, and social
inclusion. This necessitates implementation of inclusion to solve the problems. On the
other hand, practical experiences in education offers lessons learned from failure and
success in mainstream, special and inclusive education. Moreover, practical
demonstrations of successful inclusive education in different cultures and contexts are
a strong influence on its development
Benefits of Inclusion
It is now understood that inclusion benefits communities, families, teachers, and students by
ensuring that children with disabilities attend school with their peers and providing them with
adequate support to succeed both academically and socially.
1. Benefits for Students with Special Needs Education
In inclusive settings people will develop:
• Appropriate models of behavior. They can observe and imitate socially acceptable
behaviors of the students without special needs
• Improved friendships with the social environment
• Increased social initiations, interactions, relationships and networks
• Gain peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills
• Increased achievement of individualized educational program (IEP) goals
• Greater access to general curriculum
• Enhanced skill acquisition and generalization in their learning
• improved academic achievement which leads to quality education service s
• Attending inclusive schools increases the probability that students with SEN will continue
to participate in a variety of integrated settings throughout their lives (increased inclusion
in future environments that contribute building of inclusive society).

37
• Improved school staff collaboration to meet these students‘ needs and ability differences
Increased parental participation to meet these students‘ needs and ability differences
• Enhanced families integration into the community 2. Benefits for persons without
Special Needs Education Students without special educational needs (SEN) will:
• Have a variety of opportunities for interacting with their age peers who experience SEN
in inclusive school settings.
• serve as peer tutors during instructional activities
• Play the role of a special ‗buddy‘ during lunch, in the bus or playground.
• Gain knowledge of a good deal about tolerance, individual difference, and human
exceptionality.
• Learn that students with SEN have many positive characteristics and abilities.
• Have chance to learn about many of the human service profession such as special
education, speech therapy, physical therapy, recreation therapy, and vocational
rehabilitation. For some, exposure to these areas may lead to career choices.
• Have increased appreciation, acceptance and respect of individual differences among
human beings that leads to increased understanding and acceptance of diversity
• Get greater opportunities to master activities by practicing and teaching others
• Have increased academic outcomes
• have opportunity to learn to communicate, and deal effectively with a wide range of
individuals; this prepares them to fully participate in society when they are adults that
make them build an inclusive society
3. Benefits for Teachers and Parents/Family
Brainstorming Questions
5. Dear student, do you think inclusive education is important for teachers of inclusive
education and parents? If yes, give examples? If no, why not?

Inclusive education has benefit to teachers. The benefit includes: developing their knowledge
and skills that meet diverse students‘ needs and ability differences to enhancing their skills to
work with their stakeholders; and gaining satisfaction in their profession and other aspects.
Similarly, parents/family benefit from inclusive education. For example, parents benefit from
implementation of inclusive education in developing their positive attitude towards their

38
 children‘s education, positive feeling toward their participation, and appreciation to
differences among humankinds and so on. For detailed information, see the table below.
when they participate in inclusive education of their children Table
2.3. Benefits of inclusion for Teachers and Parents/Family

Benefits for Teachers Benefits for Parents/Family

• They have more opportunities to learn new ways • Know that their children—and
to teach different kinds of students. ALL children—are receiving a
• They gain new knowledge, such as the different quality education.
ways children learn and can be taught. strategies, thus expanding the
• They develop more positive attitudes and skills of both
approaches towards different people with diverse general and special educators
needs.
• They have greater opportunities to explore new
ideas by communicating more often with others • They benefit from develop
from within and outside their school, such as in Developing teamwork and
school clusters or teacher networks, or with collaborative problem-solving
parents and community members. skills to creatively address
• They can encourage their students to be more challenges regarding student
interested, more creative and more attentive learning
• They can experience greater job satisfaction and
a higher sense of accomplishment when ALL • Develop positive attitude that
children are succeeding in school to the best of help them promoting the
their abilities. recognition and appreciation
that all students have strengths
• They get opportunities to exchange information and are contributing members
about instructional activities and teaching They: of the school community as well
• Learn more about how their children are being as the society
educated in schools with their peers in an
inclusive environment
• Become personally involved and feel a greater Reflection
sense of accomplishment in helping their children Experience positive attitude about
to learn. themselves and their children by
• Feel valued and consider themselves as equal seeing their children accepted by
partners in providing quality learning others, successful in the inclusive
opportunities for children. setting, and
• Learn how to deal better with their children at belonging to the community where they
home by using techniques that the teachers use in live
school.
• Find out ways to interact with others in the
community, as well as to understand and help
solve each other‘s problems.
6. Dear student, can you briefly discuss how the teachers benefit from inclusion?

39
2.5. Benefits for Society
Inclusion goes beyond education and should involve consideration of employment, recreation,
health and living conditions. It should therefore involve transformations across all government
and other agencies at all levels of society.

When students with special needs and without special needs are educated through quality
inclusive education, it not only benefits students, teachers and parents it also benefits the
society. Some of the major benefits may include:

Introduction of students with disabilities and vulnerabilities into mainstream schools bring in
the students into local communities and neighborhoods and helps break down barriers and
prejudice that prevail in the society towards persons with disability.

Communities become more accepting of difference, and everyone benefits from a friendlier,
open environment that values and appreciates differences in human beings.

Meaningful participation in the economic, social, political and cultural life of communities
own cost effective non-segregated schooling system that services both students with and
without special needs education.
Ultimate Goal of Inclusion
Brainstorming questions
1. Dear student, what do you think about the ultimate goal regarding the implementation of
quality inclusive education?
The goal of inclusive education is to create schools where everyone belongs. By creating
inclusive schools, we ensure that there‘s a welcoming place in the community for everyone
after their school year‘s end. Students educated together have a greater understanding of
difference and diversity. Students educated together have fewer fears about difference and
disability. An inclusive school culture creates better long-term outcomes for all students.
Typical students who are educated alongside peers with developmental disabilities understand
more about the ways that they‘re all alike. These are the students who will be our children‘s
peer group and friends. These students hold the promise of creating inclusive communities in
the future for all our children. These students will be the teachers, principals, doctors, lawyers,
and parents who build communities where everyone belongs.
Inclusive society is a necessary precondition for inclusive growth is a society which does not
exclude or discriminate against its citizens on the basis of disability, caste, race, gender, family

40
or community, a society which ‗levels the playing field for investment‘ and leaves no one
behind. Thus, Inclusive growth which is equitable that offers equality of opportunity to all
as well as protection in market and employment transitions results from inclusive society.
Reflection
• Dear student, can you explain the benefits o inclusive education or students, teachers,
parents and society at large?
• What kink o society can be created when inclusive education is properly
implemented?

5. Features of Inclusive Environment

Brain storming questions:

Dear learners, what does inclusive environment mean?
Do you think it is possible to create an inclusive environment?
What could be the major components of inclusive environment interms of inclusive education?
An inclusive environment is one in which members feel respected by and connected to
one another. An inclusive environment is an environment that welcomes all people, regardless
of their disability and other vulnerabilities. It recognizes and uses their skills and strengthens
their abilities. An inclusive service environment is respectful, supportive, and equalizing. An
inclusive environment reaches out to and includes individuals with disabilities and
vulnerabilities at all levels — from first time participants to board members.
It has the following major characteristics:
• it ensures the respect and dignity of individuals with disabilities
• it meets current accessibility standards to the greatest extent possible to all people with
special needs
• provides accommodations willingly and proactively
Persons with disabilities are welcomed and are valued for their contributions as individuals.
2.6. Inclusive Environments
An inclusive environment is a place that is adjusted to individuals‘ needs and not vice versa –
that individuals are adjusted to the environmental needs. It acknowledges that individual
differences among individuals are a source of richness and diversity, and not a problem, and
that various needs and the individual pace of learning and development can be met successfully
with a wide range of flexible approaches. Besides, the environment should involve continuous
process of changes directed towards strengthening and encouraging different ways of
participation of all members of the community.

41
An inclusive environment is also directed towards developing culture, policy and practice
which meet pupils‘ diversities, towards identifying and removing obstacles in learning and
participating, towards developing a suitable provisions and supporting individuals.
Therefore, successful environment has the following characteristics:
• It develops whole-school/environment processes that promote inclusiveness and
quality provisions and practice that are responsive to the individual needs and
diversities

• It recognizes and responds to the diverse needs of their individuals and ensuring
quality provisions for all through appropriate accommodations, organizational
arrangements, resource use and partnerships with their community.

• It is committed to serve all individuals together regardless of differences. It is

also deeply committed to the belief that all persons can learn, work and be
productive.

• It involves restructuring environment, culture, policy, and practice.

• It promoting pro-social activities

• It makes provides services and facilities equally accessible to all people

• It involves mobilizing resources within the community

• It is alert to and uses a range of multi-skilled personnel to assist people in their

learning and working environment.

• It strives to create strong links with, clinicians, caregivers, and staff in local schools,
work place, disability services providers and relevant support agencies within the
wider community.
• It develops social relationships as an equal member of the class. It is also the
classroom responsive to the diversity of individuals‘ academic, social and personal
learning needs.

Barriers to Inclusion
• Though many countries seem committed to inclusion their rhetoric, and even in their
legislation and policies, practices often fall short. Reasons for the policy-practice gap
in inclusion are diverse. The major barriers include:
• Problems related with societal values and beliefs- particularly the community and
policy makers negative attitude towards students with disability and vulnerabilities.

42
 Inclusion cannot flourish in a society that has prejudice and negative attitude towards
persons with disability.
• Economic factors- this is mainly related with poverty of family, community and
society at large
• Lack of taking measures to ensure conformity of implementation of inclusion practice
with policies
• Lack of stakeholders taking responsibility in their cooperation as well as collaboration
for inclusion
• Conservative traditions among the community members about inclusion
• Lack of knowledge and skills among teachers regarding inclusive education
• Rigid curricula, teaching method and examination systems that do not consider
students with dives needs and ability differences.

• Fragile democratic institutions that could not promote inclusion

• Inadequate resources and inaccessibility of social and physical environments

• Large class sizes that make teachers and stakeholders meet students‘ diverse needs
• Globalization and free market policy that make students engage in fierce completion,
individualism and individuals‘ excellence rather than teaching through cooperation,
collaboration and group excellence.
• Using inclusive models that may be imported from other countries.
Reflection questions
Think of Ethiopian socio-cultural, economic and political conditions and reflect on the
following issues.
Do you think the country‟s socio-cultural, economic and political conditions suitable to
implement inclusive education? What should be done to make conditions suitable to
implement inclusion?
Due think the schools you leant in relation respecting students‟ rights to learn, addressing
the students‟ diverse needs and ability differences and promoting quality education for all
students. Point out the strengths and weakness based on the inclusive education concepts and
practices.

Chapter summary
Inclusion is defined from the concept of education process of education that is aimed at meeting
students‘ diverse needs in regular classrooms. It focuses not only students with special
educational needs but also students without special needs. It is based on the concept o

43
respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities, characteristics and learning
expectations of the students and communities and eliminating all forms of discrimination in
educational, social, economic and other aspects o f life. The concept of inclusive education
originated from three major ideas. These include: inclusive education is a basic human right;
quality education results from inclusion of students with diverse needs and ability differences,
and there is no clear demarcation between the characteristics of students with and without
disabilities and vulnerabilities. Its philosophy centers on enabling communities, systems and
structures in all cultures and contexts to fight discrimination, celebrate diversity, promote
participation and overcome barriers to learning and participation for all people (persons with
and without special educational needs). It is part of a wider strategy promoting inclusive
development, with the goal of creating a world where there is peace, tolerance, and sustainable
use of resources, social justice, and where the basic needs and rights of all persons are met.
Inclusion concept evolved from special and integrated education based on the notion that both
special needs and integrated/mainstreaming education do not address unique needs,
characteristics of students with in regular schools classrooms.
The concept of inclusion has a number of rationales: educational, social, economic, legal and
foundations or inclusive society. Specifically, it has also benefits to students with and without
special educational needs, parents, teachers and society at large. Inclusion is implemented as
on its ultimate goal which is aimed building an inclusive society. The concept of inclusion
development is influenced by different factors: communities, activists and advocates, the
quality education and school improvement movement, special educational needs movement,
involvement of international agencies, involvement of NGOs movements, networks and
campaigns, and other factors such as current world situation and demand or quality education.
Inclusive education implementation needs adjusting schools and classrooms environments to
address unique needs of students with diverse needs and ability differences. These
environments should be adjusted address factors that address the students‘ rights, respecting
and valuing differences, foster team work, and improve academic achievement, promote
healthy psychosocial development.
Implementation inclusion in education aces number of barriers. The barriers are related with
lack of teachers knowledge and skills, their negative attitude; rigid curriculum and teaching
and learning methods; lack of active participation of relevant stakeholders; lack of resources

44
and facilities; globalization and free market economic policy; and lack of considering local
indigenous values, ideologies and culture and other related factors.

References
Hayes, A. M., and Bulat, J., (2017). Disabilities inclusive education systems and policies guide for low- and
middle-income countries. RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press

Loreman, T., Deppeler, J. and Harvey, D. (2005). Inclusive education: a practical guide to supporting diversity
in the classroom. Routledge, Falmer,UK, Taylor and Francis Group.

MoE (2012b).Guideline for curriculum differentiation and individual educational program. Addis Ababa:
Federal Ministry of Education, Addis Ababa.
….. (2012a). Special needs/inclusive education strategy. The Federal Democratic, Republic of
Ethiopia, Federal Ministry of Education, Addis Ababa.
Tirussew Teferra (2005). Disability in Ethiopia: Issues, insights and implications. Addis Ababa University
Printing Press.

UNICEF (2014). Conceptualizing Inclusive Education and Contextualizing it within the UNICEF Mission -
Companion Technical Booklet .Webinar,New York.

UNESCO (2001). Open file on inclusive education, support materials for managers and administrators.
Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001252/ 125237eo.pdf

…… (2006). Embracing Diversity: Toolkit for Creating Inclusive, Learning-Friendly Environments. Bangkok.

………. (2007). Regional Seminar on poverty alleviation, HIV and AIDS education and inclusive education:
Priority issues for inclusive quality education in Eastern and Western Sub-Saharan Africa.
Nairobi, Kenya. Retrieved from http://www.ibe.
unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Inclusive_Education/Reports/nairobi_07/ethiopia_inclusion_07
.pdf

……… (2009). Defining an inclusive education agenda: reflections around the 48th session of the international
conference on education. UNESCO: International Bureau of Education. Retrieved from http://
unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001868/ 186807e.pdf ……… (2013). Promoting inclusive education-
curriculum (Advocacy Guide 3). Bankok: Tiland.

Chapter 3: Identification and Differentiated services

Chapter Overview
The onset of disability is accompanied by a complex series of shocks to the individual and to
everyone around him. The impact of disability and vulnerability take many form. The
immediate effects are often physical pain, limitation of mobility, disorientation, confusion,
uncertainty and a disruption of roles and patterns of social interaction. Peoples with disabilities
and vulnerabilities have survival (physiological), safety, social, esteem, and selfactualization
(fulfillment) needs like persons without disabilities.

45
This chapter begins with the overview of the impacts of disability on daily life of peoples with
disabilities and vulnerabilities and their needs for inclusive service provisions. It describes
diverse needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities followed by differentiated
intervention and rehabilitation approaches. The chapter further discusses inclusiveness from
different perspectives such as; health services provision, accessibility of technologies,
employment and economic independence, disability and rural life and access to education for
peoples with disabilities and vulnerabilities in brief.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:
• Discuss the impact of disability and vulnerability on daily life of persons with disabilities
and vulnerabilities.
• Depict needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
• describe the effects of environment on the life of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities.
• Describe intervention and rehabilitation approaches for disabilities and vulnerabilities.
• depict barriers for inclusive services provisions in different sectors
• describe the role technologies in the life of persons with disabilities
• relate the concept of inclusiveness to their specific profession
• Evaluate inclusiveness of services provision in their specific fields of studies
Impact of Disability and Vulnerability on daily life Brainstorming Question
Dear students,
• Can you list the impacts of disability on daily life of peoples with disabilities?
• Do you think that individuals with the same disabilities have the same needs? If your
answer is Yes, how?/No, why?

Factors related to the person

People respond to disabilities in different ways. Some react negatively and thus their quality
of life is negatively affected. Others choose to focus on their abilities as opposed to their
disabilities and continue to live a productive life. There are several factors that affect the
impact a disability has on an individual. The following are often considered the most
significant factors in determining a disability's impact on an individual.

1. The Nature of the Disability: Disability can be acquired (a result of an accident, or

acquired disease) or congenital (present at birth). If the disability is acquired, it is more

46
 likely to cause a negative reaction than a congenital disability. Congenital disabilities
are disabilities that have always been present, thus requiring less of an adjustment than
an acquired disability.
2. The Individual’s Personality - the individual personality can be typically positive or negative,
dependent or independent, goal-oriented or laissez-faire. Someone with a positive outlook is
more likely to embrace a disability then someone with a negative outlook. Someone who is
independent will continue to be independent and someone who is goaloriented will continue to
set and pursue goals.
3. The Meaning of the Disability to the Individual - Does the individual define himself/herself
by his/her looks or physical characteristics? If so, he/she is more likely to feel defined by his/her
disability and thus it will have a negative impact.

4. The Individual’s Current Life Circumstances - The individual‘s independence or

dependence on others (parents). The economic status of the individual or the individual's
caregivers, the individual's education level. If the individual is happy with their current life
circumstance, they are more likely to embrace their disability, whereas if they are not happy
with their circumstances, they often blame their disability.
5. The Individual's Support System - The individual‘s support from family, a significant other,
friends, or social groups. If so, he/she will have an easier time coping with a disability and thus
will not be affected negatively by their disability.

Common effects of a disability may include but not limited to health conditions of the person;
mental health issues including anxiety and depression; loss of freedom and independence;
frustration and anger at having to rely on other people; practical problems including transport,
choice of activities, accessing buildings; unemployment; problems with learning and academic
study; loss of self-esteem and confidence, especially in social situations. But all these negative
effects are due to restricted environments, not due to impairments.

The disability experience resulting from the interaction of health conditions, personal
factors, and environmental factors varies greatly. Persons with disabilities are diverse and
heterogeneous, while stereotypical views of disability emphasize wheelchair users and a few
other ―classic‖ groups such as blind people and deaf people. Disability encompasses the
child born with a congenital condition such as cerebral palsy or the young soldier who loses
his leg to a land-mine, or the middle-aged woman with severe arthritis, or the older person

47
with dementia, among many others. Health conditions can be visible or invisible; temporary
or long term; static, episodic, or degenerating; painful or inconsequential. Note that many
people with disabilities do not consider themselves to be unhealthy. Generalizations about
―disability‖ or ―people with disabilities‖ can mislead. Persons with disabilities have diverse
personal factors with differences in gender, age, language, socioeconomic status, sexuality,
ethnicity, or cultural heritage. Each has his or her personal preferences and responses to
disability. Also while disability correlates with disadvantage, not all people with disabilities
are equally disadvantaged. Women with disabilities experience the combined disadvantages
associated with gender as well as disability, and may be less likely to marry than nondisabled
women. People who experience mental health conditions or intellectual impairments appear
to be more disadvantaged in many settings than those who experience physical or sensory
impairments. People with more severe impairments often experience greater disadvantage.
Conversely, wealth and status can help overcome activity limitations and participation
restrictions.
Reflection
Dear students, in what ways do you think that disability restricts daily lives of persons with
disabilities?
What are the disabling factors? Impairment or environment?

People with disabilities and vulnerabilities live with challenges that impact their
abilities to conduct Activities of Daily Living (ADL). Disability and vulnerabilities can limit
or restrict one or more ADLs, including moving from one place to another (e.g., navigation,
locomotion, transfer), maintaining a position (e.g., standing, sitting, sleeping), interacting
with the environment (e.g., controlling systems, gripping objects), communicating (e.g.,
speaking, writing, hand gestures), feeding (chewing, swallowing, etc.), and perceiving the
external world (by movement of the eyes, the head, etc.), due to inaccessible environment.
Many older persons face one or more impairments. Their situation is often similar to that of
people with disabilities. Their needs are similar to those people with multiple disabilities with
a decrease in the muscular, vision, hearing and cognitive capacities. Economic Factors and
Disability

48
There is clear evidence that people with few economic assets are more likely to acquire
pathologies that may be disabling. This is true even in advanced economies and in economies
with greater levels of income equality. The impact of absolute or relative economic deprivation
on the onset of pathology crosscuts conditions with radically different etiologies,
encompassing infectious diseases and most common chronic conditions. Similarly, economic
status affects whether pathology will proceed to impairment. Examples include such
phenomena as a complete lack of access to or a delay in presentation for medical care for
treatable conditions (e.g., untreated breast cancer is more likely to require radical mastectomy)
or inadequate access to state-of-the-art care (e.g., persons with rheumatoid arthritis may
experience a worsened range of motion and joint function because diseasemodifying drugs are
not used by most primary care physicians). In turn, a lack of resources can adversely affect the
ability of an individual to function with a disabling condition. For example, someone with an
amputated leg who has little money or poor health insurance may not be able to obtain a proper
prosthesis, in which case the absence of the limb may then force the individual to withdraw
from jobs that require these capacities.

Similarly, economic resources can limit the options and abilities of someone who requires
personal assistance services or certain physical accommodations. The individual also may not
be able to access the appropriate rehabilitation services to reduce the degree of potential
disability either because they cannot afford the services themselves or cannot afford the cost
of specialized transportation services.

The economic status of the community may have a more profound impact than the
status of the individual on the probability that disability will result from impairment or other
disabling conditions. Research on employment among persons with disabilities indicates, for
example, that such persons in communities undergoing rapid economic expansion will be much
more likely to secure jobs than those in communities with depressed or contracting labor
markets. Similarly, wealthy communities are more able to provide environmental supports
such as accessible public transportation and public buildings or support payments for personal
assistance benefits.

49
 Community can be defined in terms of the microsystem (the local area of the person
with the disabling conditions), the mesosystem (the area beyond the immediate neighborhood,
perhaps encompassing the town), and the macrosystem (a region or nation). Clearly, the
economic status of the region or nation as a whole may play a more important role than the
immediate microenvironment for certain kinds of disabling conditions. For example, access to
employment among people with disabling conditions is determined by a combination of the
national and regional labor markets, but the impact of differences across small neighborhoods
is unlikely to be very great. In contrast, the economic status of a neighborhood will play a
larger role in determining whether there are physical accommodations in the built environment
that would facilitate mobility for people with impairments or functional limitations, or both.

Finally, economic factors also can affect disability by creating incentives to define
oneself as disabled. For example, disability compensation programs often pay nearly as much
as many of the jobs available to people with disabling conditions, especially given that such
programs also provide health insurance and many lower-paying jobs do not. Moreover,
disability compensation programs often make an attempt to return to work risky, since health
insurance is withdrawn soon after earnings begin and procuring a job with good health
insurance benefits is often difficult in the presence of disabling conditions. Thus, disability
compensation programs are said to significantly reduce the number of people with impairments
who work by creating incentives to leave the labor force and also creating disincentives to
return to work.

Political Factors and Disability

The political system, through its role in designing public policy, can and does have a profound
impact on the extent to which impairments and other potentially disabling conditions will result
in disability. If the political system is well enforced it will profoundly improve the prospects
of people with disabling conditions for achieving a much fuller participation in society, in
effect reducing the font of disability in work and every other domain of human activity. The
extent to which the built environment impedes people with disabling conditions is a function
of public funds spent to make buildings and transportation systems accessible and public laws
requiring the private sector to make these accommodations in nonpublic buildings. The extent

50
to which people with impairments and functional limitations will participate in the labor force
is a function of the funds spent in training programs, in the way that health care is financed,
and in the ways that job accommodations are mandated and paid for. Similarly, for those with
severe disabling conditions, access to personal assistance services may be required for
participation in almost all activities, and such access is dependent on the availability of funding
for such services through either direct payment or tax credits. Thus, the potential mechanisms
of public policy are diverse, ranging from the direct effects of funds from the public purse, to
creating tax incentives so that private parties may finance efforts themselves, to the passage of
civil rights legislation and providing adequate enforcement. The sum of the mechanisms used
can and does have a profound impact on the functioning of people with disabling conditions.

Factors Psychological of Disability

This section focuses on the impact of psychological factors on how disability and disabling
conditions are perceived and experienced. The argument in support of the influence of the
psychological environment is congruent with the key assumption in this chapter that the
physical and social environments are fundamentally important to the expression of disability.

Several constructs can be used to describe one's psychological environment, including personal
resources, personality traits, and cognition. These constructs affect both the expression of
disability and an individual's ability to adapt to and react to it. An exhaustive review of the
literature on the impact of psychological factors on disability is beyond the scope of this
chapter. However, for illustrative purposes four psychological constructs will be briefly
discussed: three cognitive processes (self-efficacy beliefs, psychological control, and coping
patterns) and one personality disposition (optimism). Each section provides examples
illustrating the influence of these constructs on the experience of disability.

a) Social Cognitive Processes

Cognition consists of thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and ways of viewing the world, others, and
ourselves. Three interrelated cognitive processes have been selected to illustrate the direct and
interactive effects of cognition on disability. These are self-efficacy beliefs, psychological
control, and coping patterns which all these are socially constructed.

51
 b) Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Self-efficacy beliefs are concerned with whether or not a person believes that he or she can
accomplish a desired outcome (Bandura, 1977, 1986). Beliefs about one's abilities affect what
a person chooses to do, how much effort is put into a task, and how long an individual will
endure when there are difficulties. Self-efficacy beliefs also affect the person's affective and
emotional responses. Under conditions of high self-efficacy, a person's outlook and mental
health status will remain positive even under stressful and aversive situations. Under
conditions of low self-efficacy, mental health may suffer even when environmental conditions
are favorable. The findings from several studies provide evidence of improved behavioral and
functional outcomes under efficacious conditions for individuals with and without disabling
conditions (Maddux, 1996). How do self-efficacy beliefs affect disability? Following a stroke,
for example, an individual with high self-efficacy beliefs will be more likely to feel and
subsequently exert effort toward reducing the disability that could accompany any stroke-
related impairment or functional limitation. The highly selfefficacious individual would work
harder at tasks (i.e., in physical or speech therapy), be less likely to give up when there is a
relapse (i.e., continue therapy sessions even when there is no immediate improvement), and in
general, feel more confident and optimistic about recovery and rehabilitation. These self-
efficacy beliefs will thus mediate the relationship between impairment and disability such that
the individual would experience better functional outcomes and less disability. The
development of self-efficacy of the individual is much affected by the environmental factors.

c) Psychological Control

Psychological control, or control beliefs, is akin to self-efficacy beliefs in that they are
thoughts, feelings, and beliefs regarding one's ability to exert control or change a situation.
Self-generated feelings of control improve outcomes for diverse groups of individuals with
physical disabilities and chronic illnesses. The onset of a disabling condition is often followed
by a loss or a potential loss of control. What is most critical for adaptive functioning is how a
person responds to this and what efforts the person puts forth to regain control. Perceptions of
control will influence whether disabling environmental conditions are seen as stressful and

52
consequently whether it becomes disabling. The individuals control over themselves depends
on the provision of the environments: accessibility or inaccessibility. d) Coping Patterns

Coping patterns refer to behavioral and cognitive efforts to manage specific internal or external
demands that tax or exceed a person's resources to adjust. Generally, coping has been studied
within the context of stress. Having a disabling condition may create stress and demand
additional efforts because of interpersonal or environmental conditions that are not supportive.
Several coping strategies may be used when a person confronts a stressful situation. These
strategies may include the following: seeking information, cognitive restructuring, emotional
expression, catastrophizing, wish-fulfilling fantasizing, threat minimization, relaxation,
distraction, and self-blame. The effects of certain coping efforts on adaptive and functional
outcomes benefits individuals with disabling conditions. In general, among people with
disabling conditions, there is evidence that passive, avoidant, emotionfocused cognitive
strategies (e.g., catastrophizing and wishful thinking) are associated with poorer outcomes,
whereas active, problem-focused attempts to redefine thoughts to become more positive are
associated with favorable outcomes. An adaptive coping pattern would involve the use of
primary and secondary control strategies. What seems useful is the flexibility to change
strategies and to have several strategies available.

Active coping is a significant predictor of mental health and employment-related

outcomes. Under conditions in which individuals with disabling conditions use active and
problem-solving coping strategies to manage their life circumstances, there will be better
functional outcomes across several dimensions (e.g., activities of daily living, and
employment) than when passive coping strategies are used. An important component in the
coping process is appraisal. Appraisals involve beliefs about one's ability to deal with a
situation. Take, for example, two people with identical levels of impairment. The appraisal that
the impairment is disabling will result in more disability than the appraisal that the impairment
is not disabling, regardless of the objective type and level of impairment.
Appraisal is related to self-efficacy in the sense that one's thoughts and cognition control
how one reacts to a potentially negative situation. When a person feels that he or she can
execute a desired outcome (e.g., learn how to use crutches for mobility), the person is more

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likely to do just that. Similarly, under conditions in which an individual appraises his or her
disabling conditions and other life circumstances as manageable, the person will use coping
strategies that will lead to a manageable life (i.e., better functional outcomes).

e) Personality Disposition

Optimism is a personality disposition that is included in this chapter as an example of a

personality disposition or trait that can mediate how disabling conditions are experienced.
Several other interrelated personality factors could be discussed (e.g., self-esteem, hostility,
and Type A personality). Optimism (in contrast to pessimism) is used for illustrative purposes
because it relates to many other personality traits. Optimism is the general tendency to view
the world, others, and oneself favorably. People with an optimistic orientation rather than a
pessimistic orientation are far better across several dimensions. Optimists tend to have better
self-esteem and less hostility toward others and tend to use more adaptive coping strategies
than pessimists.

Optimism is a significant predictor of coping efforts and of recovery from surgery.

Individuals with optimistic orientations have a faster rate of recovery during hospitalization
and a faster rate of return to normal life activities after discharge. There was also a strong
relationship between optimism and postsurgical quality of life, with optimists doing better than
pessimists. Optimism may reduce symptoms and improve adjustment to illness, because it is
associated with the use of effective coping strategies. This same analogy can be extended to
impairment. Optimistic individuals are more likely to cope with impairment by using the active
adaptive coping strategies discussed earlier. These in turn will lead to reduced disability.

The four constructs of the psychological environment (i.e., self-efficacy beliefs,

psychological control, coping patterns, and optimism) were highlighted to illustrate the
influence of these factors on disability and the enabling-disabling process. These psychological
constructs are interrelated and are influenced to a large extent by the external social and
physical environments. The reason for the inclusion of the psychological environment in this
topic is to assert that just as the physical and social environments can be changed to support
people with disabling conditions, so can the psychological environment. Psychological

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interventions directed at altering cognition lead to improved outcomes (i.e., achievement,
interpersonal relationships, work productivity, and health) across diverse populations and
dimensions.

The Family and Disability

The family can be either an enabling or a disabling factor for a person with a disabling
condition. Although most people have a wide network of friends, the networks of people with
disabilities are more likely to be dominated by family members. Even among people with
disabilities who maintain a large network of friends, family relationships often are most central
and families often provide the main sources of support. This support may be instrumental
(errand-running), informational (providing advice or referrals), or emotional (giving love and
support).

Families can be enabling to people with functional limitations by providing such

tangible services as housekeeping and transportation and by providing personal assistance in
activities of daily living. Families can also provide economic support to help with the purchase
of assistive technologies and to pay for personal assistance. Perhaps most importantly, they
can provide emotional support. Emotional support is positively related to well-being across a
number of conditions. In all of these areas, friends and neighbors can supplement the support
provided by the family.

It is important to note, however, that families may also be disabling. Some families
promote dependency. Others fatalistically accept functional limitations and conditions that are
amenable to change with a supportive environment. In both of these situations, the person with
the potentially disabling condition is not allowed to develop to his or her fullest potential.
Families may also not provide needed environmental services and resources. For example,
families of deaf children frequently do not learn to sign, in the process impeding their children's
ability to communicate as effectively as possible. Similarly, some wellmeaning families
prematurely take over the household chores of people with angina, thereby limiting the
opportunity for healthy exercise that can lead to recovery.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities.

55
Needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities depends on different factors.
Dear students,

What needs do you think persons with disabilities may have?

People with disabilities do not all share a single experience, even of the same impairment;
likewise, professionals in the same discipline (sector)do not follow a single approach or hold
the same values. Exciting new directions will arise from individual professionals (sectors)
working with persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities on particular briefs. This will
produce different responses each time, complementary and even contradictory directions, but
this richness is needed.
Analyzing the human beings, Maslow has identified five categories of needs, with
different priority levels (Fig. 3.1), in the following order: survival (physiological), safety,
social needs, esteem, and self-actualization (fulfillment). Maslow‘s model is also valid for
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities, whose needs are similar to those of ordinary
persons. Nevertheless, many of these needs are not fulfilled, so disabilities and vulnerabilities
seek to fulfill these needs and reach a state of wellbeing. Initially, disabilities and
vulnerabilities attempt to fulfill the first level of needs (survival). The survival needs are
formed by the physiological needs and include the biological requirements for feeding,
performing hygiene, sleeping, ADL, and so on. When disabilities and vulnerabilities fulfill
their survival needs, they will look for situations that keep them safe, before moving up the
chain and fulfill their needs to be part of society and to achieve. As an example of needs in
terms of safety, consider a person with visual impairment who wishes to cross the street
safely. In contrast, for the elderly, at risk and street children safety might represent the ability
to obtain emergency help after falling and not being able to stand again. Social need is a key
element that disabilities and vulnerabilities would like to develop continuously. For example,
a person with a hearing impairment suffers from a diminution of social contact, while
someone with a motor disability feels excluded from social activities.
The third level of the pyramid relates to esteem, both self-esteem and being favorably
recognized by others. Esteem is often related to the capability of achieving things,
contributing to a work activity and being autonomous. In particular, disabilities and

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vulnerabilities in a dependent situation feel the need for increased autonomy, as well as the
opportunity to prove their worth to themselves and others through work or other activities.

Fig.3.1 Abraham‘s Maslow Hierarchy

Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities have socio-emotional, psychological,

physical and social environmental and economic needs in general. The following list but not
last are basic needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities to ensure equality for all
within our society.

Dear student,
List the needs of a person with disability living in your neighbor as much as you can.

a) Full access to the Environment (towns, countryside & buildings)

b) An accessible Transport system
c) Technical aids and equipment
d) Accessible/adapted housing

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 e) Personal Assistance and support
f) Inclusive Education and Training
g) An adequate Income
h) Equal opportunities for Employment
i) Appropriate and accessible Information
j) Advocacy (towards self-advocacy)
k) Counseling
l) Appropriate and Accessible Health Care

Social Needs of Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities

Social protection plays a key role in realizing the rights of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities of all ages: providing them with an adequate standard of living, a basic level of
income security; thus reducing levels of poverty and vulnerability. Moreover, mainstream
and/or specific social protection schemes concerning persons with disabilities can have a major
role in promoting their independence and inclusion by meeting their specific needs and
supporting their social participation in a non-discriminatory manner. These social protection
measures may include poverty reduction schemes; cash transfer programs, social and health
insurance, public work programs, housing programs, disability pensions and mobility grants.
Social protection from a rights-based approach must accommodate the needs of persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities. Traditional disability-related social welfare schemes have
mainly focused on poverty rather than taking into account specific challenges faced by persons
with disabilities and vulnerabilities; particularly active participation in education, access to
health and employment. Previous methods of addressing benefits for persons with disabilities
have shown limited progress in overcoming the deeply-rooted social structures and practices
that hinder opportunities for persons with disabilities. Consequently, social protection needs
to move beyond traditional welfare approaches to intervention systems that promote active
citizenship, social inclusion and community participation while avoiding paternalism and
dependence.
The right of persons with disabilities to social protection is recognized by the 1948
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the 1966 International Covenant on

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Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and, more specifically, the 2006 UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). Article 28 of the CRPD in
particular recognizes the right of persons with disabilities to an adequate standard of living and
to social protection, ensuring the enjoyment of both rights without discrimination on the basis
of ability. Therefore, States parties should take appropriate measures to ensure that they receive
equal access to mainstream social protection programs and services —including basic services,
social security systems, poverty reduction programs and housing programs— but also specific
programs and services for disability-related needs and expenses.
Furthermore, the Social Protection Floors Recommendation (No. 202) recognizes the
importance of national social protection floors to provide basic social security guarantees to
all persons, including persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities, across the life cycle (with
priority given to poverty, vulnerability, and social exclusion).

Gender and disability

Dear students, what impact does rural living have on women with disabilities?

The importance of work and the daily activities required of living in the country are paramount
in considering gender. For the male and female with disabilities and vulnerable groups, work
is universally seen as important, whether paid work or voluntary. When the work interests of
men with disabilities are similar to those of others around them, their identity as a ‗man‘
becomes more valuable to the community. However, there are issues around how masculinity
in rural areas is constituted. Finding ways to express this through involvement in common
activities can be difficult. Many of male and females with disabilities have creativity and skill
in finding ways to do things and consequently being able to build friendships with other men
in their communities.
Work, particularly paid work, is also important for many of the female contributors.
Sustaining this in the face of community views about disability is at times difficult, particularly
when it is balanced with expectations of traditional women‘s roles of home making and
childcare. Being excluded from these latter tasks because of others‘ protective or controlling

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views is particularly difficult for some women in asserting their identities as women and
exploring these types of gendered practices.

Identity and disability

The relational nature of identity seems to be of central importance to people with disabilities
and a rural environment in some instances provides a different way for people to be perceived
by others and by themselves. People with disabilities are not primarily clients or service users
but rather are known members of their communities with a shared and, at times,
intergenerational history. The formality of the service system is counterpointed by the
relationships people formed with those who share a rural life.
Identity marked by disability is complex and multilayered; relationships, outside of paid,
formalized service settings. Services are facilitators of a rural life, rather than the focus of rural
life itself. New technologies, determination and interests shape differing identities for people
who are active agents in their own lives.
This is not to argue that rural living is an idyll for people with disabilities. For some,
their interests and aspirations are elsewhere and they may be constrained by the necessity of
living rurally either because of the needed support from families or a personal need for the
refuge of rural living in times of difficulty. Such difficulties are often generated by broader
structural relations of being socially identified as ‗disabled‘, such as with the onset of new
austerity measures.
Disability as part of an individual‘s identity is seen by some as a struggle. This is often
twofold: internally to individuals and their sense of self and, too often, in the way they are
perceived and constructed by those around them. An acquired disability is experienced as
challenging the nature of one‘s internal pre-established identity and as a struggle to change the
perceptions and attitudes of others and the physical environment in which a person lives.
Relations with family, friends and communities often provided a contradictory landscape,
where a person has to negotiate his or her new disabled identity yet, at the same time, is able
to draw upon previous shared experiences to become re-embedded in friendships and
communities. Finding ways to gain ‗value‘ in the local community with a disability is an
ongoing and, too often, difficult journey. It is these very journeys that create one‘s identity and
the relational nature of this identity to the rural landscape.

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Belongingness and disability
Belonging is a complex concept involving an attachment to place, relationships with others, a
sense of safety, common values and a shared and/or developing history. Belonging is also an
internal sense of being at home in one‘s own body and mind. Persons with disabilities and
vulnerable groups have struggled to come to terms with a body and mind which seem
unfamiliar to them, in which they have to make adjustments or accommodations both for
themselves and in terms of their relationships with others. This internal negotiation and
navigation shape their engagement with their social worlds, particularly in rural communities.
Persons with disabilities in rural areas should have a strong attachment to place,
somewhere familiar and known where they can feel safe, find their ways alone, exercise
autonomy and express their embodied selves. The possibility of making change happen in an
environment, where one‘s voice is heard, is also seen as a part of belonging in a community.
While this is sometimes a struggle, there is a sense that people can use their personal contacts
and friends to get change to happen when it is needed.
Family relationships as a means of connecting to community and being known by
others, and knowing others outside the family are important. Different kinds of relationship
contributed to this sense of belonging, ranging from the more superficial nodding
acquaintances to specific informal support from known others, to the intimacy of close friends
and kin.
Historically for people with disabilities, rurality was once the site of exclusion, rather
than belonging, where identity and gender were disregarded in favor of ensuring protection of
people with disabilities and of the society in which they lived. The idea of belonging in a rural
landscape was promoted by people with a vested interest in segregation.
People with disabilities and marginalized groups feel isolated. Some persons with disabilities
have actively sought to migrate to urban environments, to escape from the confines and
constraints of small rural environments and to build broader social networks away from the
farm.

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3.2.1.4 Intersectionality

Social structures and norms surrounding age are particularly significant, shaping the kind of
lives people have and their experience of gender and identity. They have particular
implications for people‘s attachment to place and their aspirations and desires for the future.
Age matters, too, in terms of the support that family and services can offer in a rural
environment and the types of ‗age-appropriate‘ opportunities that can be facilitated in the
person‘s home, family and community. Being a particular ‗age‘ in a rural landscape has
implications for the types of social relationship that are openly facilitated and enabled.
The wider contextual values and economic and social changes have also impact on the
life of persons with disabilities. Religious values that shape the way disability is constituted in
some countries are a powerful influence on the way people with disabilities are able to live
their lives. These values intersect with societal expectations of gender roles. Many peoples
with disabilities are subjected to being viewed as objects of pity and prevailing myths about
their capacities, socially and individually. These social myths are key sites of struggle and, as
suggested earlier, are deeply intertwined with a person‘s own subjective understandings of
gendered identities and sense of belonging as a person with a disability.
Economic changes which have led to mass migration from the rural to the urban and
increased the emphasis on citizens‘ economic contribution to society have also had an impact
on rural living for some people. Further, structural changes, such as austerity and welfare
retraction, in some countries have created unique pressures on some people with disabilities
living in rural areas. These places may provide a space to ‗hide‘, a place where one is known
and familiar, and where one is sheltered from the negative attitudes that accompany
government cutbacks. Such prevailing economic constraints also lead to new forms of
isolation. The constant pressure to ‗present‘ in an acceptable way to the people one knows and,
at the same time, to continue to qualify for the benefits one needs has added a new form of
stress to rural living not previously experienced by many people with disabilities. The
experience of having a disability and not being on welfare is significantly different to that of
people with disabilities whose economic security depends on what has become highly
stigmatized support. The management of the self and of rural social relationships intersects

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deeply with these broader structural changes, and navigating such structural continuities and
disruptions is a critical influence on the lives of people with disabilities.
Poverty has impact on living a decent life with a disability in a rural landscape, a life
that they have defined and desired. In a number of cases this is centered on the need for paid
work and the difficulties in finding it where employment is often scarce or highly exclusionary
due to farming practices. Some contributors emphasize the importance of familial social
networks and the additional support these provide, alongside belonging to a community where
one is known, in enabling people with disabilities to counter the negative aspects of poverty.
Given the changing welfare environment, including the growing insecurity of disability
support landscapes, many of the contributors express fears of the future. Particular concerns
are the very real possibility of a time when services or family support may not be available,
alongside the impact of diminished access to social security with the onset of austerity.
The Health Care Needs of Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities

People with disabilities report seeking more health care than people without disabilities and
have greater unmet needs. For example, a recent survey of people with serious mental
disorders, showed that between 35% and 50% of people in developed countries, and between
76% and 85% in developing countries, received no treatment in the year prior to the study.

Health promotion and prevention activities seldom target people with disabilities. For
example women with disabilities receive less screening for breast and cervical cancer than
women without disabilities. People with intellectual impairments and diabetes are less likely
to have their weight checked. Adolescents and adults with disabilities are more likely to be
excluded from sex education programs.

Dear students, how are the lives of people with disabilities affected by lack of health
care service?

People with disabilities are particularly vulnerable to deficiencies in health care services.
Depending on the group and setting, persons with disabilities may experience greater
vulnerability to secondary conditions, co-morbid conditions, age-related conditions, engaging
in health risk behaviors and higher rates of premature death.

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 A) Secondary conditions: conditions occur in addition to (and are related to) a primary
health condition, and are both predictable and therefore preventable. Examples include
pressure ulcers, urinary tract infections, osteoporosis and pain.
B) Co-morbid conditions: conditions occur in addition to (and are unrelated to) a primary
health condition associated with disability. For example the prevalence of diabetes in
people with schizophrenia is around 15% compared to a rate of 2-3% for the general
population.
C) Age-related conditions: The ageing process for some groups of people with
disabilities begins earlier than usual. For example some people with developmental
disabilities show signs of premature ageing in their 40s and 50s.
D) Engaging in health risk behaviors: Some studies have indicated that people with
disabilities have higher rates of risky behaviors such as smoking, poor diet and physical
inactivity.

Barriers to Health Care for Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerable Groups

People with disabilities encounter a range of barriers when they attempt to access health care
including the following.
a) Prohibitive costs: Affordability of health services and transportation are two main
reasons why people with disabilities do not receive needed health care in low-income
countries - 32-33% of non-disabled people are unable to afford health care compared
to 51-53% of people with disabilities.
b) Limited availability of services: The lack of appropriate services for people with
disabilities is a significant barrier to health care. For example, studies indicate that the
lack of services especially in the rural area is the second most significant barrier to
using health facilities.
c) Physical barriers: Uneven access to buildings (hospitals, health centers), inaccessible
medical equipment, poor signage, narrow doorways, internal steps, inadequate
bathroom facilities, and inaccessible parking areas create barriers to health care
facilities. For example, women with mobility difficulties are often unable to access
breast and cervical cancer screening because examination tables are not height-

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 adjustable and mammography equipment only accommodates women who are able to
stand.
d) Inadequate skills and knowledge of health workers: People with disabilities were
more than twice as likely to report finding health care provider skills inadequate to
meet their needs, four times more likely to report being treated badly and nearly three
times more likely to report being denied care.

Addressing for Inclusive Barriers to Health Care

Governments and professionals can improve health outcomes for people with disabilities by
improving access to quality, affordable health care services, which make the best use of
available resources. As several factors interact to inhibit access to health care, reforms in all
the interacting components of the health care system are required.

a) Policy and legislation: Assess existing policies and services, identify priorities to
reduce health inequalities and plan improvements for access and inclusion. Make
changes to comply with the CRPD. Establish health care standards related to care of
persons with disabilities with enforcement mechanisms.
b) Financing: Where private health insurance dominates health care financing, ensure
that people with disabilities are covered and consider measures to make the premiums
affordable. Ensure that people with disabilities benefit equally from public health care
programs. Use financial incentives to encourage health-care providers to make services
accessible and provide comprehensive assessments, treatment, and followups.
Consider options for reducing or removing out-of-pocket payments for people with
disabilities who do not have other means of financing health care services.
c) Service delivery: Provide a broad range of modifications and adjustments (reasonable
accommodation) to facilitate access to health care services. For example changing the
physical layout of clinics to provide access for people with mobility difficulties or
communicating health information in accessible formats such as Braille. Empower
people with disabilities to maximize their health by providing information, training,
and peer support. Promote community-based rehabilitation (CBR) to facilitate access
for disabled people to existing services. Identify groups that require alternative service

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 delivery models, for example, targeted services or care coordination to improve access
to health care.
d) Human resources: Integrate disability inclusion education into undergraduate and
continuing education for all health-care professionals. Train community workers so
that they can play a role in preventive health care services. Provide evidence-based
guidelines for assessment and treatment.

Disability, vulnerability and the Environment

Dear students,

• How specific nature of environment increases or decreases the degree of

disability?
• How society‘s attitudes affect the services provision for persons with disabilities?
• How can you decrease the impact of disability in your specific profession to make
the life of persons with disabilities simple?

The prevailing understanding about the cause of disability has undergone profound change
worldwide. Previous models of absolute determinism that viewed pathology and disability
interchangeably and that excluded consideration of the environment have been replaced by
models in which disability is seen to result from the interaction between the characteristics of
individuals with disabilities and the characteristics of their environment. Cultural norms affect
the way that the physical and social environments of the individual are constituted and then
focus on a few—but not all—of the elements of the environment to provide examples of how
the environment affects the degree of disability. The amount of disability is not determined by
levels of pathologies, impairments, or functional limitations, but instead is a function of the
kind of services provided to people with disabling conditions and the extent to which the
physical, built environment is accommodating or not accommodating to the particular
disabling condition. Because societies differ in their willingness to provide the available
technology and, indeed, their willingness to provide the resources to improve that technology,
disability ultimately must been seen as a function of society, not of a physical or medical
process.

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 Disability is not inherent in an individual but is, rather, a relational concept—a function
of the interaction of the person with the social and physical environments. The amount of
disability that a person experiences, depends on both the existence of a potentially disabling
condition (or limitation) and the environment in which the person lives. For any given
limitation (i.e., potential disability), the amount of actual disability experienced by a person
will depend on the nature of the environment, that is, whether the environment is positive and
enabling (and serves to compensate for the condition, ameliorate the limitation, or facilitate
one's functional activities) or negative and disabling (and serves to worsen the condition,
enhance the limitation, or restrict one's functional activities). Human competencies interact
with the environment in a dynamic reciprocal relationship that shapes performance. When
functional limitations exist, social participation is possible only when environmental support
is present. If there is no environmental support, the distance between what the people can do
and what the environment affords creates a barrier that limits social participation.

The physical and social environments comprise factors external to the individual,
including family, institutions, community, geography, and the political climate. Added to this
conceptualization of environment is one's intrapersonal or psychological environment, which
includes internal states, beliefs, cognition, expectancies and other mental states. Thus,
environmental factors must be seen to include the natural environment, the human made
environment, culture, the economic system, the political system, and psychological factors.

Dear students, list some of disabling and enabling environment as much as you can?

Some Enabling and Disabling Factors in the Physical Environment

Ty
Type of pe of Environment
Factor
Natural Environment Built Environment

Dry climate Ramps

Flat terrain Adequate lighting

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 Clear paths Braille signage

Snow Steps

Rocky terrain Low-wattage lighting

High humidity Absence of flashing light alerting systems
Reflection
Dear students, What do you understand when we say physical, social and psychological

environment? And how it affects life of persons with disabilities?

The environmental mat may be conceived of as having two major parts: the physical
environment and the social and psychological environments. The physical environment may
be further subdivided conceptually into the natural environment and the built environment.
Both affect the extent to which a disabling condition will be experienced by the person as a
disability.

Three types of attributes of the physical environment need to be in place to support

human performance. The first attribute is object availability. Objects must be in a location
that is useful, at a level where they can be retrieved, and must be organized to support the
performance of the activity. Neither a sink that is too high for a wheelchair user nor a
telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) that is kept at a hotel reception desk is available.
The second attribute is accessibility. Accessibility is related to the ability of people to get to a
place or to use a device. Accessibility permits a wheelchair user to ride a bus or a Braille user
to read a document. The third attribute is the availability of sensory stimulation regarding
the environment. Sensory stimulation, which can include visual, tactile, or auditory cues,
serves as a signal to promote responses. Examples of such cues could include beeping
microwaves, which elicit responses from people without hearing impairments, or bumpy
surfaces on subway platforms, which tell users with visual impairments to change their
location.
A) The Natural Environment

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The natural environment may have a major impact on whether a limitation is disabling. For
example, a person who has severe allergies to ragweed or mold, which can trigger disabling
asthma, can be free of that condition in climates where those substances do not grow. The
physical conditions still exist, but in one environment they may become disabling and in
another environment they might not. Another example might be that a person who has limited
walking ability will be less disabled in a flat geographical location than he disabled in both
places during the winter than during the summer. Thus, the natural environment, including
topography and climate, affect whether or to what degree a functional limitation will be
disabling.

B) The human made Environment

The physical environment is a complex interaction of built-in objects. Built objects are created
and constructed by humans and vary widely in terms of their complexity, size, and purpose.
Built objects are created for utilitarian reasons and also for an outlet for creativity. For instance,
built objects such as dishwashers and computers have the potential to enhance human
performance or to create barriers.

Rural environment, Disability and Vulnerability

Dear students;
What does rural living mean for people with disabilities?
How far does living rurally facilitate or create barriers to people with disabilities belonging in
their community?
Dear students, this topic focus on rural environment and life of persons with disabilities,
vulnerabilities and marginalized groups, how rural landscapes, infrastructure and communities
shaped social understandings of disability, and how these understandings might uniquely shape
opportunities a better life of this group of people. People with disabilities, vulnerabilities and
marginalized groups have no voices about their lives and what rural living means to them.
Physical landscapes are infused with social meaning and that the feelings we have for particular
places are built up through an accumulation of experiences that invoke strong emotional
responses. Rurality must be considered as more than an issue of context or setting. Instead,
rurality professionals in rural should prioritize the voices and experiences of those who live

69
rurally, and that the specific characteristics or aspects of the particular rural communities to
which they belong.
Since larger population of Ethiopia (more than 85%) are agricultural community, life and
aspirations of disabilities and vulnerable groups highlight both the pull and the push of rural
living without appropriate services and supports.
Persons with disabilities, vulnerable and marginalized groups living in rural areas have double
disadvantaged due to their impairments and vulnerabilities and unfavorable physical and social
environment. Professional who are working in rural areas should work in collaboration
accordingly. More specifically, these group of people have been excluded from agricultural
works (productivity) due its nature high demand to labour and lack of technologies and well
organized support from professional.

Creating Welcoming (Inclusive) Environment

External environmental modifications can take many forms. These can include assistive
devices, alterations of a physical structure, object modification, and task modification. The role
of environmental modification as a prevention strategy has not been systematically evaluated,
and its role in preventing secondary conditions and disability that accompany a poor fit
between human abilities and the environment should be studied. Environmental strategies may
ease the burden of care experienced by a family member who has the responsibility of
providing the day-to-day support for an individual who does not have the capacity for social
participation and independent living in the community. These environmental modifications
may well be an effort at primary prevention because the equipment may provide a safety net
and prevent disabling conditions that can occur through lifting and transfer of individuals who
may not be able to do it by themselves.

Rehabilitation must place emphasis on addressing the environmental needs of people

with disabling conditions. Environmental strategies can be effective in helping people function
independently and not be limited in their social participation, in work, leisure or social
interactions as a spouse, parent, friend, or coworker.

Examples of Environmental Modification

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1. Mobility aids
• Hand Orthosis
• Mouth stick
• Prosthetic limb
• Wheelchair (manual and/or motorized)
• Canes
• Crutches
• Braces

2. Communication aids
• Telephone amplifier or TDD
• Voice-activated computer
• Closed or real-time captioning
• Computer-assisted note taker
• Print enlarger
• Reading machines
• Books on tape
• Sign language or oral interpreters
• Braille writer
• Cochlear implant
• Communication boards FM, audio-induction loop, or infrared systems
3. Accessible structural elements

• Ramps Elevators
• Wide doors
• Safety bars
• Nonskid floors
• Sound-reflective building materials
• Enhanced lighting
• Electrical sockets that meet appropriate reach ranges
• Hardwired flashing alerting systems Increased textural contrast

4. Accessible features

• Built up handles
• Voice-activated computer
• Automobile hand controls

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 5. Job accommodations
• Simplification of task
• Flexible work hours
• Rest breaks
• Splitting job into parts
• Relegate nonessential functions to others

6. Differential use of personnel

• Personal care assistants

• Note takers
• Secretaries Editors
• Sign language interpreters

3.3.1.1.1Impact of the Social and Psychological Environments on the Enabling-Disabling

Process

The social environment is conceptualized to include cultural, political, and economic factors.
The psychological environment is the intrapersonal environment. This section examines how
both affect the disabling process.

Culture and the Disabling Process

Culture affects the enabling-disabling process at each stage; it also affects the transition from
one stage to another. This section defines culture and then considers the ways in which it affects
each stage of the process.

Definition of Culture

Definition of culture includes both material culture (things and the rules for producing them)
and nonmaterial culture (norms or rules, values, symbols, language, ideational systems such
as science or religion, and arts such as dance, crafts, and humor). Nonmaterial culture is so
comprehensive that it includes everything from conceptions of how many days a week has or
how one should react to pain to when one should seek medical care or whether a

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hermaphroditic person is an abomination, a saint, or a mistake. Cultures also specify
punishments for rule-breaking, exceptions to rules, and occasions when exceptions are
permitted. The role of nonmaterial culture for humans has been compared to the role of
instincts for animals or to the role of a road map for a traveler. It provides the knowledge that
permits people to be able to function in both old and new situations.

Both the material and nonmaterial aspects of cultures and subcultures are relevant to the
enabling-disabling process. However, for our purpose we will focus primarily on the role of
nonmaterial culture in that process. Cultures have an impact on the types of pathologies that
will occur as well as on their recognition as pathologies.

Dear students Discuss the relationship between culture, social structure, and the types of
disabilities that arise from the types of pathologies in your community and howit affects
persons with disabilities in their daily life.

However, if a pathology is not recognized by the culture (in medical terms, diagnosed), the
person does not begin to progress toward disability (or cure).

Enabling and Disabling Factors

Element of Social and Psychological Environment

Culture Psychological Political Economic

Expecting people Having an active Mandating relay Tax credits to hire people with
with disabling coping strategy systems in all states disabling conditions
conditions to be
productive
Expecting everyone Cognitive Banning discrimination Targeted earned income tax
to know sign restructuring against people who can credits
language perform the essential
functions of the job
Stigmatizing people Catastrophizing Segregating children Economic disincentives to get
with disabling with mobility off Social Security Disability
conditions impairments in schools Income benefits

Valuing physical Denial Voting against No subsidies or tax credits for

beauty paratransit system purchasing assistive technology
Pathway from Pathology to Impairment to Functional Limitation

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Culture can affect the likelihood of the transition from pathology to impairment. A subculture,
such as that of well-educated society, in which health advice is valued, in which breast cancer
screening timetables are followed, and in which early detection is likely, is one in which breast
tumors are less likely to move from pathology to impairments. In a subculture in which this is
not true, one would likely see more impairments arising from the pathologies.

Cultures can also speed up or slow down the movement from pathology to impairment,
either for the whole culture or for subgroups for whom the pathway is more or less likely to be
used. For example, some religions, women are less likely to seek health care because it means
a man must be available to escort them in public, which is unlikely if the males are
breadwinners and must give up income to escort them, and women are also less likely to seek
health care if the provider is male. Thus, their culture lessens the likelihood that their pathology
will be cured and therefore increases the likelihood that the pathology will become impairment.

Culture clearly has an impact on whether a particular impairment will become a

functional limitation. Impairments do not become limiting automatically. Rather, cultures
affect the perception that the impairment is in fact the cause of the limitation, and they affect
the perception that the impairment is in fact limiting.

If a society believes that witchcraft is the reason that a woman cannot have children,
medical facts about her body become irrelevant. She may in fact have fibroids, but if that
culture sees limitation as coming from the actions of a person, there is no recognition of a
linkage between the impairment and the functional limitation. Rather, any enabling-disabling
process must go through culturally prescribed processes relating to witches; medically or
technologically based enabling-disabling processes will not be acceptable.

If the culture does not recognize that impairment is limiting, then it is not. For example,
hearing losses were not equivalent to functional limitations in Martha's Vineyard, because
"everyone there knew sign language". Or, if everyone has a backache, it is not defined by the
culture as limiting. There are many cross-cultural examples. In a culture in which nose piercing
is considered necessary for beauty, possible breathing problems resulting from that pathology
and impairment would be unlikely to be recognized as being limiting. Or, in a perhaps more

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extreme case, female circumcision is an impairment that could lead to functional limitation
(inability to experience orgasm), but if the whole point is to prevent female sexual arousal and
orgasm, then the functional limitation will not be recognized within that culture but will only
be recognized by those who come from other cultures. In all these examples, if the culture does
not recognize the impairment, the rehabilitation process is irrelevant—there is no need to
rehabilitate a physical impairment if there is no recognized functional limitation associated
with it.

Pathway from Functional Limitation to Disability

Here, the most important consideration is the ways in which the transition from functional
limitation to disability is affected by culture. A condition that is limiting must be defined as
problematic—by the person and by the culture—for it to become a disability. Whether a
functional limitation is seen as being disabling will depend on the culture. The culture defines
the roles to be played and the actions and capacities necessary to satisfy that role. If certain
actions are not necessary for a role, then the person who is limited in ability to perform those
actions does not have a disability. For example, a professor who has arthritis in her hands but
who primarily lectures in the classroom, dictates material for a secretary to type, and manages
research assistants may not be disabled in her work role by the arthritis. In this case, the
functional limitation would not become a disability. For a secretary who would be unable to
type, on the other hand, the functional limitation would become a disability in the work sphere.

A disability can exist without functional limitation, as in the case of a person with a
facial disfigurement living in cultures such as that in the United States, whose standards of
beauty cannot encompass such physical anomalies. Culture is thus relevant to the existence of
disabilities: it defines what is considered disabling. Additionally, culture determines in which
roles a person might be disabled by a particular functional limitation. For example, a farmer in
a small village may have no disability in work roles caused by a hearing loss; however, that
person may experience disabilities in family or other personal relationships. On the other hand,
a profoundly deaf, signing person married to another profoundly deaf, signing person may have
no disability in family-related areas, although there may be a disability in work-related areas.
Thus, culture affects not just whether there is a disability caused by the functional limitation

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but also where in the person's life the disability will occur. Culture is therefore part of the mat;
as such, it can protect a person from the disabling process and can slow it down or speed it up.
Culture, however, has a second function in the disabling process.
Although there is a direct path from culture to disability, there is an also indirect path.
The indirect function acts by influencing other aspects of personal and social organization in a
society. That is, the culture of a society or a subculture influences the types of personality or
intrapsychic processes that are acceptable and influences the institutions that make up the
social organization of a society. These institutions include the economic system, the family
system, the educational system, the health care system, and the political system. In all these
areas, culture sets the boundaries for what is debatable or negotiable and what is not. Each of
these societal institutions also affects the degree to which functional limitations will be
experienced by individuals as disabling.

All of the ways in which intrapsychic processes or societal institutions affect the
enabling-disabling process cannot be considered here. However, the remainder of this section
presents some examples of how the enabling-disabling process can be affected by three factors:
economic, political, and psychological.

Disability Inclusive Intervention and Rehabilitation Services

A „One-size-fits-all‟ approach to provide services for persons with disabilities and

vulnerability groups is no longer enough.
Dear students,
• What do we mean intervention and rehabilitation?
• How one can make services inclusive in your sector?
Including people with disabilities in everyday activities and encouraging them to have roles
similar to peoples who do not have a disability is disability inclusion. This involves more than
simply encouraging people; it requires making sure that adequate policies and practices are in
effect in a community or organization. Inclusion should lead to increased participation in
socially expected life roles and activities—such as being a student, worker, friend, community
member, patient, spouse, partner, or parent. Disability inclusion means provision of
differentiated services for persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities. Differentiated service

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means a multiple service delivery model that can satisfy the most needs of persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities. Socially expected activities may also include engaging in social
activities, using public resources such as transportation and libraries, moving about within
communities, receiving adequate health care, having relationships, and enjoying other day-to-
day activities. To reach ambitious targets for the general population, as well as targeted care
for persons with disabilities and vulnerable groups, we need differentiated service delivery.

Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities are often excluded (either directly or
indirectly) from development processes and humanitarian action because of physical,
attitudinal and institutional barriers. The effects of this exclusion are increased inequality,
discrimination and marginalization. To change this, a disability inclusion approach must be
implemented. The twin-track approach involves: (1) ensuring all mainstream programs and
services are inclusive and accessible to persons with disabilities, while at the same time (2)
providing targeted disability-specific support to persons with disabilities.
The two tracks reinforce each other. When mainstream programs and services, such as health
and education services, are disability-inclusive and aware, this can help facilitate both
prevention of impairments, as well as early identification of children and persons with
disabilities who can then be referred to disability-specific services. And the provision of
disability-specific supports, such as assistive devices, can help facilitate more effective
inclusion of persons with disabilities in mainstream services. Strategies to Disability
inclusive intervention and rehabilitation
Prevention
Prevention of conditions associated with disability and vulnerability is a development issue.
Attention to environmental factors – including nutrition, preventable diseases, safe water and
sanitation, safety on roads and in workplaces – can greatly reduce the incidence of health
conditions leading to disability. A public health approach distinguishes:
i) Primary prevention – actions to avoid or remove the cause of a health problem in an
individual or a population before it arises. It includes health promotion and specific
protection (for example, HIV education).
ii) Secondary prevention (early intervention) – actions to detect a health and disabling
conditions at an early stage in an individual or a population, facilitating cure, or

77
 reducing or preventing spread, or reducing or preventing its long-term effects (for
example, supporting women with intellectual disability to access breast cancer
screening).
iii) Tertiary prevention (rehabilitation) – actions to reduce the impact of an already
established disease by restoring function and reducing diseaserelated complications
(for example, rehabilitation for children with musculoskeletal impairment).
Primary prevention issues are consider as crucial to improved overall health of countries‘
populations. Viewing disability as a human rights issue is not incompatible with prevention of
health conditions as long as prevention respects the rights and dignity of people with
disabilities, for example, in the use of language and imagery. Preventing disability and
vulnerability should be regarded as a multidimensional strategy that includes prevention of
disabling barriers as well as prevention and treatment of underlying health conditions.
Implementing the Twin-track Approach
Implementing the twin-track approach involves: Track 1: Mainstreaming disability as a
cross-cutting issue within all key programs and services (education, health, relief and social
services, microfinance, infrastructure and camp improvement, protection, and emergency
response) to ensure these programs and services are inclusive, equitable, non-discriminatory,
and do not create or reinforce barriers.
This is done by: gathering information on the diverse needs of persons with disabilities
during the assessment stage; considering disability inclusion during the planning stage; making
adaptations in the implementation stage; and gathering the perspectives of persons with
disabilities in the reporting and evaluation stage.
Track 2: Supporting the specific needs of vulnerable groups with disabilities to ensure
they have equal opportunities to participate in society. This is done by strengthening referral
to both internal and external pathways and ensuring that sector programs to provide
rehabilitation, assistive devices and other disability-specific services are accessible to persons
with disabilities and vulnerable groups and adhere to protection standards and inclusion
principles. A Sector‘s organizational structures and human resources on disability inclusion
should aim to reflect this twin-track approach. In particular, each sector should have disability
program officers in all fields working to implement disability-specific support activities.

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Implement Disability Inclusive Project/ Program
As a direct service provider, consultant and materials and equipment producers concerned with
realizing equity, quality services and protecting human rights, all sectorial strategies, program,
projects and services must be disability-inclusive. The sectors operations should be largely
framed within broad programs, making it very important to ensure that disability inclusion is
reflected in program strategies and design documents. This in turn will help to subsequently
ensure disability is also incorporated into the projects that are designed to contribute to the
overall program objectives. However, persons with disabilities are often not considered in
crucial stages of most sectorial and developmental program and projects because of lack of
awareness about the characteristics of people with disabilities, vulnerability groups and
disability inclusion in practice.
The following tips will help to overcome the challenges as a key considerations for including
persons with disabilities in all program and project cycle management stages of Assessment,
Planning, Implementation and Monitoring, and Reporting/Evaluation.
A) Education and vocational training –Inclusive Educationrealize the universal right to
education for all, meaning all mainstream education services need to be supporting
children and persons with disabilities.
B) Health – vulnerable groups and persons with disabilities have the same health-care needs
as all other peoples and health sector services can also play an important prevention and
early identification role to ensure children and persons with impairments have timely
access to health services and referral rehabilitation support.
C) Relief and social services – the two-way link between poverty and disability means that
vulnerable group and peoples with disabilities and their families need to be able to access
relief support.
D) Infrastructure and camp improvement, shelter, water and sanitation and
environmental health – universal design concepts must be considered in all
infrastructure and construction programs and projects.
E) Livelihoods, employment and microfinance – vulnerable groups and people with
disabilities face numerous barriers to achieving an independent livelihood, it is crucial
that specific sectors responsible for livelihood programs and projects to make accessible
to all vulnerable and people with disabilities.

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 F) Protection – marginalized groups and people with disabilities may face risks and
vulnerabilities to experiencing violence, exploitation, abuse, neglect and violation of
rights and therefore need to be specifically considered and included in protection
programs and projects.
G) Humanitarian and emergency response – the disproportionate effect of emergency and
humanitarian situations on vulnerable groups and people with disabilities should be
reflected in the design and implementation of the humanitarian projects.
Implement effective Intervention and Rehabilitation
Dear students,
What do you understand about the terms intervention and rehabilitation?

Rehabilitation interventions promote a comprehensive process to facilitate attainment

of the optimal physical, psychological, cognitive, behavioral, social, vocational, avocational,
and educational status within the capacity allowed by the anatomic or physiologic impairment,
personal desires and life plans, and environmental (dis)advantages for a person with a
disability.
Consumers/patients, families, and professionals work together as a team to identify
realistic goals and develop strategies to achieve the highest possible functional outcome, in
some cases in the face of a permanent disability, impairment, or pathologic process. Although
rehabilitation interventions are developed within medical and health care models, treatments
are not typically curative. Professionals have the knowledge and background to anticipate
outcomes from the interventions, with a certain degree of both optimism and cynicism, drawn
from past experiences.
Rehabilitation requires goal-based activities and, more recently, measurement of
outcomes. The professionals, usually with the patient/ consumer and/or family, develop goals
of the interventions to help mark progress or identify the need to reassess the treatment plan.
Broad goals and anticipated outcomes should include increased independence, prevention of
further functional losses or additional medical conditions when possible, improved quality of
life, and effective and efficient use of health care systems. Consideration of accessibility of
environments and social participation can, and increasingly should, be included within the
scope of outcomes and goals for independence. A broad range of measurement tools have been

80
developed for use within rehabilitation, and these standardized tools, along with objective
measures of performance (e.g., distance walked, ability to perform a task independently), are
typically documented throughout the course of the intervention. There are general underlying
concepts and theories of rehabilitation interventions. Examples of these theories and concepts
include movement and motor control, human occupation models, education and learning,
health promotion and prevention of additional and secondary health conditions, neural control
and central nervous system plasticity, pain modulation, development and maturation, coping
and adjustment, biomechanics, linguistics and pragmatics, resiliency and self-reliance,
auditory processing, and behavior modification.
These concepts, alone or in combination, form the basis for interventions and treatment plans.
Advances in medical research now support or explain some of the theories or concepts.
It has been demonstrated, for example, that retraining reorganizes neural networks and circuits,
that skill retraining must be task specific and maintaining a skill is usedependent, that central
nervous system cells and chemical messengers may be replaced, that neural circuits and
connections can be regrown, and that all muscles can be strengthened. Medical rehabilitation
is often considered separately, and is focused on recognition, diagnosis, and treatment of health
conditions (e.g., medication for treatment of fatigue in multiple sclerosis, botulinum injections
for spasticity management in brain injury); on reducing further impairment (e.g., treatment of
ongoing shoulder adhesive capsulitis in stroke, management of osteoarthritis of the remaining
knee in above-knee amputation); and on preventing or treating associated, secondary, or
complicating conditions (e.g., neurogenic bladder management with intermittent
catheterization in spinal cord injury, diagnosis of cervical spinal stenosis in an adult with
cerebral palsy). Although medical rehabilitation does use rehabilitation interventions and
espouses the principles of rehabilitation, medical aspects are additive to rehabilitation
interventions and principles, with common goals of improved function and outcomes.
There is convincing evidence that the rehabilitation process and interventions improve
the functional outcomes of people with a variety of injuries, medical conditions, and
disabilities. Assistive technology is often used in conjunction with rehabilitation interventions;
this topic is covered in the Assistive Technology and Science volume in this series.
Rehabilitation interventions are associated with social participation (e.g., access to education
using rehabilitation interventions) and career planning and employment (e.g., longterm goal of

81
rehabilitation interventions). These topics are covered in the Education and Employment and
Work volumes. There are additional efforts not covered in this volume that may also be a part
of rehabilitation interventions and processes, which include the discrete areas of mental health
and addiction rehabilitation. These are important areas that have crossover with rehabilitation
interventions, have defined sets of standards and regulation, and have robust histories of
development.
Rehabilitation was conceived within the more traditional model of medical care, but it
is increasingly obvious that disability issues are more than medically driven. The social justice
and civil rights model of disability is important to understand, and elements must be
incorporated into rehabilitation interventions, especially as they relate to accessibility of
environments and services. Of all the medical specialties and programs, rehabilitation is the
one most based on quality of life and functioning within the community. Inequalities and
differences must be addressed within the structures of funding and spheres of influence.
Increasingly, insurance plans determine the availability of rehabilitation services, equipment
and assistive devices, and community-based resources; government funding is more limited
for education, especially for those with special needs; and businesses and workers‘
compensation programs are more restrictive with flexibility and coverage policies.
Components of Rehabilitation Interventions
Rehabilitation is a process designed to optimize function and improve the quality of life of
those with disabilities. Consequently, it is not a simple process. It involves multiple
participants, and it can take on many forms. The following is a description of the individual
components that, when combined, comprise the process and activity of rehabilitation.
Multiple Disciplines
Rehabilitation interventions usually involve multiple disciplines. Although some focused
interventions may be identified by a single service—such as cognitive retraining by a
psychologist or speech pathologist, and audiologic rehabilitation through hearing-aid
evaluation and dispensing—sole service does not engender the rehabilitation concept of a team
approach, and it is often differentiated as therapy or medical service rather than rehabilitation.
There are a variety of professionals who participate in and contribute to the rehabilitation
process within a team approach. The list is long, and it includes (although is not limited to)
such professionals as the following:

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Physicians
The physician‘s role is to manage the medical and health conditions of the patient/consumer
within the rehabilitation process, providing diagnosis, treatment, or management of disability-
specific issues. Often, the physician leads the rehabilitation team, although other team
members can assume the leadership role depending on the targeted goal or predominant
intervention. Because of the depth and breadth of their knowledge and training, certified
rehabilitation physicians or physiatrists usually are the best qualified to anticipate outcomes
from rehabilitation interventions and the process of rehabilitation. They also can provide the
diagnosis and treatment of additional medical conditions related to the specific disability or
underlying pathology, which will have an influence on performance and outcome.

Occupational Therapists
Occupational therapists (OTs) typically work with patients/consumers through functional
activities in order to increase their ability to participate in activities of daily living (ADLs) and
instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), in school and work environments, using a
variety of techniques. Typical techniques include functional training, exercise, splinting,
cognitive strategies, vision activities, computer programs and activities, recommendation of
specially designed or commercially available adaptive equipment, and home/education/work
site assessments and recommendations.
Physical Therapists
Physical therapists (PTs) assess movement dysfunction and use treatment interventions such
as exercise, functional training, manual therapy techniques, gait and balance training, assistive
and adaptive devices and equipment, and physical agents, including electrotherapy, massage,
and manual traction. The outcome focus of interventions is improved mobility, decreased pain,
and reduced physical disability.
Speech and Language Therapist
Speech and language therapist assess, treat, and help to prevent disorders related to speech,
language, cognition, voice, communication, swallowing, and fluency. Rehabilitation
interventions involve more than the spoken word, including the cognitive aspects of
communication and oral-motor function with swallowing. Assistive technology using
augmentative or alternative communication (AAC) devices (e.g., BIGmack switch-activation

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devices, DynaVox dynamic display and digitized voice devices) is another focus area of speech
pathologists.
Audiologists
Audiologists identify, assess, manage, and interpret test results related to disorders of hearing,
balance, and other systems related to hearing. Hearing screens and more technologically
advanced testing systems fall under the areas of practice. Audiologic rehabilitation
interventions include developing auditory and central processing skills, evaluating and fitting
for a variety of hearing aids and supports, training for use of hearing prosthetics, including
cochlear implants, and counseling for adjustment to hearing loss or newly acquired hearing.
Although sign language is a technique used to assist with communication for those with
hearing impairments, competency is not required foraudiologists.

Rehabilitation Nurses
The rehabilitation nurse usually takes the role of educator and taskmaster throughout
rehabilitation, but these professionals have most prominence within inpatient rehabilitation
programs. They are expert at bladder management, bowel management, and skin care, and they
provide education to patients and families about these important areas and also medications to
be used at home after discharge. Activities developed within the active therapeutic
rehabilitation programs are routinely used and practiced, such as dressing, bathing, feeding,
toileting, transfers to and from wheelchairs, and mobility.
Social Workers
Social workers in health settings may provide case management or coordination for persons
with complex medical conditions and needs; help patients navigate the paths between different
levels of care; refer patients to legal, financial, housing, or employment services; assist patients
with access to entitlement benefits, transportation assistance, or communitybased services;
identify, assess, refer, or offer treatment for such problems as depression, anxiety, or substance
abuse; or provide education or support programming for health or related social problems.
Social workers work not only with the individual receiving rehabilitation services, but with
family members, to assist both the individual and family in reaching decisions and making
emotional or other adjustments.

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Case Managers
Case management is a relatively new concept that has come about with the survival of
patients/consumers with complex medical problems and disabilities, and with the development
of a more complex health care system. Case managers possess skills and credentials within
other health professions, such as nursing, counseling, or therapies, although they usually have
a nursing background. These professionals collaborate with all service providers and link the
needs and values of the patient/consumer with appropriate services and providers within the
continuum of health care. This process requires communication with the patient/consumer and
his or her family, the service providers, and the insurance companies.
Within the rehabilitation environment, case managers ensure that ongoing care is at an
optimal level and covered by insurance or other payer programs, during and following inpatient
rehabilitation or throughout an outpatient rehabilitation process. Coordination of services
following the inpatient admission can be the most difficult task. A hospital, rehabilitation
program, or insurance company may employ case managers.
Rehabilitation Psychologists
Rehabilitation psychology is a specialized area of psychology that assists the individual (and
family) with any injury, illness, or disability that may be chronic, traumatic, and/or congenital
in achieving optimal physical, psychological, and interpersonal functioning (Scherer et
al.,2004). This profession is an integral part of rehabilitation, and it involves assessment and
intervention that is tailored to the person‘s level of impairment and is set within an
interdisciplinary framework.
Neuropsychologists
Neuropsychology is another specialized area within psychology, and it is of particular
importance in the care of individuals who have sustained brain injuries. These professionals
possess specialized skills in testing procedures and methods that assess various aspects of
cognition (e.g., memory, attention, language), emotions, behaviors, personality, effort,
motivation, and symptom validity. With this testing, the neuropsychologist can determine
whether the level and pattern of performance is consistent with the clinical history, behavioral
observations, and known or suspected neuropathology, and the degree to which the test
performance deviates from expected norms. Additional contexts encountered in brain injury
survivors can complicate the clinical presentation and impact neuropsychological test

85
performance. The neuropsychologist can identify emotional states arising from changing life
circumstances (e.g., depression, anxiety), medical co-morbidities (e.g., substance abuse, heart
disease), and social-contextual factors (e.g., litigation, financial distress), and can then explain
their potential influence to the injured person, family members, and other health care providers.
Therapeutic Recreation Specialists
Recreational therapists, also referred to as therapeutic recreation specialists, provide treatment
services and recreation activities for individuals with disabilities or illnesses. They use a
variety of techniques to improve and maintain the physical, mental, and emotional wellbeing
of their clients, with the typical broad goals of greater independence and integration into the
community. Therapists promote community-based leisure activities as a complement to other
therapeutic interventions, and as a means to practice those clinic- or hospital-based activities
within a real-world context.
Rehabilitation Counselors
Rehabilitation counselors (previously known as vocational counselors) assist persons with both
physical and mental disabilities, and cover the vocational, psychological, social, and medical
aspects of disability, through a partnership with the individuals served. Rehabilitation
counselors can evaluate and coordinate the services needed, provide counseling to assist people
in coping with limitations caused by the disability, assist with exploration of future life
activities and return-to-work plans, and provide advocacy for needs.
Orthotists and Prosthetists
These professionals practice within a unique area of rehabilitation, combining technical and
some clinical skills. The orthotist fabricates and designs custom braces or orthotics to improve
the function of those with neuromuscular or musculoskeletal impairments, or to stabilize an
injury or impairment through the healing process. The prosthetist works with individuals with
partial or total limb absence or amputation to enhance their function by use of a prosthesis (i.e.,
artificial limb, prosthetic device). The orthotist/prosthetist usually works with a physician,
therapist, or other member of the rehabilitation team to ensure an effective design to meet the
needs of the individual, especially regarding the ability to maneuver within the built
environment and be socially active.
Additional Rehabilitation Professionals

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Other rehabilitation professionals who might be considered members of the team include
nutritionist, spiritual care, rehabilitation engineer, music therapist, dance therapist, child-life
specialist, hospital-based school teacher, massage therapist, kinesiologist, and trainer, among
others.
Person with the Disability and His or Her Family
The person with the disability and his or her family members are partners in this team process.
In fact, they are key members of the team. Personal and family/support system goals,
family/friend support, and community resources are driving forces regarding goals and
discharge planning within the rehabilitation process. The process involves the best strategies
of interventions based on standards of care, the evidence base regarding outcomes related to
interventions, the experience of the practitioners, and the personal and family needs and
contexts of the person with the disability. Professionals should be skillful in their
communication to consumers about anticipated outcomes and effectiveness of interventions.
Community-Based Rehabilitation

CBR was originally designed for developing countries where disability estimates were very
high and the countries were under severe economic constraints. It promotes collaboration
among community leaders, peoples with disabilities and their families and other concerned
citizens to provide equal opportunities for all peoples with disabilities in the community and
to strengthen the role of their organization.

According to the view of World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations
Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), CBR is a strategy that can address
the need of peoples with disabilities within their community which can be implemented
through the combined efforts of peoples with disabilities themselves, their families,
organizations and communities, governmental and non-governmental organizations, health,
education, vocational, social and other services. Community based rehabilitation is a
combination of two important words; community and rehabilitation. Thus in order to get clear
concept about the definition of CBR, let us first define the two terms separately.

Community-consists of people living together in some form of social organization sharing

political, economic, social and cultural characteristics in varying degrees.

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Rehabilitation-includes all measures aimed at reducing the impact of disability for an
individual enabling him or her to achieve independence, social integration, a better quality of
life and self actualization or refers to measures which aim to enable persons with disabilities
to attain and maintain maximum independence, full physical, mental, social and vocational
ability, and full inclusion and participation in all aspects of life.

If you give a person a fish,

He/she will eat for a day;
If you teach him/her to fish,
He/she eat for a lifetime.‖

Based on the above definition of key words, CBR is therefore, a systematized approach within
general community development whereby Persons with Disabilities are enabled to live a
fulfilling life within their own community, making maximum use of local resources and
helping the community become aware of its responsibility in ensuring the inclusion and equal
participation of ―Persons with Disabilities‖ (PWDs). In the process, PWDs are also made
aware of their own role and responsibility, as they are part of the community.

The idea of CBR is that people with disabilities should have the right to a good life.
The help they need should be available to them, at a low cost. It should be offered to them and
their family in a way that suits their usual way of living, whether in a village, a town or a city.
They should have education like everybody else. They should be able to take up jobs and earn
their living. They should be able to take a full part in all the activities of their village, or town
or city.
The idea of CBR is that, even if people learn very slowly, or has problems seeing or
hearing, or finds it hard to move about, they should still be respected for being men and women,
girls and boys. Nobody should be looked down on or treated badly just because they have a
disability. Houses, shops and schools should be built in such a way that everyone can easily go
in and out and make use of them. Information should be given to people in a way they
understand, not only in writing, which is hard for people who cannot read or see it. Information
should be given in spoken forms as well, so that everyone has a fair chance to use it. To do all
this would mean a lot of changes. But they would be good changes, because everyone could

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live a better life, helping each other and respecting one another. In addition, for the purpose of
our discussion two important definitions will be given:

1. Community based rehabilitation is a strategy that can address the needs of peoples with
disabilities with in their communities (WHO, UNESCO, 2004).

2.Community based rehabilitation is a common sense strategy for enhancing the quality of life
of peoples with disabilities by improving services delivery in order to reach all in need by
providing more equitable opportunities and by promoting and protecting their rights .

3. The joint position paper by WHO, ILO, UNICEF and UNESCO of the 2004 define CBR in
a rather flexible and broad manner in the following way: Community based rehabilitation is a
strategy within general community development for rehabilitation, equalization of
opportunities and social inclusion of all children and adults with disabilities. It is implemented
through the combined efforts of people with disabilities themselves, their families and
communities, and the appropriate health, education, vocational and social services.

This definition particularly advocates a broad approach for developing programs that
involves the following elements:

A. The participation of people with disabilities and their representatives at all stages of the
development of the program

B. The formulation and implementation of national policies to support the equal participation
of people with disabilities
C. The establishment of a system for program management

D. The multi-sectoral collaboration of governmental and nongovernmental sectors to support

communities as they assume responsibility for the inclusion of their members who
experience disabilities.

E. CBR focuses on strengthening the capacity of peoples with disabilities, and their families.

F. CBR focuses on challenging negative views and barriers in society to enable equal rights
and opportunities.
Currently, three main meanings are attached to the notion of CBR: People taking care of
themselves, a concept and an ideology and community based rehabilitation wich will be
described below.

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1. People Taking Care of Themselves
Services for people with disabilities in most regions in developing countries are still limited to
what people can do for themselves. This is the "real" CBR: all the activities that people with
disability, their family members and other community members do in their own community
for persons with disability, such as general care, accommodating each other's needs {i.e..
family members adapting themselves to the situation of the individual with disability, and vice-
versa), education and health, using whatever they know, whatever they have, in whatever daily
circumstances they exist.

2. A Concept and an Ideology. As a concept and an ideology, it promotes a

decentralized approach to rehabilitation service-delivery, whereby, it is assumed that
community members are willing and able to mobilize local resources and to provide
appropriate services to people with disabilities. This concept has been 'fled out in many
CBR programs in the developing world, by the use of government staff and facilities,
but has in most cases proved to be unrealistic.

3. Community Based Rehabilitation: is mostly in a form of Non-Governmental

Organizations (NGOs). Recognizing the human and material limitations of people with
disabilities, their family members and other community members, CBR program tries to
promote and facilitate community based rehabilitation. Unfortunately, such CBR
programs often consider 'local culture' as an obstacle, rather than as a condition towards
progress.

Major Objectives of Community Based Rehabilitation

The major objective of community based rehabilitation is to ensure that people with
disabilities are empowered to maximize their physical and mental abilities, have access
to regular services and opportunities and become active, contributing members of their
communities and then societies. Thus, community based rehabilitation promotes the
human rights of people with disabilities through attitude changes within the community.
Community based rehabilitation aims to include people who have disabilities from all
types of impairments, including difficulty hearing, speaking, moving, learning or

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behaving. Community based rehabilitation also includes all age groups: children, youth,
adults and older people.
Implement Technologies for Disability Inclusion Inclusiveness and Information
Technology (ICT)
Inclusiveness and Information Technology examines the extent to which regulatory
frameworks for information and communication technologies (ICTs) safeguard the rights of
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities as citizenship rights. Effective access to
information is crucial in facilitating the participation of citizens in civil society. Accessibility
concerns in the information and communications technologies (ICTs) sector have become
particularly important, given the increased role played by ICTs in everyday life. For persons
with disabilities and vulnerabilities, technological developments such as the proliferation of
the Internet and the provision of services for accessing digital television such as audio
description (video description), closed signing, and the availability of subtitles (captions) in
live broadcasts enabled by speech-to text technologies can make an important contribution to
facilitating independent living. Unfortunately, persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities still
face significant barriers in accessing ICTs. These barriers include, inter alia, poorly designed
Web sites (e.g., with graphics not readable by computerized screen readers, with information
that can be accessed only by the use of the mouse rather than the keyboard), limited availability
of subtitles on webcasts, the use of multiple remote controls for digital television, and difficult
to navigate on-screen displays.
These access barriers have the potential to affect persons with disabilities, including
persons with sensory disabilities (visual and/ or hearing), mobility disabilities, or cognitive
disabilities. The objective to ensure equal access to information should play a central role in
any regulatory framework for the ICT sector. Nevertheless, despite the potential of technology
to empower the public as citizens, the regulatory framework for the ICT sector has been
criticized for its overall perception of the public as economic actors and for the insufficient
level of protection conferred to citizenship values such as equality and dignity.
Inclusiveness and Assistive Technology
Dear students, explain how assistive technologies enhance inclusiveness.

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Worldwide the number of persons with disabilities, vulnerabilities and marginalized groups
is increasing alarmingly because of population aging, accident, global warming and climate
change, medical advancement, humanitarian crises, natural disaster, conflict and increases in
chronic health conditions, among other causes. Over a billion people, about 15% of the
world's population, have some form of disability. Between 110 million and 190 million
adults have significant difficulties in functioning. Technologies promote independence for
people with disabilities and vulnerability. The use of devices, computers, robots, and other
established assistive technology (AT) can potentially increase the autonomy of people with
disabilities and vulnerability, by compensating for physical limitations and circumventing
difficulties with normal activities of daily living (ADL).
Vulnerability and disability have adverse impact on quality life of these groups.
Vulnerable people and those living with disabilities are losing their independence and overall
wellbeing. The growing number of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities is too large to
be cared for through traditional government programs. The cost associated with such programs
and the lack of a skilled caregiver workforce makes it very difficult to meet the needs of this
segment of the population. It is therefore inevitable that we resort to technology in our search
for solutions to the costly and challenging problems facing persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities.
Wellbeing or quality of life is an important concern for persons with disabilities,
vulnerabilities and marginalized groups, who, like every person, is seeking to be well, happy,
healthy, and prosperous. Persons with disabilities, vulnerabilities and marginalized groups
have several important components of wellbeing. A key activity is independent living with
convenient access to goods and services, as well as being socially active and enjoying
selfesteem and dignity. In modern societies, persons with disabilities, vulnerabilities and
marginalized groups can attain some components of wellbeing such as access to services using
assistive technology (AT). Other components, such as freedom of navigation and travel, are
much more difficult because of environmental obstacles encountered by the disabled.
Assistive Technologies (AT)
Dear students, describe the role of AT in daily life of persons with disabilities?

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Surgery, generic therapy, rehabilitation, human assistance, and the use of assistive technology
(AT) help disabled people cope with their disabilities. Surgery (medical intervention) helps
decrease deficiency and, in some cases, restores capability. Genetic therapy attempts to
remediate genes responsible for a given disease or disorder. Although promising in concept,
genetic therapy is in its infancy and, as yet, has no broad application. Rehabilitation develops
and adapts residual capabilities, while human assistance aids Persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities in their daily living activities. Unfortunately, such assistance is not always
available and not necessarily cost-effective. AT can increase the autonomy, independence, and
quality of life for Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities and can also enable the
integration of social, professional, and environmental aspects of life for Persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities populations.
AT and Daily Living of Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities
Assistive technology affords Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities greater equality of
opportunity, by enhancing and expanding their communication, learning, participation, and
achievement with higher levels of independence, wellbeing, and quality of life. Such assistive
technologies are essential for helping Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities with severe
physical, sensorial, or mental limitations to become more independent, and to improve their
quality of life. Typically, AT works by compensating for absent or nonfunctional skills, by
maintaining or enhancing existing abilities. Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities utilize
AT to enhance the performance of their daily living tasks, including communication, vision,
hearing, recreation, movement, seating and mobility, reading, learning, writing, and studying,
as well as controlling and accessing their environment.
Assistive Technology varies from low-tech devices such as a cane or adapted loop, to
high-tech systems such as assistive robotics or smart spaces. Currently, most popular
technologies for Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities are simple; or examples of
mobility-enhancing equipment include wheelchairs, communication via mobile telephones and
computers, and voice-activated smart devices to enhance environmental control.
Advances in communication and information technologies further support the
development of new, more complex technologies such as utilization of smart wheelchairs,
assistive robots, and smart spaces.

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AT Definitions
Assistive technology encompasses all systems that are designed for Persons with disabilities
and Vulnerabilities, and that attempt to compensate the handicapped. This includes robotic tele
manipulators, wheelchairs, or navigation systems for the blind. AT also includes systems that
restore personal functionality, such as external prostheses and ortheses. There are various
organizational definitions for assistive technology: The international standard ISO 9999
defines AT (refering to AT as ―technical aid‖) as ―any product, instrument, equipment or
technical system used by a disabled person, especially produced or generally available,
preventing, compensating, monitoring, relieving or neutralizing the impairment, disability or
handicap‖ . In the United States, the Technology Act and Assistive Technology Act define an
AT device as ―any item, piece of equipment or product system, whether acquired
commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve
functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.‖ These Acts also define an assistive
technology service as ―any service that directly assists an individual with a disability in the
selection, acquisition, or use, of an assistive technology device.‖
The Older Americans Act defines AT as ―technology, engineering methodologies, or
scientific principles appropriate to meet the needs of, and address the barriers confronted by,
older individuals with functional limitations.‖
In Europe, the European Commission (EC) defines AT as ―products, devices or
equipment that is used to maintain, increase or improve the functional capabilities of people
with disabilities‖. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines an Assistive Device as
―Equipment that enables an individual who requires assistance to perform the daily activities
essential to maintain health and autonomy and to live as full a life as possible. Such equipment
may include, for example, motorized scooters, walkers, walking sticks, grab rails and tilt-and-
lift chairs‖ WHO also defines assistive technology as ―An umbrella term for any device or
system that allows individuals to perform tasks they would otherwise be unable to do or
increases the ease and safety with which tasks can be performed‖.
AT and User Needs: A Classification Scheme Examples of AT user needs and
classification
A. People with Communication Disabilities refers to be multiple difficulties including: Speech
mechanism problem, Language processing, Hearing, Vision, Motor skills

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Needs & Barriers: Safety Technologies, Self-care and medication management, social needs
socialization, access to information technology, communication and interaction with environment,
access to public administration and facilities (authorities, banks, public services), shopping recreation
and leisure problems with speech, writing, esteem independence and employment.
Assistive technologies: Mobile systems [phones, wearable electronics, computers, augmentative and
alliterative communication (including I/O interfaces) (adaptable/configurable interfaces, tactile
interfaces), vibrotactile displays reading screen, speech technologies, augmentative–alliterative
communication. Socialization and entertainment tools (special games, virtual companion‘s
videoconferences). Medication organizers (medication reminder/management). Speech technology
(audio technology for I/O interfaces and control, writing translators, text–speech translators,
transportation (public transportation facilities, smart environments home control, pervasive computing,
context awareness, middleware) Shopping tools (Internet access) and education tools
B. People with Cognitive Disabilities: The impairments may include: Cognition, memory loss and
forgetfulness
Needs & Barriers are survival, hygiene (toileting, bathing, laundry); feeding (food preparation,
eating, drinking), remembering, housekeeping—home cleaning, safety, safety technologies,
safety of environment, self-care and medication management, social needs, socialization,
navigation, access to information technology, education, communication and interaction with
environment, shopping, esteem, independence, employment, recreation and leisure

Assistive technologies may include Mobile systems (phones, wearable electronics, and
computers), socialization and entertainment tools (special games, virtual companions,
videoconferences), augmentative and alliterative communication (including I/O interfaces),
adaptable/configurable interfaces, organizer and reminder assistants for timekeeping),
medications, (appointments, hygiene, etc., electronic organizers, medication
reminder/management, procedure assistants, transportation public transportation facilities)
Communication aids (communicators, multimedia procedure, assistants, large-screen
programmable phones, electronic information organizers, electronic mail)

C. People with Motor Disabilities impairment include Upper-limbs difficulties/ dexterity, lowerlimb
deficiencies
Needs & Barriers are the need for mobility, working in the inaccessible environment
Assistive technologies may include orthotics (cognitive orthotics), smart environments, home
control, shopping tools (internet access) and education tools

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AT and the Marketplace
Markets for assistive technologies follow the general marketing rule that products introduced
into a market influence the demand and growth of markets for such products. In practice, AT
products can either represent a barrier to demand or become an engine of demand. This
relationship between Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities and AT in the marketplace
follows one of two strategies: (1) trivialization or (2) specialization, which are discussed as
follows:
Specialization is based on the development of products or services that are adapted for
Persons with disabilities. In practice, the AT industry considers Persons with disability
populations as solvent autonomous markets. Developed products are adapted for Persons with
disabilities needs, so the satisfaction of each target population or subpopulation is good,
thereby supporting further product development or adaptation. Nonetheless, the market for
such AT is not growing quickly, owing to (1) development costs, (2) high price of the final
product, and (3) generally low income of people with disabilities. The exceptionto this rule is
products for elderly retired people, which have significantly higher incomes and a much larger
market.
Trivialization considers Persons with disabilities as an augmentation of the market for
devices used by people without disabilities. In this strategy, industry does not target Persons
with disabilities and Vulnerabilities populations directly. Instead, the products for Persons with
disabilities and Vulnerabilities are of standardized type, that is, generic with multipurpose
capabilities. Given requirements for safety and comfort, these products and services are
designed to be modified or adapted to meet Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities needs.
This strategy targets a much larger market but does not consider user satisfaction among
Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities.
AT and Design Methods
Given the requirements of functionality, safety, and comfort, the design of AT for Persons with
disabilities and Vulnerabilities requires both excellent engineering capacities and relevant
knowledge about Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities characteristics. Product
developers must be fully aware of needs, wants, and capabilities of Persons with disabilities
and Vulnerabilities populations, as well as limitations associated with each handicap.

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Numerous design methods have been suggested to assist in the process of AT development.
Most widely known are user centered design and universal design, which are discussed as
follows:
User-centered design is a set of techniques and processes that enable developers to
focus on users, within the design process. In practice, users are involved in the development
process, depending on their skills and experience, and their interaction is facilitated by a
domain expert. The intensity of this involvement varies with the stage of research and product
development. Often, the developed AT meets persons with disabilities satisfaction. However,
this design method is expensive in terms of resources and time expended by engineers and
domain experts. It is also difficult to recruit potential end users and to interact with them,
especially when these end users are older people, or people with disabilities (see also Chapter
34).
Universal design (also called design for all) is the design of products and environments
to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or
specialized design. Here, the design process is guided and constrained by a number of
objectives: accessibility, adaptability, transgenerational applicability, and/or universal
applicability or appeal. Universal design does not emphasize differences among persons with
disabilities, or between persons with disabilities and the general population. Instead, the ideas
of adapting products, services, or the environment are extended to users at large. In practice,
products are developed to meet the needs of average users. If a user is different, significantly,
from the average population, (e.g., a person with a significant handicap), then, the product will
provide poor user satisfaction.

Universal Design

It is frequently the case that the built environment can be modified permanently so that
functional limitations become less disabling and personal or temporary assistive technologies
are not needed. For example, the presence of ramps increases the ability of wheelchair users
to get around and thus decreases the degree to which the condition that led to their use of a
wheelchair is disabling. The presence of ramps will increase frequency of trips out of the house
and into the community for wheelchair users when ramps are installed in their houses. Wider

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doors, lower bathroom sinks, and grab bars are other examples of modifications to build
environments that decrease the degree to which a building itself may be disabling. Lighting
patterns and the materials used for walls and ceilings affect the visual ability of all people,
even though the largest impact may be on improving the ability of the person who is hard of
hearing to hear in a particular room or the ability of a person who is deaf to see an interpreter
or other signers.
Universal design is based on the principle that the built environments and instruments
used for everyday living can be ergonomically designed so that everyone can use them.
Traditionally, architecture and everyday products have been designed for market appeal, with
a greater focus on fashion rather than function. However, as the population of older adults
and people with disabling conditions increases, there has been a greater trend toward universal
design.

Today, with the influence of consumer demand and through thoughtful disability
policy, greater emphasis is placed on the development of built materials that are ergonomically
friendly to users, regardless of their abilities. Universal design is an enabling factor in the
environment that allows the user with a functional limitation to become more independent, yet
without an additional cost or stigma attached to the particular product. For example, people
who were deaf previously had to purchase an expensive closed-captioning unit to attach to
their television sets to view closed-captioned programs. Today, as a result of new federal
legislation, all new television sets are manufactured with a closed-captioning microchip that
allows any user access to broadcast closed captioning. Thus, it is useful not only for deaf users
but also for other vulnerable groups, such as older individuals who are starting to lose their
audio acuity, or a person watching a late-night talk show in the bedroom who does not want to
wake his or her partner.

In all of these ways, the environment affects the degree to which a functional limitation
is disabling for a person. However, decisions about the use of technology or built environments
are social decisions. The next major section considers the effects of the social and
psychological environments on the extent to which a particular functional limitation will be
disabling or not.

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Implement Inclusive Job Opportunities and Employment
The right to work is fundamental to being a full and equal member of society, and it applies to
all persons, regardless of whether or not they have a disability. A decent job in the open labor
market is a key bulwark against poverty. It also enables people to build self-esteem, form social
relationships, and to gain skills and knowledge. Moreover, a productive workforce is essential
for overall economic growth. Barriers to employment thus not only affect individuals‘ lives,
but the entire economy. Despite the fact that the majority of jobs can be performed by
individuals with disabilities, the pathways to their employment are often strewn with barriers.
An OECD study of its members showed that persons without disabilities were nearly three
times more likely than persons with disabilities to participate in the labor market.2 Evidence
suggests the same is true for countries in the Asia and Pacific region, although data to illustrate
the full extent of this trend is scarce. The employment gaps suggested above are likely to
understate the divergent work experiences of persons with and without disabilities, since they
do not factor in differences in type of employment. Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
are more likely to be own-account workers and occupy jobs in the informal sector, often
without the security offered by work contracts, salaries, pension schemes, health insurance and
other benefits. Even when persons with disabilities are formally employed, they are more likely
to be in low-paid, low-level positions with poor prospects for career development. Simple
comparisons of the employment rates for persons with and without disabilities can therefore
be misleading.
The recently adopted 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development calls on governments
around the world to promote full employment and decent work for all, including persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities. Besides directly targeting employment, the 2030 Agenda and
the accompanying SDGs also emphasize the need to guarantee the rights of persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities to equal and accessible education; social, economic and political
inclusion, and access to cities, transport systems and public space. Barriers of employment
Dear students, what are barriers for employment and job opportunities for persons
with disabilities and vulnerable groups?

Barriers to the employment of persons with disabilities take many forms and operate at
many levels, both within and beyond the workplace itself. Persons with disabilities may be

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prevented from working due to inaccessible transportation services; the lack of accessible
information and communications services; the preference of employers for candidates without
disabilities; legal stipulations that prevent individuals with particular impairments from
working in certain fields; or the discouragement of family and community members. Whilst
these obstacles are often interconnected, and act collectively to limit employment opportunities
for persons with disabilities, it is essential to distinguish between different barriers in order to
develop effective policy responses. The major types of barriers are described below.
A) Attitudes and Discrimination
Employers may be reluctant to hire persons with disabilities based on the perception that they
are less productive or less capable of carrying out their jobs than others. Colleagues of persons
with disabilities may also hold prejudicial attitudes. At a wider level, social attitudes that cast
persons with disabilities as objects of pity and need perpetuate the assumption that they should
not work. In some cultures, people view disabilities as being indicative of wrongdoing in a
past life, or are simply uncomfortable around people who seem different. Persons with
disabilities may also be discouraged from working by their families, often out of a sense of
shame or a well-intentioned but stifling desire not to impose additional burden on their family
members.
Though there are laws and regulations in some sectors, majority of social and economic
sectors in Ethiopian do not yet have anti-discrimination legislation that specifically targets the
employment of persons with disabilities. Discrimination is a major barrier faced by persons
with disabilities in their efforts to find employment in the labour market. Clearly, there needs
to be greater awareness about the need to break down barriers faced by persons with disabilities
— be it lack of accessibility features in public services or of laws that protect persons with
disabilities from discrimination by employers.
B) Accessibility
The accessibility of the following areas are crucial to the employment of persons with
disabilities: the physical environment; transportation; information and communications; and
other facilities open to the public. In the workplace itself, a lack of physical features such as
ramps and elevators can prevent persons with mobility disabilities from being able to work.
Similarly, the lack of accessible information and communication infrastructure in workplaces
such as clear signage, computers equipped with software such as screen-readers, and devices

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such as Braille displays can prevent persons with print and intellectual disabilities from being
able to gain employment. Lack of access to sign language interpretation or captioning services
can inhibit the employment of deaf people. In addition to the informational and physical design
of the workplace itself, the broader inaccessibility of public environments and crucially,
transport, can prevent persons with disabilities from being able to travel to work, receive
information about job opportunities, and communicate with employers.
C) Education and Training
Persons with disabilities have disproportionately restricted access to education and training.
This severely limits their job opportunities due to a lack of skills and knowledge that are
relevant to find or retain a job. Children with disabilities are less likely to attend school, and
when they do they are less likely to stay in school.18 In Indonesia, children with disabilities
are one third less likely to complete their primary education as those without a disability. In
India in 2007, close to 40 per cent of children with disabilities were not enrolled in school,
compared to only between 8 and 10 per cent of children in scheduled tribes or castes — groups
that also face high levels of discrimination and poorer socio-economic outcomes.
Notwithstanding the numerous other barriers they face, persons with disabilities are thus often
prevented from being able to acquire the human capital necessary to effectively compete for
jobs. In addition, young persons with disabilities who have attended school may not get the
support they need when transitioning from school to work.
D) Social Networks
Another barrier to employment for persons with disabilities can be their more limited social
networks. Social networks greatly aid the process of searching for work, the lack of which is
likely to limit options for persons with disabilities. As part of their broader exclusion from
many important social activities, persons with disabilities often therefore lack the opportunity
to build social relationships with those who may be in a position to offer suggestions for
potential work opportunities. These limited networks are part of the broader cultural and
attitudinal barriers that inhibit participation in social, leisure, civic, and religious activities. A
key benefit brought by employment itself is the building of social relationships with
colleagues, clients and business partners. As a result of the barriers they face in entering and
retaining work, many persons with disabilities are also denied the possibility of expanding
their networks at the workplace itself.

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E) Women Disabilities
In many developing countries including Ethiopia, as a result of continued prejudices both
towards women and surrounding disability, women with disabilities are doubly discriminated
against in the labor market. Study found that in many developing countries, women with
disabilities are only half as likely as men with disabilities to have a job. Moreover, when they
are employed, women with disabilities encounter worse working conditions and lower pay as
compared with other women, as well as men with disabilities. Women with disabilities are also
less likely to receive education and vocational training, and those women who do access
education and attain a degree of financial stability are more likely to have done so before
acquiring their disability. However, it remains difficult to quantify these trends as a result of
the limited availability of reliable data that is disaggregated by both sex and disability. Not
only the particular difficulties faced by women with disabilities as they search for work, but
also the significance of social networks in sharing potential employment opportunities. The
governments and NGOs must ultimately step up to improve the precarious economic situation
many women with disabilities find themselves in.
F) Legal Barriers
As a result of discriminatory attitudes about the perceived capabilities of persons with
disabilities, some countries impose legal restrictions on their participation in certain types of
employment or processes. In some countries, people must be considered ‗physically and
mentally healthy‘ or ‗sound‘ to represent oneself in a court of law, to occupy official positions,
or to use certain public services.25 Such laws effectively rule out large numbers of persons
with disabilities from accessing employment, based on the blanket assumption that they are
incapable of doing particular jobs effectively. Japan is one country that previously had such
laws, but has taken action to rectify them.
G) Inflexible Work Arrangements
Another common obstacle to the employment of persons with disabilities is the inflexibility of
work arrangements. In some cases, persons with disabilities might prove to be competent and
productive employees, but are nonetheless unable to perform certain tasks. The same is true
for scheduling the work day. Persons with disabilities may have particular transportation issues
or other needs that require a slightly different work day. An employer‘s willingness to
rearrange the responsibilities and schedules associated with a particular job can mean the

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difference between employment and unemployment for many persons with disabilities.
Indeed, a greater degree of flexibility of working arrangements can boost the morale and
productivity of any employee, regardless of whether or not they have a disability.
H) Dismissal on the Basis of Disability
Workers who are injured and acquire a disability on the job may face unaccommodating
policies and a lack of rehabilitative services, which limit their ability to return to work. The
absence of anti-discrimination legislation in the majority of countries in the region thus allows
employers to dismiss staff on the basis of disability with impunity. Several countries, such as
Iran, offer rehabilitation programs and services to help dismissed workers to find new
employment. Ultimately though, legislation which protects the rights of workers from
dismissal on the basis of disability is also needed to more comprehensively tackle the problem
I) The Benefit Trap
Another obstacle to the employment of persons with disabilities can ironically be imposed by
social protection schemes ultimately designed to support them. These schemes can encourage
individuals to stay out of the labor force if they are structured in such a way as to make the
receipt of benefits contingent on the inability to work. Therefore, even if persons with
disabilities believe that they can work, they may choose not to in order to continue receiving
disability benefits. Even if working could offer them a higher level of income, persons with
disabilities may still choose to receive benefits because of the risk of attempting to hold down
a job that does not provide adequate support, or is not flexible towards their needs. It is
important to stress that this ‗benefit trap‘ is mainly relevant to more developed countries with
more generous benefit schemes. The situation in most of the region‘s middle-to-low income
countries is entirely different. However, it is vital for governments to avoid creating strong
work disincentives.
Strategies to Improve Employment for Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities
Dear students, describe strategies to improve employment and job opportunities for
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.

There a number of strategies that is available to governments in respective sector as they

work to improve the employment prospects of persons with disabilities, vulnerable and
marginalized groups. In addition, private sector initiatives that have been demonstrated to

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improve the employment experiences of persons with in these groups are also discussed
below.
A) Anti-Discrimination Legislation
These laws make it illegal to discriminate against an individual on the basis of disability in a
range of areas including: employment; education; access to public buildings; the provision of
goods and services, and political processes. With regard to employment, anti-discrimination
laws protect persons with disabilities from discriminatory actions in hiring and termination of
contracts and affirm the right of persons with disabilities to access employment on an equal
basis with others. Anti-discrimination laws challenge collectively held discriminatory attitudes
against persons with disabilities by influencing ‗the nexus between law, norms and social
mores‘.26 Anti-discrimination laws can be made stronger when they include mandates for
reasonable accommodations that remove additional barriers to employment for persons with
disabilities. Crucially, however, these laws must outline clear enforcement mechanisms.
When penalties are neither stipulated nor enforced, employers are left free to discriminate with
impunity.
B) Vocational Education And Training
Technical vocational education and training (TVET) programs can help to ensure that the
workforce has the skills and knowledge necessary to obtain and retain a job, while also driving
productivity and economic growth.27 As discussed in Chapter 2, persons with disabilities often
have limited opportunities to build skills and knowledge that are relevant to the labor market.
A vital first step in improving access to employment for persons with disabilities is therefore
to ensure that employment support and vocational programs are as inclusive as possible. Such
programs should also be held in accessible locations, and reasonable accommodations should
be made to improve the access of persons with disabilities. Some persons with disabilities may
not be able to attend mainstream training programs. In such situations, to allow them to
participate, programs targeted at persons with disabilities may be required. It is crucial;
however, that the content of such training programs is geared to labor market demands, and
not determined by prior beliefs about what persons with disabilities should do or are capable
of doing.

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C) Wage Subsidies
Wage subsidies cover a portion of employees‘ wages, usually for a limited period of time, as
a way to lessen the risk perceived by employers of hiring persons with disabilities. Since wage
subsidies directly target the recruitment process of private firms, they enable employers to
overcome their reservations about hiring employees with disabilities. It is vital that care is
taken in determining the eligibility, amount and duration of subsidies, to avoid the subsidies
exceeding the actual gap in productivity between persons with and without disabilities. Studies
on the impact of subsides show mixed results on employment rates. Most studies suggest,
however, that both workers and employers are satisfied with wage subsidy schemes.
D) Supported Employment
These programs integrate persons with disabilities into the open labor market by providing
direct, on-the-job support to employees with disabilities. Supports are usually offered for a
limited period of time. One common type of support is a job coach. Job coaches provide onsite,
individually tailored assistance to help persons with disabilities perform their jobs. Coaches
also help persons with disabilities adjust to their working environment, and assist in
determining which accessibility accommodations are necessary. Supported employment has
been shown to be particularly cost-effective for people with intellectual and psychosocial
disabilities, in terms of productivity and health related costs. Supported employment requires
employers to be open to having such services on site, and to be willing to work cooperatively
with job coaches and other service providers. Employment support services and job coaches
require special training.
E) Workplace Accommodation Schemes
These schemes reduce the costs to employers of making workplaces more accessible to persons
with disabilities. In so doing, workplace accommodation schemes seek to minimize employer
reluctance to hire persons with disabilities. There are two ways Government programs can
decrease or even eliminate those costs. The first is by offering tax breaks or tax credits for
expenditures undertaken to make such adjustments. This strategy may, however, be less
effective for small businesses with cash flow issues or limited tax liability. Another strategy is
to provide full or partial funds for reasonable accommodations for employees with
disabilities. Such funding can be provided in various ways, either through employment
agencies, using fines from quota systems, or by offering grants to employers from separate

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Government agencies. Investment in assistive equipment for employees returned costs by
about eight times through increased productivity and reduced absenteeism.
F) Workers’ Compensation
These programs are designed to address the issue of occupational injuries and illnesses. They
provide cash and medical benefits to employees whose disability is acquired in the workplace.
Generally, workers‘ compensation operates through insurance programs - either through public
insurance programs, or private or even self-insurance at large firms. Because employer
premiums are experience rated, they are higher for firms with more accidents. Thus, the
approach incentivizes workplace safety and encourages employers to support employees who
acquire disabilities at work to be able to return to their jobs. In many countries, employers are
legally mandated to establish workers‘ compensation programs.
G) Quota Systems
Quota systems mandate that firms hire at minimum a certain percentage of persons with
disabilities. Typically, quotas apply only to large employers. Empirical data points to only
small net employment gains of persons with disabilities. In addition, quotas can prove difficult
to both monitor and enforce. Moreover, by obliging employers to hire a specific number of
persons with disabilities, quota systems perpetuate the prejudice that persons with disabilities
are not really equivalent to others in their capacity to be productive.
H) Sheltered Workshops
These programs only hire persons with disabilities, and structure jobs around the perceived
abilities of each employee. Sometimes the stated goal of sheltered workshops is to serve as a
training ground for the eventual transition of employees to the open labor market. In reality,
however, employees with disabilities are rarely supported to make this transition. Employees
are generally paid poorly, and the workshops in which they work are seen as charitable
enterprises and are funded as such, with revenues being a function not of sales but of the
number of employees. Rather than promoting sheltered workshops, governments can serve
their citizens with disabilities better by removing barriers towards their employment in the
open labor market. Persons with severe disabilities may find it difficult to enter the open labor
market, even if other barriers to their employment are removed. In certain cases therefore,
programs that create non-competitive job opportunities may be necessary. Government and
public agencies should be mandated by law to preferentially procure certain products from

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such workshops in order to guarantee a stable income for their employees with severe
disabilities.
I) Private Sector Initiatives
In addition to government-driven strategies, a number of private-sector initiatives also serve to
illustrate the need for action to be taken not only by governments, but by employers
themselves.
J) Employer Networks
A number of networks of private companies around the world have initiated their own
programs to promote the employment of persons with disabilities. Sometimes these
organizations are established in response to the creation of a quota policy, sometimes out of a
sense of corporate social responsibility, and sometimes because of a compelling business case
for being more inclusive.
The main activities of employer organizations include:
• Raising awareness and building capacity on disability inclusion;
• Providing information and tools on disability and employment;
• Influencing policy on the employment and training of persons with disabilities;
• Providing career development opportunities and organizing vocational training;
• Linking jobseekers with disabilities and employers;
K) Support Disability-Inclusive Business
Private employers can play an important role in developing policies and programs to boost
employment for persons with disabilities, as well as their own bottom line. It is recommended
that governments:
a) Introduce programs to raise awareness among private employers of the business
case for hiring persons with disabilities.
b) Support employers‘ organizations and networks to share inclusion practices and
build their capacities to harness the potential of employees with disabilities.
Disability-Inclusive Business—a number of large employers should be proactive in
promoting disability inclusion within their businesses. Many of these businesses draw on their
positive experiences of hiring persons with disabilities to demonstrate the business case for
inclusive employment, citing that persons with disabilities:

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 • Have higher retention and lower accident rates than employees without
disabilities, and comparable productivity;
• Represent an untapped source of skills and talent and transferable
problemsolving skills developed in daily life;
• Often have valuable skills and experiences learned on the job prior to having a
disability;
• Can provide unique insights to help firms to develop their products or services
to customers and clients with disabilities;

• Can improve the company‘s image, increasing morale, creating links to the
community, and appealing to potential customers who have a disability or
whose family members have a disability.
L) Social Enterprises
Social enterprises are businesses that seek to advance a social cause whilst being financially
self-sustainable. Rather than being driven solely by the desire to make profits, these businesses
also aim to maximize social impact. Social enterprises that consciously seek to hire persons
with disabilities, or address issues and barriers affecting the lives of persons with disabilities
can therefore help to boost the employment of persons with disabilities, and also influence
wider social change. Box 10 shows an example of a disability-inclusive social enterprise.
M) Support Persons with Disabilities in the Workplace
Governments can enhance the working experiences of persons with disabilities firstly by
leading by example in terms of public sector employment practices, and secondly by
establishing programs and services that support persons with disabilities to do their jobs
effectively. It is therefore recommended that governments:
a) Promote flexible working arrangements to ensure that qualified, productive
individuals are not unnecessarily prevented from doing certain jobs.
b) Provide funding support and tax incentives to start ups and social enterprise
initiatives that aim to hire persons with disabilities or address specific needs of
persons with disabilities.
c) Provide subsidies or tax incentives that support the inclusion of persons with
disabilities in the workplace.

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 d) Develop job coach accreditation and training standards and provide job coaching
services to enable persons with disabilities to do their jobs effectively and
productively.
N) Building a More Inclusive Society
By creating more accessible physical environments, public transport and knowledge,
information and communication services, governments can facilitate opportunities for persons
with disabilities to work, as well as society at large. It is recommended that governments:
a) Develop and implement accessibility standards for the physical environment in line with
universal design, including public buildings and transport services, to ensure that individuals
with mobility disabilities are not denied employment opportunities.
b) Promote and provide knowledge, information and communication services in accessible
formats, in line with universal design, to meet the needs of persons with sensory, intellectual
and psychosocial disabilities to apply for and retain a job.
c) Foster greater social inclusion by establishing links with disabled persons‘ organizations,
including groups of women with disabilities, and working to promote employment
opportunities.
O) Boost Education and Training Opportunities
Education and training is vital for all individuals to develop their human capital, and to acquire
skills and knowledge relevant to the labor market. Governments must therefore ensure that
persons with disabilities are able to access education and training on an equal basis with others.
It is recommended that governments:
a) Make education systems more inclusive, both to make schools more accessible to children
with disabilities, and to modify instruction to meet the needs of all children.
b) Mainstream disability inclusion into technical vocational education and training (TVET)
programs, to support persons with disabilities to acquire knowledge and skills necessary to
find and retain decent work.
P) Break Down Attitudinal Barriers and Challenge Discrimination
Dear students, what are the attitudinal barriers and how can we overcome
the challenges?

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Discriminatory attitudes towards persons with disabilities inform and produce other barriers
to the full and equal participation of persons with disabilities in society, including in
employment. For governments to better understand and challenge attitudinal barriers, it is
essential to:
a) Undertake research to examine the causes and manifestations of discriminatory attitudes
towards persons with disabilities across society.
b) Launch public awareness campaigns and programs to promote the rights of persons with
disabilities and to challenge discriminatory attitudes surrounding disability.
c) Conduct disability awareness training such as Disability Equality Training for public
employees at the national and local levels.
Q) Improve Data Collection on Disability and Employment
Designing, monitoring and evaluating policies to promote decent work for persons with
disabilities requires timely and high quality information. It is recommended that
governments:
a) Include the six core Washington Group questions on disability in labor force surveys
so that reliable, internationally comparable indicators on employment and disability
can be generated on a regular basis.
b) Conduct disability-dedicated surveys to improve the quality of data and
understanding on barriers to employment and in turn develop more responsive
policies.
c) Take a consistent approach to disability identification so that multiple data sources
can be used in conjunction to get a more complete picture of the experiences of
persons with disabilities.
Chapter Summary
• Persons with disabilities and vulnerable groups have diverse needs such as;
socialemotional, psychological, physical and economic.
• Factors affecting the needs of persons with disabilities vary depending on the nature of
disability, personality trait of the person, the meaning the that person gives for the
disability, the individual‘s current life condition, type of support provided, the family,
community and society, political and economic system of the country at large.

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• The basic needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities to ensure equality for
all within our society are: full access to the environment (towns, countryside &
buildings). an accessible transport system, technical aids and equipment,
accessible/adapted housing, personal assistance and support, inclusive education and
training, an adequate income, equal opportunities for employment, appropriate and
accessible information, advocacy (towards self-advocacy), counselling,, appropriate
and accessible health care
• Social protection plays a key role in realizing the rights of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities of all ages: providing them with an adequate standard of living, a basic
level of income security; thus reducing levels of poverty and vulnerability

• Health outcomes for people with disabilities should be access to quality, affordable
health care services, which make the best use of available resources.
• As several factors interact to inhibit access to health care, reforms in all the interacting
components of the health care system such as policy and legislations, financing,
services delivery and human resources training in line with inclusiveness perspectives.
• Disability is the result of the interaction between the characteristics of individuals with
disabilities and the characteristics of their environment.
• The amount of disability is not determined by levels of pathologies, impairments, or
functional limitations, but instead is a function of the kind of services provided to
people with disabling conditions and the extent to which the physical, built
environment is accommodating or not accommodating to the particular disabling
condition.
• Human competencies interact with the environment in a dynamic reciprocal
relationship that shapes performance.
• The physical and social environments comprise factors external to the individual,
including family, institutions, community, geography, and the political climate
• Environmental factors must be seen to include the natural environment, the human
made environment, culture, the economic system, the political system, and
psychological factors.

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 • Persons with disabilities, vulnerable and marginalized groups living in rural areas have
double disadvantaged due to their impairments and vulnerabilities and unfavorable
physical and social environment.

• Environmental strategies can be effective in helping people function independently and

not be limited in their social participation, in work, leisure or social interactions as a
spouse, parent, friend, or coworker.
• The culture of a society or a subculture influences the types of personality or
intrapsychic processes that are acceptable and influences the institutions that make up
the social organization of a society.
• Multi-sectorial and multi-disciplinary approach to prevention, intervention and
rehabilitation strategies are effective in building process of disability inclusive society.
• Inclusiveness promote equity, respect, peace, democracy, and inclusive development.

Reference books

Bodil Ravneberg and Sylvia Söderström (2017) Disability , Society and Assistive Technology.

Bryant-jefferies, R. (2018) Counselling for Progressive Disability Person-Centred Dialogues

Edward Steinfeld and G. Scott Danford (1999) El1abling Environments: Mesuring the Impact of Environment
on Disability and Rehabilitation.

Flynn, E. (2011) From rhetoric to Action: implementing the Un convention on the rights of Persons with
Disabilities.

GRECH, S. (2015) Disability and Poverty in the Global South:Renegotiating Development in Guatemala.

Gulland, J. (2019) Gender , Work and Social Control A Century of Disability Benefits.

Halder, S. and Assaf, L. C. (2017) Inclusion , Disability and Culture:An Ethnographic Perspective Traversing
Abilities and Challenges.

Iva Strnadová and Therese M. Cumming (2016) LIFESPAN TRANSITIONS AND DISABILITY: A holistic
perspective.

Jeremy Knox, Y. W. and M. G. (2019) Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education Artificial
Intelligence and Inclusive Education.

Karen Soldatic and Kelley Johnson (2017) Disability and Rurality: Identity, Gender and Belonging.

Lindsay, C. et al. (2015) New Perspectives on Health, Disability, Welfare and the Labour Market.

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Lockwood, B. B. (2017) Disability, Human Rights, and Information Technology.

Mitra, S. (2018) DISABILITY , HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

Pullen, H. K. (2014) Exceptional Learners An Introduction to Special Education Hallahan Kauffman Pullen
Twelfth Edition.

Reuben Escorpizo, So¨ren Brage, D. H. and G. S. (2015) Handbook of Vocational Rehabilitation and Disability
Evaluation.

Robert J. Gatchel, I. Z. S. and C. T. R. (2018) Handbook of Rehabilitation in Older Adults.

Tim Corcoran, J. W. and B. W. (2015) Disability Studies: Educaion for Inclusion.

VARNEY, E. and School (2013) Disability and Information Technology A Comparative Study in Media
Regulation.

Zidjaly, N. Al (2015) Disability, Discourse and Technology.

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Chapter 4: Promoting Inclusive Culture

Time allotted: 5 hours

Chapter Overview
An inclusive culture starts from the premise that everyone in the school, industry, community
and society should feel that they belong, realize their potential, and contribute to the life of
people with disability and vulnerabilities. An inclusive culture involves the full and successful
integration of diverse people into a workplace or industry. While an inclusive culture certainly
encompasses a commitment to workplace diversity, it is not limited simply to basic
representation; it indicates a climate in which respect, equity, and positive recognition of
differences are all cultivated, and the social and institutional response to disability poses no
barrier to a positive employment experience. In this chapter, we will learn how we can promote
inclusive culture. The specific contents addressed in the chapter are definition of inclusive
culture , dimensions of inclusive culture, policy related to inclusive culture , building inclusive
community , means of establish inclusive culture , inclusive values and indigenous inclusive
values and practices.
Chapter Objectives:
Dear learners, after the successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Define Inclusive Culture

• Discus the dimensions of Inclusive culture
• Evaluate policy related to Inclusive Culture
• Explain the process of building community for inclusive culture
• Discus approaches of establishing inclusive culture
• Discuss inclusive values
• Explore and discuss indigenous inclusive values
• Evaluate existing inclusive practices

Definition of Inclusive Culture

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Activity

Dear student, do you have a prior awareness of inclusive culture? If so, how do you
understand inclusive culture?

Inclusion is a sense of belonging, connection and community at work. And inclusive

organizations help people feel welcomed, known, valued and encouraged to bring their whole,
unique selves to work.
Culture is ―the ideas, customs, and social behavior of a particular people or society.‖ An
organization‘s culture is the culmination of the priorities, values and behaviors, which support
their employees in how they work singularly, in teams and with clients. Culture plays a huge
role in shifting the diversity needle and forming truly inclusive environments. Hence, An
inclusive culture involves the full and successful integration of diverse people into a
workplace or industry. Additionally, inclusive cultures extend beyond basic or token presence
of workers who have disabilities. They encompass both formal and informal policies and
practices, and involve several core values:
- Representation: The presence of people with disabilities across a range of employee roles
and leadership positions
- Receptivity: Respect for differences in working styles and flexibility in tailoring positions
to the strengths and abilities of employees and
- Fairness: Equitable access to all resources, opportunities, networks and decision making
processes.

Reflection
Dear student, how did you compare the meaning of inclusive culture above with your
previous conception?

Dimensions of Inclusive culture

Activity
Dear student, can you briefly discuss the possible dimensions of inclusive culture please?

There are three dimensions/ elements of an inclusive culture:

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 1. Universal Design
2. Recruitment, Training and Advancement Opportunities
3. Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility: Policy & Practice

1. Universal Design
One of the most heralded concepts in disability advocacy and cultures in the last decade is the
concept of “universal design”.
Universal design refers to the construction of structures, spaces, services, communications and
resources that are organically accessible to a range of people with and without disabilities,
without further need for modification or accommodation.
While accommodations procedures remain a needed function of most contemporary
institutions and industries, forward-thinking approaches to disability inclusion will frequently
involve developing sites and resources that require no accommodation to be fully usable and
receptive to people with disabilities.
A few examples of ways universal design practices may apply in the workplace include:
- Routinely providing manuals, materials and forms to all employees in a variety of digital
formats that are as readily accessible to people who use adaptive computer technologies as
to other employees.
- Building workspaces accessible to people who use wheelchairs or other assistive devices,
as well as to all other employees.
- Providing employees with a variety of flexible schedule and work options. This allows
employees who have energy or functionality limitations to organize their time and
strengths, and all employees are better able to manage time and life/work balance. 2.
Recruitment, Training, & Advancement Opportunities A. Recruitment:
Effective recruitment of people with disabilities involves two components:
1. Accessible outreach and hiring practices and
2. Targeted recruitment of workers with disabilities.
Accessible outreach and hiring practices essentially entail making sure that outreach
materials, networking and recruitment sites, communications, and application processes all
include a range of accessible options, or are free of barriers that might inhibit people with

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disabilities from participating. Wherever possible, outreach and hiring resources generally
should be equally accessible to workers with and without disabilities.
For example, making recruitment literature and job applications readily available in digital
and large-print formats, or holding outreach events in spaces without stairs or other barriers
and with accessible communications technology, helps to ensure that people with disabilities
will be included in recruitment practices.
Targeted recruitment involves specific outreach to people with disabilities. Although making
general recruitment practices more accessible goes a long way towards building an inclusive
hiring structure, individual employers are not always able to overcome existing barriers for
instance, when recruiting via externally sponsored job fairs that are not accessible. Therefore,
targeted recruitment enables employers to reach and interview qualified people with
disabilities.
In turn, having accessible recruitment practices relative to hiring, materials and
communications helps to ensure that targeted recruitment will be successful not just in
identifying qualified candidates, but by making sure there are no barriers to effective outreach
and eventual employment.
B. Training: Training plays a dual role in the creation of inclusive workplace culture. The
first consideration involves the degree to which people with disabilities have equitable access
to training sites, events, and materials.
The second concern relates to the training of managers, particularly middle management, and
human resources staff, to work effectively with all people, including those with disabilities.
The consequences of inadequate training are substantial, in reducing job satisfaction, with
corresponding negative consequences for productivity and retention. In turn, companies
favored by employees with disabilities make a concerted effort to create equitable and
accessible training resources.
C. Advancement: Research demonstrates that in order to have equitable opportunities for
promotion and professional development, like most employees, workers with disabilities
typically require access to mentoring.
As with recruitment, mentoring and coaching involves a dual dynamic in which:

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- Existing mentoring programs are advertised, implemented and maintained with attention
to inclusion of workers with disabilities, and
- Targeted mentoring and coaching programs specifically assist employees with disabilities.
These may include the creation of explicit disability affirmative action policies related to
promotion, targeted professional networking opportunities, and the establishment of
disability affinity networks and related supports to encourage full integration into the
workplace culture.
3. Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility: Policy & Practice
Policy plays a critical role in generating meaningful inclusion of people with disabilities. In
addition to recruitment, training and advancement, workplace policies need to carefully plan
for the provision of reasonable accommodations.
When assessing the effectiveness of existing accommodations policies, employee experiences
can be described based on two measures of equity.
The first indicator of an inclusive workplace culture involves the perception of ―procedural
justice‖, meaning that employees with disabilities perceive the accommodations policy as fair,
accessible and functional.
The practice of negotiating and providing accommodations constitutes an additional
opportunity for generating an experience of ―interactional justice‖. Interactional justice refers
to the experience of feeling that the managers or colleagues with whom one is interacting are
behaving fairly, reasonably and respectfully.
Experiential and Bottom Line Outcomes: The Benefits of Inclusive cultures are specifically
beneficial for employees with disabilities, but also have positive results for all employees, as
they include a number of elements of a healthy work environment.
Specific positive outcomes include:
- Reduced expenses corresponding to reduced employee turn-over
- Increased worker commitment to and identification with organizational success
- Improved employee health and well-being
- Improved productivity
- Increased employee investment in work performance
- Reduced perception of discrimination and inequity

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- Improved cooperation and collaboration between co-workers, and between employees and
management.
Creating an inclusive organizational culture is challenging but extremely advantageous. Here's
why and how, however, the business benefits and the outcomes of an inclusive organization
fairness and respect, value and belonging, safe and open, and empowerment and growth should
be compelling enough to push forward.
These are some of the benefits of an Inclusive organization that needs to be considered:
- Higher Job Satisfaction - Lower Turnover.
- Higher Productivity
- Higher Employee Morale
- Improved Creativity and Innovation
- Improved Problem-Solving
- Increased Organizational Flexibility.
Inclusive education, when practiced well, is very important because all children are able to
be part of their community and develop a sense of belonging and become better prepared for
life in the community as children and adults. It provides all children with opportunities to
develop friendships with one another.
Reflection
Dear student can explain the three major dimensions of an inclusive culture, please?
4.3 Building inclusive community

Activity
Dear student, what an inclusive community is? And why is building an inclusive
community important?

What is an inclusive community?

An inclusive community:
- Does everything that it can to respect all its citizens, gives them full access to resources,
and promotes equal treatment and opportunity.
- Works to eliminate all forms of discrimination.
- Engages all its citizens in decision-making processes that affect their lives.
- Values diversity and

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- Responds quickly to racist and other discriminating incidents.
An inclusive society aims at empowering and promoting the social, economic, and political
inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion, economic,
or other status. It is a society that leaves no one behind. We work to ensure that societies are
open and inclusive to all.
Here are things an organization can do to create a more inclusive workplace and, therefore, a
more appealing place to work:
- Appropriately Connect with Employees
- Interact with Different People
- Create Employee Resource Groups
- Place Importance on Inclusion
- Hold Better Meetings
- Invest in Diversity Training
- People have opportunities to experience a variety of social roles that include friendships,
contributing to the community and gaining new skills. Some of the benefits of inclusion to
the person are: Improved feelings of well-being and self-esteem.
Why is building an inclusive community important?
- Acts of exclusion and injustice based on group identity and other factors should not be
allowed to occur and/or continue.
- All people have the right to be part of decisions that affect their lives and the groups they
belong to and
- Diversity enriches our lives, so it is worth our while to value our community's diversity.
An inclusive community can be built at any time. The need to have an inclusive community,
however, is most obvious when there has been a decision or an incident that caused harm to a
particular group of people.
It is important to consider the motivation behind an individual, a group, or a community's desire
to build an inclusive community because the motivation affects the following:
Types and sequence of strategies selected: if there were a crisis, you might have to start with
a strategy that transforms the conflict. If there were no crisis, but rather the vision of a
community leader that sparked the effort, you might consider starting with a public education
campaign.

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Resources available: more resources could be mobilized if the motivation came from a large
institution or a local foundation.
Amount of support and obstruction: if the dominant group in the community is just as
motivated as any other group, there is likely to be more support. If, however, the dominant
group has no interest in changing the status quo, there are likely to be more barriers. Rate of
progress: if the major leaders and groups support the effort, progress is likely to be faster.
Expected outcomes: if the goal is to raise awareness, everyone involved is likely to be satisfied
if they learned new things about other groups. If the goal is to promote fair treatment of every
group, everyone involved is more likely to be satisfied by policy change.
 Characteristics of an Inclusive Community
Inclusive communities do have the following set of characteristics:
Integrative and cooperative: inclusive communities bring people together and are places
where people and organizations work together.
Interactive: inclusive communities have accessible community spaces and open public places
as well as groups and organizations that support social interaction and community activity,
including celebrating community life.
Invested: inclusive communities are places where both the public and private sectors commit
resources for the social and economic health and well-being of the whole community.
Diverse: inclusive communities welcome and incorporate diverse people and cultures into the
structures, processes and functions of daily community life.
Equitable: inclusive communities make sure that everyone has the means to live in decent
conditions (i.e. income supports, employment, good housing) and the opportunity to develop
one‘s capacities and to participate actively in community life.
Accessible and Sensitive: inclusive communities have an array of readily available and
accessible supports and services for the social, health, and developmental needs of their
populations and provide such supports in culturally sensitive and appropriate ways /essential
services identified include good schools, recreation, childcare, libraries, public transit,
affordable housing and supportive housing, home care, crisis and emergency supports, well
coordinated and comprehensive settlement supports/.
Participatory: inclusive communities encourage and support the involvement of all their
members in the planning and decision-making that affects community conditions and

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development, including having an effective voice with senior levels of government and Safe:
inclusive communities ensure both individual and broad community safety and security so that
no one feels at risk in their homes or moving around the neighborhood and city.
Reflection
Dear student, can you explain the process of building community for inclusive culture?

Means of establish inclusive culture

Activity
Dear student, what benefits of establishing inclusive culture in an organization do you
thinks of?

An organization is inclusive when everyone has a sense of belonging; feels respected, valued
and seen for who they are as individuals; and feels a level of supportive energy and
commitment from leaders, colleagues and others so that all people, individually and
collectively can do their best work.
To create an inclusive culture in which everyone feels they belong and is comfortable
expressing their uniqueness,
There are four key inclusive leadership behaviors:
Empowerment: Enable team members to grow and excel by encouraging them to solve
problems, come up with new ideas and develop new skills.
Accountability: Show confidence in team members by holding them responsible for aspects
of their performance that are within their control.
Courage: Stand up for what you believe is right, even when it means taking a risk.
Humility: Admit mistakes, learn from criticism and different points of view, and overcome
your limitations by seeking contributions from team members.
How inclusive culture establish?
There are five stages in establishing inclusive culture:
1. Consider what you want to achieve and what the benefits will be.

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This first stage of the process involves looking at your organization: its size, the type of work
it does, where it is located, who it employs, who uses its services, and what its goals are; and
thinking about how it could become more inclusive. 2. Undertake an inclusion review of your
workplace
When reviewing inclusion and equality in your organization, you should consider the following
areas:
- The demographics of your organization and customer base.
All organizations are different, so the first thing you will need to do is examine what the
demographic make-up of your workplace is. Compiling and analyzing data on your staff by
age, gender, ethnic group, religion or belief, sexual orientation and disability, and noting where
in the organization‘s structure employees belonging to different groups work, will help you to
identify any under- represented groups and areas of occupational segregation. You should
check employees‘ salaries according to membership of different groups, and check rates of
progression within and through the grades. It is also useful to look at retention and exit rates
by these groups.
If possible, you should also collect information on the make-up of your customers. Finding out
who uses your services and what their needs are is important if you are to ensure you have the
right people, skills and approaches to meet these needs.
- Your formal policies and procedures.
The formal policies and practices of your organization can tell you a lot about how much you
have previously thought about inclusion, human rights and equality. When reviewing these
policies, you will find it helpful to look at:
- Policies to deal with discrimination, bullying and harassment
- Procedures to deal with tensions and difference between groups
- Informal or unwritten working practices and - Arrangements for staff consultation
and participation
3. Decide where work is needed and create an action plan.
Having reviewed your workplace in terms of equality and inclusion, the next stage is to decide
upon the action you will take. Set out the key changes you would like to make as a result of
your review. Prioritize these changes to help you decide where to start. Some measures you
may wish to consider as part of your action plan are:

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Actively involve all employees
- Consultation and participation
- Encourage employees to take part in monitoring, and promote the reasons for doing so.
- Extra measures and adjustments
Build a culture of inclusion and respect
- Ensure the organization‘s core values include a commitment to equality, human rights
and inclusive working.
- Create, extend or improve policies on equality and human rights and make sure other
policies are equality proofed.
- Take immediate action to address and tackle discrimination, harassment and bullying.
- Ensure the organization‘s core values include a commitment to equality, human rights
and inclusive working.
- Create, extend or improve policies on equality and human rights and make sure other
policies are equality proofed.
- Take immediate action to address and tackle discrimination, harassment and bullying.
- Training for all staff on inclusive working, human rights and equality.
- Make inclusion a key management approach.
- Encourage and appoint equality and human rights champions.
- Encourage employee networks and forums.
- Promote culture-changing initiatives.
Take an inclusive approach to recruitment, promotion and development
- Make equality, diversity, human rights and inclusive working part of job descriptions.
- Monitor applicants and staff at different levels within the organization.
- Equality and human rights training for all staff involved in recruitment and a fair and
transparent selection process.
- Attract candidates from the widest pool available.
- Reward talent and achievement rather than stereotypical indicators of success.
- Value skills achieved outside the workplace.
- Encourage and enable development for all.
- Offer mentoring opportunities to junior and new staff.

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- Offer work placements
- Conduct exit interviews
Encourage engagement with the local community -
Employer assisted volunteering.4.
4. Communicate the plan with staff and put the plan into action.
- Actively involve all groups of employees
In order to create a working culture of inclusion, respect and opportunity for all, it is essential
that everyone in the organization, from senior management to the most junior staff, is engaged
with and involved in the process of creating this culture, and feels that their opinions and
experiences are valued. Measures to promote inclusive working need to be thought of
positively among employees, not as something that is ‗done‘ to them. There are several things
to think about in this respect.
Participation and consultation
Before drawing up a plan of action it is essential to involve and consult employees to find out
about their experiences, what they feel are the key issues affecting them and what action they
would like to see taken to address these issues. Staff and any unions or other employee
representatives should also be consulted at different stages in the plan‘s implementation, in
order to get their feedback on the progress being made. The action plan should be a living
document, capable of being adapted and developed over time.
There are many different ways that you can consult and involve employees and their
representatives. Some examples are:
Staff surveys can be used to gather information on a range of subjects, including the make-up
of the workforce, responses and attitudes towards equality and human rights issues, and levels
of job satisfaction among employees. Surveys can be designed so that responses can be
analyzed according to membership of equality group or other relevant factors. Confidential
surveys will attract a higher response rate.
Focus groups provide more opportunity for in-depth consultation and debate with a smaller
number of employees. They could be a useful forum in which to collect feedback on draft
policies and action plans, and can be an indicator of wider staff attitudes.
Engagement with employee networks and forums can utilize an important representative voice
of staff from minority groups and can provide useful input into policies and action plans.

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5. Review, monitor and evaluate the plan’s impact and use what you find to plan future
action
Ten Characteristics of an Inclusive Organization
1. It accepts diversity and inclusion as a way of life.
In an inclusive organization, one sees diversity at every level within the institution. Many
cultures, traditions, beliefs, languages, and lifestyles are prevalent in both the workforce as
well as the customer populations, and are respected without judgment. People are viewed as
individuals who have come together to coordinate action towards the achievement of common
goals.
2. It evaluates individual and group performance on the basis of observable and
measurable behaviors and competencies.
Employees have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities. They are evaluated
based upon their actions, not the opinions of others. Goals and expectations are achievable.
3. It operates under transparent policies and procedures.
There are no hidden rules of behavior that may be apparent to some groups and unknown to
others.
4. It is consistent in its interactions with everyone.
There is no double standard. Rules are applied appropriately and regularly throughout the
institution. No one group is favored over another.
5. It creates and maintains a learning culture.
Career development is encouraged and supported for all employees by management.
Mentoring programs are robust, and include both formal and informal systems that meet the
individual learning needs of all employees. Mistakes are recognized, and their consequences
addressed, but they are viewed as learning opportunities rather than character flaws. 6. It has
a comprehensive and easily accessible system of conflict resolution at all levels. It recognizes
that conflict is inevitable in a complex multicultural organization, and it has systems in place
to address conflict in a non-confrontational manner that respects the dignity and confidentiality
of all parties.
7. It recognizes that it is part of the community that it serves.
Employees, managers, and customers all come from the community. An inclusive organization
is an active participant in community activities, and plays a vital role in addressing its needs.

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8. It lives its mission and core values.
People work for an organization because they believe in its purpose and goals.
An organization that promises one thing and delivers other risks losing the trust and
confidence of its workforce as well as its customers. 9. It values earned privilege over
unearned privilege.
Employees are recognized for their actions and accomplishments, not simply because of their
titles or degrees. Customers are treated with respect regardless of their socioeconomic status
or class.
10. It accepts and embraces change.
Change is inevitable. An inclusive organization recognizes that current and past practices must
constantly be reviewed and updated to meet the changing demands and needs of the industry,
workforce, and customers.
Reflection
Dear student, can you discus approaches of establishing inclusive culture?

Inclusive values

Activity
Dear student, list the values of inclusive culture and discuss about them with the student
beside you?

Inclusion is most importantly seen as putting inclusive values into action. It is a commitment
to particular values which accounts for a wish to overcome exclusion and promote
participation.
The seven Pillars of Inclusion:
Access: Access explores the importance of a welcoming environment and the habits that create
it.
Attitude: Attitude looks at how willing people are to embrace inclusion and diversity and to
take meaningful action.

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Choice, partnership, communication, policy and opportunity
Values are fundamental guides and prompts to action. They spur us forward, give us a sense
of direction and define a destination. We know that we are doing, or have done, the right thing
through understanding the relationship between our actions and our values. For all actions
affecting others are underpinned by values. Every such action becomes a moral argument
whether or not we are aware of it. It is a way of saying ‗this is the right thing to do‘.
Hence, inclusive values are appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness,
participation, community, and sustainability are examples of inclusive values that are
fundamental for successful inclusive education.
Appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness, participation, community, and
sustainability are examples of inclusive values that are fundamental for successful inclusive
education.
A careful piecing together of a framework of values has resulted in a list of headings
concerned with equality, rights, participation, community, respect for diversity,
sustainability, non-violence, trust, compassion, honesty, courage, joy,
love, hope/optimism, and beauty.
A values framework can be considered as a universe of interconnected meanings.

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Reflection
Dear student, can you discuss policies inclusive values?
4.7Indigenous inclusive values and practices Activity
Dear student, what indigenous inclusion mean? And state features of an endogenous
inclusion?

The term “Indigenous‖ refers to a better understanding of, and respect for, indigenous cultures
develops an enriched appreciation of the existing cultural heritage.
Indigenous ways of knowing were often discounted and discredited as non-scientific because
they were rooted in the story of the people, their language, culture, art, mythology and
spirituality. It was important to recognize the right of indigenous peoples to land, resources
and sacred sites.
Incorporating Indigenous ways of learning into educational practices has potential to benefit
both Indigenous and non-Indigenous learners. The 21st century skills needed in modern
curriculum include: collaboration, creativity, innovation, problem-solving, inquiry,
multicultural literacy, etc.
What is indigenous inclusion?

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Indigenous inclusion defined as an organizational state that is embraced as a cultural norm,
with enterprise-wide workplace strategies as well as a culture which invites the full
participation of indigenous people into all aspects of business operations.
It is where leadership and employees are welcoming of indigenous people, their experience
and outlooks, where diversity is valued, the spirit of reconciliation has been embraced and calls
to action have been acted on in meaningful ways.
Features of an indigenous inclusion:
1. Inclusion has been embraced as a core competency and embedded into the
organizational culture;
2. Companies share their organization‘s experience and achievements with inclusion and
explain how it has helped their performance;
3. Human rights and responsibilities are promoted and respected. Employees are free of
concerns related to basic equity issues;
4. Comprehensive Indigenous procurement, recruitment and corporate social responsibility
strategies have been developed as part of an enterprise-wide coordinated approach;
5. Indigenous people are employed and retained in all areas of the organization including
the senior leadership and executive positions;
6. There are significant revenues and jobs gained by Indigenous people and businesses
through the organization‘s supply chain;
7. Indigenes community sustainable gains have been realized as a result of the relationships
built between the company and the community;
8. High levels of Indigenous employee engagement are seen and experienced in the
organization;
9. Leadership has put into place the resources needed to sustain its Indigenous inclusion
strategy and it may have introduced an inclusion policy framework or statement;
10. Indigenous inclusion is integral to the mission and vision of the organization.
A seven stage model to indigenous inclusion:
Indigenous Works has developed a 7-stage workplace model of Indigenous inclusion which is
called the Inclusion Continuum.

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The model depicts the roadmap that organizations follow to become more inclusive, gradually
enabling more effective workplace and employment strategies to be developed. The
Continuum describes the organizational features and competencies needed at each stage to
achieve elevated levels of performance in Indigenous employment, business development,
community relations, etc. Movement along the continuum depends on companies developing
their cultural competencies, improving their understanding of Indigenous people, their history
and culture. Companies‘ position on the Inclusion Continuum can be measured from year to
year to track and assess progress.
Types of indigenous inclusion policies
There are quite a range of Indigenous inclusion policies in use by companies and organizations
throughout Ontario and Canada. The diagram below illustrates how some of those policies
align with workplace needs. Some inclusion policies have a targeted application to specific
areas of the workplace such as employment, Indigenous community relations, Indigenous
business development or procurement. Other inclusion policies strike across the organization,
providing an ‗enterprise-wide‘ approach to inclusion. What are inclusive practices?
Inclusive practice is an approach to teaching that recognizes the diversity of students, enabling
all students to access course content, fully participate in learning activities and demonstrate
their knowledge and strengths at assessment.
The aim of inclusion is to embrace all people irrespective of race, gender, disability, medical
or other need. It is about giving equal access and opportunities and getting rid of discrimination
and intolerance (removal of barriers). It affects all aspects of public life.
Inclusive practice is about the attitudes, approaches strategies talent to ensure that people are
not excluded or isolated. It means supporting diversity by accepting welcoming people‘s
differences, promoting equality by equal opportunities for all. In addition inclusive practice
involves having an understanding of the impact that discrimination, inequality, social
exclusion can have on an individual. Having an understanding of this ensures appropriate
personalized care, support can be given. This enables the individual to develop self-respect,
self-worth, also to maintain a valued role in society, the environment surrounding them. When
we compare inclusive practice with practice which excludes an individual, inclusive practice
gives an individual more confidence in the care that they were receiving, it gives them the
option to have an input with the care they are having as they are being given the opportunity

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to do so. In the long run, this could improve the service user‘s health as they still have
confidence in the careers. Practice that excludes the service user could have consequences on
their own health, for example if they spoke English and were provided with a care worker that
spoke and understood poor English could result in them not being able to communicate, from
that they would like for dinner to whether they are feeling ill and may need to see a doctor
meaning that their health could deteriorate
Inclusive practices in education are based on seven principles:
- Diversity enriches and strengthens all communities
- All learners‘ different learning styles and achievements are equally valued, respected and
celebrated by society
- All learners are enabled to fulfill their potential by taking into account individual
requirements and needs
- Support is guaranteed and fully resourced across the whole learning experience
- All learners need friendship and support from people of their own age
- All children and young people are educated together as equals in their local communities
Inclusive teaching strategies refer to any number of teaching approaches that address the
needs of students with a variety of backgrounds, learning modalities, and abilities. These
strategies contribute to an overall inclusive learning environment in which students feel
equally valued.
Benefits of Inclusive practices
The benefits of inclusive practices are numerous for both students with and without disabilities.
Benefits of Inclusion for Students with Disabilities
- Friendships
- Increased social initiations, relationships and networks
- Peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills
- Increased achievement of Individual Educational Plan goals
- Greater access to general curriculum
- Enhanced skill acquisition and generalization
- Increased inclusion in future environments
- Greater opportunities for interactions
- Higher expectations

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- Increased school staff collaboration
- Increased parent participation
- Families are more integrated into community
Reflection
Dear student, can you evaluate the existing inclusive practices?

Chapter Summary
• An inclusive culture involves the full and successful integration of diverse people into a
workplace or industry. Additionally, inclusive cultures extend beyond basic or token
presence of workers who have disabilities.
• There are three dimensions/ elements of an inclusive culture: these are Universal Design,
Recruitment, Training and Advancement Opportunities and Workplace Accommodations
and Accessibility: Policy & Practice
• Inclusion has been directly advocated since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
in 1948 and has been acted at all phases in a number of key UN declarations and
conventions.
• An inclusive society aims at empowering and promoting the social, economic, and
political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin,
religion, economic, or other status. It is a society that leaves no one behind. We work to
ensure that societies are open and inclusive to all.
• An inclusive community can be built at any time. The need to have an inclusive
community, however, is most obvious when there has been a decision or an incident that
caused harm to a particular group of people.
• Major Characteristics of Inclusive communities are Integrative and cooperative,
Interactive, Invested, Diverse, Equitable, Accessible and Sensitive, Participatory and Safe
• An organization is inclusive when everyone has a sense of belonging; feels respected,
valued and seen for who they are as individuals; and feels a level of supportive energy
and commitment from leaders, colleagues and others so that all people, individually and
collectively can do their best work.
• There are four key inclusive leadership behaviors: (i.e., Empowerment, Accountability,
Courage and Humility)

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 • Inclusive values are appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness,
participation, community, and sustainability are examples of inclusive values that are
fundamental for successful inclusive education.
• Appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness, participation, community,
and sustainability are examples of inclusive values that are fundamental for successful
inclusive education.
• Indigenous inclusion defined as an organizational state that is embraced as a cultural
norm, with enterprise-wide workplace strategies as well as a culture which invites the full
participation of indigenous people into all aspects of business operations.
• Inclusive practice is an approach to teaching that recognizes the diversity of students,
enabling all students to access course content, fully participate in learning activities and
demonstrate their knowledge and strengths at assessment.
• Inclusive teaching strategies refer to any number of teaching approaches that address the
needs of students with a variety of backgrounds, learning modalities, and abilities. These
strategies contribute to an overall inclusive learning environment in which students feel
equally valued. Reference
Ainscow, M. (2005). ―Developing inclusive education systems: What are the levers for change?‖ In Journal of
Educational Change, 6(2): 109-124.
King, L. and S. Schielmann (2004) The Challenge of Indigenous Education: Practice and perspectives.
Paris: UNESCO.
Florian, L. (2008). ―INCLUSION: Special or inclusive education: future trends‖. In British Journal of
Special Education, 35(4): 202-208.
Lourens, H., McKinney, E. L. and Swartz, L. (2016). ―Disability and Education: More than Just Access‖. In
The Palgrave International Handbook of Education for Citizenship and Social Justice. London:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Martin 2007. Inclusive Education as extracted from Special Educational Needs Act of Ireland (2004)
Martin, K. (2007). "The institutionalization of the life course: Looking back to look ahead." Research in Human
Development 4:253-271
Stanley I. And Greenspan M. D. (2012). Meeting Learning Challenges: Creating an Inclusive classroom.
Ministry of Education (now named Education, Arts and Culture) (2013). Sector Policy on Inclusive Education.
Windhoek: Ministry of Education. (The policy document is available for download at
www.moe.gov.na/downloads.php.)
Peters, S. (2003). ―Education for All: Including Children with Disabilities‖, Education Notes, World Bank,
accessed at https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/10380.
Thordardottir, E. (2010). Towards evidence-based practice in language intervention for bilingual children.
Journal of Communication Disorders. doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2010.06.001

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Chapter 5: Inclusion for Peace, Democracy and Development
Chapter overview
Inclusive education is at the heart of any strategy for peace-building, democracy and
development. It is through inclusive educational that values, skills and knowledge which form
the basis of respect for human rights and democratic principles can be developed. It is
through Inclusive education that the rejection of violence, and a spirit of tolerance,
understanding and mutual appreciation among individuals, groups and nations can be
enhanced. As a result, inclusiveness should be the first phase towards increasing participation
and fight for social justice for people with disabilities, vulnerable and general populations.
Inclusive education provides individuals for these populations, skills, experience and
empowerment that help them to vocalize for themselves and for others‘ right. Inclusive
education develops inclusive development in all sectors. In general, inclusive developments in
all sectors encourage greater acceptance of diversity of gender, culture, language, economy
and politics; and the formation of more tolerant, equitable and cohesive societies; simply put,
creates inclusive society.
Chapter Objectives
Dear learners, after the successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Define Peace, Democracy and Development
• Identify sources of exclusionary practices
• Discuss exclusionary practices in the community
• Discuss respecting divers needs, culture, values, demands and ideas
• Discus conflict emanated from exclusion
• Explain means and benefits of participation of the marginalized group of people
• Discuss the democratic principles for inclusive practices
• Explain the importance of inclusion for psychosocial development
• Elaborate the importance of inclusion for economic development
• Discus the importance of inclusion for peace

Definition of Peace, Democracy and Development

Activity
1. Dear student, how do you locally define peace, democracy and development?

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Inclusion for Peace Definition
Peace can be defined in several ways. However, for the purpose of this module peace is defined
as creating mutual understanding, positive relationship between individuals and groups. These
groups may include culturally, linguistically, economically and biologically heterogeneous
groups. These groups are living side by side in a harmony with reciprocated respect or create
societal friendship with all the diversities without conflict. This means developed interpersonal
peace through deep respect for other persons, justice, tolerance and cooperation. This means
peace has a notion of societies‘ completeness, fulfillment, wholeness, harmony, feeling of
security and well being of an individual, a community or a society. Human being is
interconnected and should be free from negative force, fear, hatred, anger, tension, violence
stress, anxiety and any kind of destructions. Peace make the mind quiet and calm prevents
anxieties, worries, stress and fears, and awakens inner strength and confidence, develop
freedom, happiness, love, joy, justice and gratitude. Peace can be achieved through formal and
informal inclusive education.
Activity
1. Dear student, why education is crucial for creating conflict free society?
2. What kind of Education could make peace in the society??

Inclusive education is a foundation for inclusiveness in all aspects of life. It creates equality
and equity among divers population. Diversity refers to in terms of language, religion,
socioeconomic status, culture and psychology. Equal (sameness and nondiscrimination)
and/or equitable (social justice and fairness ) distribution of resources within the system; equal
and/or equitable both in terms of locations and numbers, in relation to resources such as money,
trained and qualified professionals, teaching and learning materials, school buildings, and
school furniture. It is important to realize inclusive education to create a society that is
peaceful, democratize and developed. Hence inclusive education is crucial for:
• Fostering education that promotes the values, attitudes and behavior inherent in a
culture of peace, including conflict prevention and resolution, dialogue,
consensusbuilding and active non-violence;

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 • Promoting sustainable economic and social development by targeting the eradication
of poverty and social inequalities;
• Promoting respect for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at all levels;
• Promoting gender equality in economic, social and political decision-making;
• Fostering democratic participation and citizenship and supporting processes that
promote and sustain democracy;
• Advancing understanding, respect for cultural diversity, and human solidarity by
promoting a dialogue among societies;
• Supporting participatory communication and the free flow and sharing of information
and knowledge in the promotion of a culture of peace;
• Promoting international peace and security through action such as the promotion of
general and complete disarmament.
Activity
1. Dear student, can we solve the Ethiopian divers‘ problems that create conflict
through inclusiveness? How?
2. Do you think exclusion create chaos in the nation? How?
3. What are other sources of conflicts?
4. How can we overcome all sources of conflicts?

Contrary to the important of inclusive education exclusion in education create undesirable

result for a nation:
• Educational exclusion cut people off from full involvement in the economic and social
life of their countries
• As an experience of deprivation, social exclusion is often the consequence of severe
horizontal inequalities, and as such it can underpin grievances that can mobilize groups
for conflict
• Exclusion through horizontal inequalities undermines social cohesion
• Build shared values;
• Reduce disparities in wealth and income;
• Difficult to enable people to have a sense that they are engaged in a common
enterprise, facing shared challenges, and that they are members of the same
community;
• Educational inequalities reflect social inequalities more broadly;

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 • Dominant ethnic groups control state resources and may discriminate against minority
groups in terms of access to social resources, such as education, and employment
opportunities;
• Large horizontal inequalities may instead increase group cohesion among those who
are marginalized, facilitating mobilization for conflict;
• Factors that increase the risk of the outbreak of conflict could be due to discrimination
on the basis of: gender. Age, class, religion, disability, poverty, geographical
location..etc.
• These may be equally important in mobilizing individuals to participate in conflict.
Exclusion and inequalities may furthermore be political, social, or economic in nature,
or a combination of the three Sources of Conflict
• Spiritual sources of conflict
• Result of original ancestor‘s separation from God and negative influence from evil
spiritual forces
• Individual sources of conflict
• Disunity within the individual and confusion of values
• Family sources of conflict
• Family dysfunctions affect succeeding generations.
• National/international sources of conflict
• National policies affect future generations and can lead to conflict within or between
nations
Historical Sources of Conflict
• National crimes burden future generations
• Ethnic/religious resentments accumulate
• Individual Choice: To resolve or repeat past conflicts- rethinking the past and the future
In the absence of inclusiveness selfishness (living only for oneself), lust- envy, exploitation-
taking advantage over others, prejudice- partiality, reed- Self-indulgence, vengeance-
retaliation, arrogance- self-importance those are the basis of conflicts are in the minds of
human being. Conflict Begins within the Individual. Since wars begin in the minds of men, it
is in the minds of men that the defenses of peace must be constructed, which is inclusive
education. Inclusive education is the basis for harmony. If we develop true and practical

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inclusive education we can create citizens those are unselfishness and living for the wellbeing
of others, develop self-control, give genuine service, be fair, generous, attitude of forgiveness,
humility and honesty. If someone is not changed can create conflict and have no positive
impact on society. Hence, healing all the evils of today is possible only through inclusive
education. Create access to quality education; focus on shaping social skills, behavior,
attitudes, beliefs, values and positive human relations to build sustainable peace.
Activity
7. How can we sustain peace ? Discus broadly in your group and report
Sustaining Peace
It is important to expand formal and informal inclusive education with the aim of creating
inclusive society with the following competencies in young and adult populations:
• Skills of sifting the truth from propaganda or bias that surrounds them in every culture
Respect for the wise use of resources and appreciation for more than just the
materialistic aspects of quality of life
• Respect for different points of view and the ability to see the world through the eyes of
others
• Skills to resolve conflict in non-violent ways
• The desire and ability to participate in shaping society, in their own community, their
nation and the world.
Activity
5. Do hat rate and fight resolve conflict bring peace or aggravate? Discus this point and
deliver for the classroom students

• Building of peace requires taking the following steps:

• Fostering inclusion, ensuring access to justice, strengthening the social fabric and
delivering good governance have repeatedly been shown to be essential to achieving
development outcomes.
• Reaffirm a commitment to human rights, the foundation for human dignity and just
societies. Human rights, including economic, social and cultural rights, are the
foundation of a world order based on equality and inclusion.

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 • Foster social resilience by strengthening inclusion and addressing inequality: Peace
issues are core to the discussion of resilience. Resilient societies are those where the
social fabric is strong. They are just and inclusive, where the relationships between
individuals, their communities and the state are based on trust and the respect,
protection and fulfillment of everyone‘s human rights, and where there are robust
mechanisms for addressing inequalities, difference and grievance. Fostering resilience
is the foundation of long-term preventive efforts, from preventing conflict to reducing
the impact of internal and external crises, natural and man-made, and requires action
both to accompany local efforts and also to provide a supportive international
environment.
• Think local and act global: recommit to multilateralism as a safeguard for the most
vulnerable
• National implementation alone will not suffice to achieve the SDGs: 40% of the
Fostering the external drivers of peace, justice and inclusion requires concerted action
by states, as duty holders, to support responsible trade, reduce arms flows, promote
constructive financial, tax and investment practices, and to strengthen a rules-based
system that creates a more effective enabling environment that privileges the longterm
peace, development and human rights needs of all people and communities.
• Protect and support civil society in fostering sustainable peace: Social, political and
economic changes that contribute to increasing peace are more robust if they are
owned, implemented and sustained by local actors, including youth and women.
Nevertheless, civil society inclusion continues to be under threat around the world, with
onerous restrictions imposed on the ability of civil society groups to be effective, speak
out and access funding. We call on Member States to recommit their support for and
partnership with local and community actors, and for the UN system to model inclusion
in all its local and global processes
Reflections
Some Quotes on making of peace. Discus each of the following quotes broadly and present
them in the class
1. Hate rate and fighting cannot bring peace. ―We never get rid of an enemy by meeting
hate with hate; we get rid of an enemy by getting rid of enmity.” Dr. Martin Luther
King Jr.

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 2. “When I despair, I remember that all through history the ways of truth and love have
always won.” Mahatma Gandhi
3. “Any life that is lost in war is a human life, be it that of an Arab or Israeli. Innocent
children who are deprived of the care and compassion of their parents are ours. They
are ours, be they living on Arab or Israeli land.” Anwar Sadat
4. “The reason why God does not punish an enemy is that He is thinking of the enemy‟s
parents, wife and children who all love him. When you understand that heart of God,
could you take revenge on your enemy?” Rev. Sun Myung

Inclusion for Democracy

Activities
I. Discus the meaning of democracy?
II. Explain the characteristics of democratic society III. How can we
achieve democracy?
IV. Does inclusive education contribute for the development of democracy?

Definition
Democracy is a great philosophy of inclusion that born and grown in inclusive schools. It
means the rule of the people, by the people, for the people; and where ―people‖ is to mean all
human being, regardless of the diversities.
Democratic schools are an educational ideal in which democracy is both a goal and a method
of instruction. It brings democratic values to education and can include self-determination
within a community of equals, as well as such values as justice, respect and trust of diversities
Inclusion Education for Democracy
Inclusive education for democracy has not been established as a central purpose for schooling
in Ethiopia. Schools are the ideal place to promote democracy. One of the most important tasks
of schools should be helping students to realize the values of democracy. The democratic
values include is to enhance protected right, independent quality life for all, freedom, pursuit
of happiness, justice, the common good, truth, respect and tolerance for diversity and
partisanship. The most important function of democratic education is to make the democracy
natural attitude and way of thinking of man by developing the thought of democracy in human
mind. In democratic classroom teachers treat all students equally, provide them support
according to the needs and potentials, share power with students and supporting them in

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managing their own behaviors. Teachers provide us with as much knowledge as possible.
Teachers should promote engagement in a democracy, by teaching students how democracy
works and how important their role is in it. Students who have no understanding of how the
democracy functions are unlikely to become engaged citizens who vote.
Inclusive education sees young people not as passive recipients of knowledge, but
rather as active co-creators of their own learning that help to exercise democracy. Inclusive
education aims to develop real democracy through active participation by all divers learners
involved in classrooms and educational institutions. If these are in their places, everyone
receives the things they need in order to develop in an orderly, sequential way into members
of society. Inclusive education instills the values of cooperation, fairness and justice into the
hearts of our students.
In democratic education students have the power to make decisions about their
learning, because power is shared rather than appropriated in advance by a minority of people.
Inclusive education (when practiced well) is very important because: All children are able to
be part of their community and develop a sense of belonging and become better prepared for
life in the community today as children and tomorrow as adults. It provides better opportunities
for learning. In the absence of democracy, exclusion is prone to be exercised, today in the
school and tomorrow in the society. Hence, democracy is one of the principles of inclusiveness
in the process of building inclusive society that begun in schools.
Democratic principles for inclusive practices
Inclusive education is based on seven principles:
• Diversity enriches and strengthens all communities.
• All persons with disabilities different in their needs, potentials, learning and
working styles;

• Their achievements according to their potentials are equally valued, respected

and celebrated by society
• All learners are enabled to fulfill their potential by taking into account
individual requirements and needs.

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Inclusion for Development Definition
The word development is widely used to refer to a specified state of advancement or growth a
new and advanced idea, profession, physical, mental, product; or an event that constitutes a
new stage under changing circumstances. Development is a positive growth or change in
economical, social and political aspects of a country. Any kind of development should be
inclusive. Some scholars define inclusive development as a ―process that occurs when social
and material benefits are equitably distributed across divides in society‖ (Hikey, 2015), others
focus on the ―voice and power to the concerns and aspirations of otherwise excluded groups‖
(Johnson and Anderson 2012). Inclusive development also has an ―integral focus on the
achievement of equity and the rights of citizenship‖ (Hickey, 2013).

Inclusive education for Development

Activities
1. Discus the meaning of development?
2. Explain the characteristics of development
3. How can we achieve development?
4. Does inclusive education contribute for the development?

The meaning of development for an individual is that which tends towards a person realizing
his or her full potential as a human being through inclusive education and then inclusive
society; to expand the range of choices for every human being without discrimination.
Inclusive development consists of ensuring that all marginalized and excluded groups are
stakeholders in development processes. It is obvious that many groups are excluded from social
and economic development because of their gender, ethnicity, age, religion, disability or
poverty. If there is no inclusiveness in all walks of life, development cannot be sustainable.
Inclusive and sustainable development is crucial to reduce poverty in all its dimensions so that
all members of the society are benefitted. The goal of inclusiveness is to prevent social
exclusion and creating more social inclusion that aim at including all members of society in
the growth process.
Social inclusion is an integral part of inclusive development. Social inclusion enhances
capabilities, broadens social ties of respect and recognition, and at the collective level,

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enhances social bonds, cohesion, integration and solidarity (UNDP, 2015) among human race.
The initial emphasis of inclusion has been on economic inclusion through poverty reduction,
social protection and employment creation. However, it has become increasingly clear that
inclusion also has social and political dimensions (Abbot et al, 2016).
Some scholars have thus argues that social inclusion is a ―membership of society- with
citizenship as the basis for participating in the social, economic, political and cultural
institutions of a society (Levitas 1998).
Social inclusion ought to be based on ―the recognition of rights and responsibilities,
accountability and judgment and of the fundamental equality of all and on the provision of life
chances for all members of society to participate in the activities of society‖ (Silver, 2015).
Social inclusion is thus also inherently political, and it is crucial for inclusive development to
address social inclusion considering the various dimensions and its effect on dimensions of
well-being. Development efforts of any organization need to include and benefit people with
disabilities and all marginalized groups through providing education, creating employability,
promoting prosperity, reducing poverty and enhancing stability. It is obvious that people with
disabilities and marginalized population are large and most disadvantaged minority in the
world. Without creating inclusiveness for these populations we cannot realize peace,
democracy and development. Importance of Inclusion
1. It is important to support people learn, productive, successful and live
independently, be successful without helping them too much.
2. Inclusiveness when practiced well is very important because: All people are able to
be part of their community and develop a sense of belonging and become better
prepared for life in the community as children and adults. It provides better
opportunities for learning.
3. Inclusion values diversity and the unique contributions, where everybody brings to
the milieu. In a truly inclusive setting, every individual feels safe and has a sense of
belonging. A person who participates in setting life goals and take part in decisions
that affects them.
4. the opportunity to participate in the typical experiences in life; to be with other people
and form friendships and develop other social skills; for natural lifelong learning in
real situations and access to inclusion models

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 5. The inclusion model is also beneficial because it prepares individuals today and in
the future
Respecting divers needs, culture, values, demands and ideas
Activities
1. Why we have to respect diversity?
2. What diversities are available in our environment?
3. How can we create inclusiveness with all these diversities?
4. What are the advantages of diversity?
These include race, ethnicity, age, ability, language, nationality, socioeconomic status,
gender, religion, or sexual orientation. The group is diverse if a wide variety of groups are
represented. Cultural diversity has become a hot-button issue when applied to the workplace.
For this reason, we've created a list of the biggest diversity issues in the workplace.
• Acceptance and Respect

• Accommodation of Beliefs

• Ethnic and Cultural Differences

• Gender Equality

• Physical and Mental Disabilities

• Generation Gaps

• Language and Communication

Diversity may happen in the Workplace

• Ethnicity (language and cultural differences)
• Age and Generation differences
• Gender and Gender Identity
• Religious and Spiritual Beliefs
• Disability and Ability
• Socioeconomic Status and Background
- Poor and rich
- Educated and uneducated
- Highly educated and less educated
- Rural vs. urban history
- Married and unmarried
- Hard worker and non hard worker

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 - Mental health problems…etc
Valuing diversity
Recognizes differences between people and acknowledges that these differences are a valued
asset. Multicultural education is an important component of valuing diversity. It respects
diversity while teaching all children and youth to become effective and participating
members of a democracy.
Diversity in the workplace is vital for employees because it manifests itself in building a great
reputation for the company, leading to increased profitability and opportunities for workers
quality services. Workplace diversity is important within the organization as well as outside.
It is important to value diversity because; people build a stronger sense of identity
and wellbeing, and have better education and career outcomes when their diverse strengths,
abilities, interests and perspectives are understood and supported. It helps dispel negative
stereotypes and personal biases about different groups. In addition, cultural diversity helps us
recognize and respect ―ways of being‖ that are not necessarily our own; so that as we interact
with others, we can build bridges to trust, respect, and understanding across cultures.
Cultural Diversity
In relation to human diversity, so many questions may be raised, such as what language
someone speak, religion, holidays celebrated, ethnic identity, culture and the like. Our culture
is what shapes us; it shapes our behavior and our identity. Culture is our way of living, it refers
to the shared language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and material objects that are passed
down from one generation to the next. Cultural diversity in the world is divers and a blessing
gift for development; but become sources of conflict. Why?

The term ―culturally diverse‖ is often used interchangeably with the concept of
―multiculturalism.‖ Recognition of the abundant diversity of cultures; respect for the
differences; acknowledging the validity of different cultural expressions and contributions;
valuing what other cultures offer; encouraging the contribution of diverse groups; empowering
people to strengthen themselves and others to achieve their maximum potential by being
critical of their own biases; and celebrating rather than just tolerating the differences in order
to bring about unity through diversity are important elements in defining and describing
multiculturalism

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The multicultural person, therefore, is not simply the one who is sensitive to many different
cultures. Rather, this person is always in the process of becoming a part of and apart from a
given cultural context. He or she is a formative being, resilient, changing, and evolutionary.
Cultural diversity is when population differences are well represented within a community.
These include race, ethnicity, age, ability, language, nationality, socioeconomic status,
gender, religion and geographical area. Here we will discuss the following diversities:
Ethnic diversity

Activities
1. What do we mean by ethnic diversity?
2. What are the strengths and weakness of ethnic diversity?
3. Why are the causes of ethnic conflict?
4. What could be the mitigation for ethnic conflict?
The diversity of something is the fact that it contains many very different elements. The terms
"race" and "ethnicity" used interchangeably, but, generally speaking, the meanings are distinct.
Race is usually seen as biological, referring to the physical characteristics of a person, while
ethnicity is viewed as a social science construct that describes a person's cultural identity. It is
including nationality, regional culture, ancestry, and language.
An example of race is brown, white, or black skin (all from various parts of the world), while
an example of ethnicity is German or Spanish ancestry (regardless of race) or Han Chinese.
Cultural diversity is important; because our country, workplaces, and schools increasingly
consist of various cultural, racial, and ethnic groups; so that as we interact with others we can
build bridges to trust, respect, and understanding across cultures.

We can learn from one another, but first, we must have a level of understanding about each
other. Learning about other cultures helps us understand different perspectives within the
world in which we live. It helps dispel negative stereotypes and personal biases about different
groups. Cultural diversity helps us recognize and respect ―ways of being‖ that are not
necessarily our own; so that as we interact with others we can build bridges to trust, respect,
and understanding across cultures. Furthermore, this diversity makes our country a more
interesting place to live. As people from diverse cultures contribute language skills, new ways
of thinking, new knowledge, and different experiences are learned and developed.

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In uneducated or poorly educated nations, the negative effect of ethnic diversity on economic
performance is that more ethnically diverse societies suffer more serious internal conflicts;
because quality education teaches tolerance. Inequality among the ethnic groups, when the
majority dominates the minority, creates conflict.
Ethiopia is made up of people of different ethnic origin. Despite the popular belief that
Ethiopia is just one big country of a single ethnic group, there are over 83 different ethnic
groups speaking more than 83 different languages and 200 dialects. Ethnicity is more than just
language, song, and dance. It is the embodiment of values, institutions, and patterns of
behavior, a composite whole representing a people‘s historical experience, aspirations and a
world view. If the majority deprive minority people of their ethnicity, and their culture, this
situation deprive them of their sense of direction, purpose and eventually their identity, so that
conflict can be created. Such conditions can create conflicts with so much hatred, genocides
may be committed and all types of crimes against humanity can be carried out. In Rwanda the
Tutsis and the Hutus fought each other in a genocide in 1994 that claimed the lives of
approximately 800 000 lives. This culture of ethnic groups has not stopped but has reared its
ugly head in recent years taking the form of Xenophobia in particular South Africa. Brother
has arisen against brother, to the extent of burning the other alive. Listening to reasons offered
by those committing these heinous crimes leaves a lot to be desired. There is a lot of hate being
passed around, with South African nationals chanting that foreigners are denying them
opportunities in their own land and such should go back to their country of origin. It is sad to
note that with the advent of globalization, people have been travelling to various countries,
some to acquire business opportunities, some to offer a particular skill set required. And these
nationals contribute economically to the success of host countries. As such it is clear testimony
that is ethnic groups is able to see past their ethnic divide, they have the potential to make
Ethiopia great and the world at large.
Activities
1. Who is the winner in ethnic conflict?
2. What do we learn from Rwanda?
3. What is expected from Ethiopians to enhance peace among all ethnic groups?
4. How can we create inclusive society?

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Benefits of Cultural Diversity
There are many advantages of a diverse in schools and workplaces. Organizations can
benefit from employees who bring language skills, cultural experience, and creativity to the
table. An organizations success can be dependent upon its ability to embrace a diverse staff.
The following are some of the benefit of cultural diversities
• Increased productivity
• Improved creativity
• Increased profits
• Improved employee engagement
• Reduced employee turnover
• Improved company reputation
• Wider range of skills
• Improves cultural insights
• Reduced Fear, Improved Performance
• Put a variety of world views into one room, and you'll come out the other side with
better ideas
• Boost Your Brand's Reputation
• Global Impact
• In the same vein, workplace diversity boosts creativity
• Schools‘ cultural diversity enriches the educational experience
• Through culturally diverse classroom and in a cooperative learning, students have the
opportunity to learn from people with different backgrounds and upbringings, leading
to increased innovation and collaboration
• It helps dispel negative stereotypes and personal biases about different groups.
• In addition, cultural diversity helps us recognize and respect ―ways of being‖ that
are not necessarily our own; so that as we interact with others we can build bridges to
trust, respect, and understanding across cultures; inclusiveness. Religious diversity
Activities
1. Why religion is the causes of hate rate and conflict?
2. What are the causes of conflicts?
3. Who benefit from conflict?
4. Can we create win-win through conflict?
5. How can we create win-win scenarios?
What causes workplace conflict?
A religious conflict is a conflict primarily caused or justified by differences in religion. In the
modern period, debates are common over the extent to which religious, economic, or ethnic
aspects of a conflict predominate in a given conflict.
• Lack of values for differences and poor management of religious institutions
• Disrespect and unfair treatment other religions
• Unclear roles as followers of a given religion

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• Inadequate spiritual education and training or ill thought
• Poor communication with each other
• Lack of collaboration and poor living environment
• Partiality or lack of equal treatment from political leaders
• Bullying and harassment of other religion
Religious diversity is the fact that there are significant differences in religious belief and
practice. It has always been recognized by people outside the smallest and most isolated
communities. Roughly, pluralistic approaches to religious diversity say that, within bounds,
one religion is as good as any other. Religious pluralism is an attitude or policy regarding the
diversity of religious belief systems co-existing in society; harmonious co-existence between
adherents of different religions or religious denominations. To be multipath is to feel an affinity
with aspects of more than one religion, philosophy or world-view, and perhaps to believe that
no one is superior to the others. This term should not be confused with interfaith, which
concerns the communication between different religions. Activities related to social hostility
like violence, terrorism, harassment over dressing because of religious cause and religion abuse
has increased
How to Resolve Conflict
1.Agree on a mutually acceptable time and place to discuss the conflict
2.State the problem as you see it and list your concerns
3.Let the other person have his/her say
4.Listen and ask questions
5.Stick to one conflict at a time — to the issue at hand
6. Seek common ground
7. Seek for win-win approaches. The win-win approach sees conflict resolution as an
opportunity to come to a mutually beneficial result. It includes identifying your opponent's
underlying concerns and finding an alternative which meets each party's concerns.

Gender differences
In general terms, "sex" refers to the biological differences between males and females, such as
the genitalia and genetic differences. "Gender" can refer to the role of a male or female in
society, known as a gender role, or an individual's concept of themselves, or gender identity.
either of the two sexes (male and female), especially when considered with reference to social
and cultural differences rather than biological ones. The term is also used more broadly to
denote a range of identities that do not correspond to established ideas of male and female. "a
condition that affects people of both genders" Or in the other way, sex refers to biological

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 differences between males and females. For example, chromosomes (female XX, male XY),
reproductive organs (ovaries, testes), hormones (oestrogen, testosterone) and gender is the
cultural differences expected (by society / culture) of men and women according to their sex.
Activities
1. Are there differences in abilities between man and woman? How?
2. Why females are not equally valued with male?
3. Why male oppress female while female have irreversible biological and cultural role ?
4. Why female are thought to be weak in math and science?
5. What are the consequences of not equally considering female in developments?

Mental abilities

Women are generally better at language tasks. And men on average are a little bit better at
organizing things in space. But really there's much more variability within the women, or
within men, than there is difference between the woman and men. There are genius male female
and less geniuses in both cases. Both Male and female can be gifted in math and science,
engineering or any other discipline. In the past there was a claim that boys are out performing
in math and science than girls. But, some reports are showing that girls are much better than
boys in academic achievements

Undeniable elements are the differences and physical abilities and behavior. Men are, in
general, more muscular than women. Women are just over half as strong as men in their upper
bodies, and about two-thirds as strong in their lower bodies.
There are also behavioral differences between men and female. Most studies have also found
testosterone to be associated with behaviors or personality traits linked with criminality such
as antisocial behavior and alcoholism. In species that have high levels of male physical
competition and aggression over females, males tend to be larger and stronger than females.

Stereotype thinking against woman

In his Politics, Aristotle saw women as subject to men, but as higher than slaves, and lacking
authority; he believed the husband should exert political rule over the wife. Among women's
differences from men were that they were, in his view, more impulsive, more compassionate,
more complaining, and more deceptive. He gave the same weight to women's happiness as to
men's, and in his Rhetoric stated that society could not be happy unless women were happy

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 too. Whereas Plato was open to the potential equality of men and women, stating both that
women were not equal to men in terms of strength and virtue, but were equal to men in terms
of rational and occupational capacity, and hence in the ideal Republic should be educated and
allowed to work alongside men without differentiation, Aristotle appears to have disagreed.

In his theory of inheritance, Aristotle considered the mother to provide a passive material
element to the child, while the father provided an active, ensouling element with the form of
the human species

In Ethiopia, discriminatory attitudes and social norms are major drivers of gender-based
violence where women are victims and the perpetrators are men. Factors associated with men's
use of violence include rigid gender attitudes, abuses and harassments

Woman’s participations in developments

Activities
1. Are there relationships between poverty and participation of women?
2. Compare Africa and Europe in the level of women‘s participation and development
What is expected from society to equally treat of female?

• Our priorities are winning economic equality and securing equal rights for women;
• Reproductive freedom and other women's health issues;
• An equitable distribution of life's opportunities and resources between women and
men, and/or the equal representation of women and men
• Every woman and girl is entitled to live in dignity and in freedom, without any fear.
• Caring practices for female, not violence
• Equal opportunity for education and employment
• Gender Justice is indispensable for development, poverty reduction, and is crucial to
achieving human progress

Marginalized group of people

Marginalization is a process that includes many external forces. People may be marginalized
on the basis of the social, gender, cultural, ethnic, economic, social order, beliefs and other
factors. Marginal groups can always be identified by members of dominant society, and will
face irrevocable discrimination. Marginalized groups exist nearly everywhere. They are
people who, for whatever reason, are denied involvement in mainstream economic,
political, cultural and social activities.

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 Targeting or ignoring one group can ultimately affect the whole society in all aspects
of development. Marginalization comprises those processes by which individuals and groups
are ignored or relegated to the sidelines of political debate, social negotiation, and economic
bargaining and kept there. Neoclassical economists trace marginalization to individual
character flaws or to cultural resistance to individualism. Marginalization is the result of
systemic actions that the "in group" takes, whether consciously or unconsciously, to alienate
or disenfranchise a specific person or groups of people by sidelining them from the group's
main activities and contributions
Creating friendly environments for marginalized people
1. Tolerate for the differences opinions and attitudes
2. Seek out marginalized voices and perspectives and provide support
3. Confront your own racist thought and try to be inclusive of all the differences
4. Use your privilege to support marginalized people‘s movements
5. Give your time and money, if possible for the success of inclusive development
6. Be proactive about inclusion in your daily life
7. Avoid segregation
8. Do the work that help to promote inclusiveness
The most vulnerable are women, children, aged, those living with HIV/AIDS, mental illness,
minority people with language and cultural diversity, disability and the like. Girls and
women from the marginalized groups are more vulnerable to violence. The dropout,
illiteracy, un-employability and poverty rates among them are also high.
Chapter summary
Inclusiveness is standing against exclusion and marginalization; and the move towards peace,
democracy and development. It is important to help people to become independent, develop a
belief in themselves (confidence) so that they become successful without further helping them
too much. Provide opportunities for children and women to have sustained social interactions
and participate fully in the program. Inclusiveness values all kinds of diversities and the unique
contributions of each student bring to the classroom and adults to the work and social
environments. In a truly inclusive setting, every person feels safe and has a sense of belonging.
Students and their parents participate in setting learning goals and take part in decisions that
affect them. Finally, inclusive education creates inclusive society.

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References
Alemayehu Teklemariam and Temsegen Fereja (2011). Special Need Education in Ethiopia: Practice of Special
Needs Education around the World. Washington: Gallaudet University Press.
Alemayehu Teklemariam (2019). Inclusive Education in Ethiopia: WILEY and Blackwell: Singapore A
Teachers Guide (2001). UNESCO. Inclusive Education and Classroom Practice in Secondary Education
(2004).
Berit H. Johanson and Alemayehu Teklemariam (2006). Towards Special Needs Education as a University
Discipline: An Important step on the way to Education for All. In When All Means All. Hakapaino Oy:
Helsinki
Tirussew Teferra and Alemayehu Teklemariam (2007). Including the Excluded: Integrating disability into
EFA Fast Track Initiative Process and National Education Plans in Ethiopia. World Vision MOE (2010).
Special Needs Program strategies implementation guide.
MOE (Ministry of Education). (2006). Special Needs Education Program Strategy. Addis Ababa
Understanding and responding to children‘s need in inclusive classroom (2010).www.european-agency.org
ዓለማየሁ ትክለማርያም (2009). በመተባበር መማር፡- አንድ ለሁሉም፣ ሁሉም ለአንድ፣ አዲስ አበባ፡- ፋርኢስት አታሚ
ዓለማየሁ ትክለማርያም (2011). አካቶ ትምህርት ለምን፣ምን፣ለነማን እንዴት፤ አዲስ አበባ፡- ፋርኢስት አታሚ

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 Chapter 6: Legal frame work
Chapter Overview

In this chapter students will learn concept o legal framework, its uses and impact on inclusive
education development. Moreover, the students will learn international and national (Ethiopian
legal frameworks that promote inclusion philosophy development. In addition the students
read and understand and conceptualize parts of legal frameworks that may incorporate:
legislations, conventions, policies and related legal frameworks.

Activities
Discuss over the following concepts:
Every child has a right to learn in a natural environment with their peers
There is legitimate background to teach students in segregated settings (for example,
special and regular schools).
Every child should get quality education that helps his/her holistic development.
Chapter Objectives
After completing the study of this chapter, the students will be able to:
 Discuss the concept of legal framework
 Identify international and national legal frameworks in relation to inclusiveness
 Discuss legal frameworks and their implementation
 Explore gaps in implementation of legal frameworks to implement inclusion

General Overview of Legal frameworks

Braining storming questions

1. Do you think legal framework is necessary to implement inclusion? If your answer is
“yes,” explain reasons or your answer. If your answer is “no,” please try to give reason(s).
2. Do you think that inclusion in Ethiopia is supported by legal frameworks? If your answer
is “no,” please try to give reason(s).

Discrimination against persons with disabilities has a long history and persons with disabilities
are regularly excluded from participation in society and denied their human rights.
Discrimination against the disabled can take many forms, ranging from limited educational
opportunities to more subtle forms, such as segregation and isolation because of physical and
social barriers. The effects of discrimination are most clearly felt in the sphere of economic,
social and cultural rights, in the fields of, for instance, housing, employment, transport, cultural
life and access to public services. The obstacles the disabled face in enjoying their human

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rights are often the result of exclusion, restriction, or preference, and, for instance, when the
disabled do not have access to reasonable accommodation on the basis of their limitations,
their enjoyment or exercise of human rights may be severely restricted. In order for disabled
persons to freely enjoy their fundamental human rights, numerous cultural and social barriers
have to be overcome; changes in values and increased understanding at all levels of society
has to be promoted, and those social and cultural norms that perpetuate myths about disability
have to be put to rest.
According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, ―All human beings are born free
and equal in dignity and rights.‖ However, this is far from being a reality for persons with
disability around the world. This is because people with disabilities‘ living conditions are
always worse than those of other citizens. They are very often excluded and marginalized
different areas o life such as participation in education, social activities, economy, and politics
and so on.
The rights of persons with disability have increasingly been recognized by international and
national law. For example, The Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons (1971)
and the Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons (1975) both establish the principle of
equality of the rights of persons with disability. The Declaration on the Rights of Deaf-Blind
Persons (1979) adopted by the Economic and Social Council provides universal rights.
The above legislations and other which were enacted after the above declarations prompted
people with disabilities addresses all aspects of disabled persons‘ lives, such as equal
opportunities, physical environment, services, education, employment, and social welfare.
Using legal frameworks regarding persons with disability suggests some measures
governments should take in order to ensure that persons with disability become fully equal
citizens. The rules also act as an international instrument and as a mechanism of control to
guarantee the effective application of the stated rights. However, it is not possible to force
governments to apply them, and the rules require a concrete commitment from governments
in order to transform equal opportunities for disabled persons into reality—a commitment
which is often lacking.
Legal Frameworks Regarding Inclusion
They also have right to use public services (civil right), membership of any associations and
organization, participation in different activities like voting. Children and youth with

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disabilities have moral, civil, parental, ethical and legal rights (right to learn with nondisabled
children).They should not be treated as marginal, rather they must involve in different
community activities. They must be consulted and be involved in decision making processes.
Inclusive in education is the most effective means of combating discriminatory Attitudes,
creating welcoming community and building an inclusive society. They are essential to the
enjoyment and exercise of human right. Thus, the right to an inclusive education for persons
with disabilities is a fundamental human right. It emerged first in general guarantees set forth
in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and then in more detailed expression in the
International Covenant on Economic and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Other international
instruments express the link between the right to education and the needs of persons with
disabilities.

In addition, states have specific obligations under international law to respect, protect and
fulfill the right to inclusive education for persons with disabilities. The obligation to respect
requires States to refrain from denying or limiting equal access to inclusive education for
persons with disabilities. This right should be guaranteed by law.

International and National Legal Frameworks

International Legal Framework

Group activities
1. Do you know that people with disabilities are full members of the community with the
same rights as everyone else?
2. What different international conventions and declarations protecting the rights of
people with disabilities do you know? Would you list them as many as you can?
3. Discuss how each of the international conventions and declarations protecting the
rights of people with disabilities.
4. How do you think these international conventions and declarations promote inclusive
education?
There have been international efforts to address equal opportunity of PWDs in
employment to address such challenges primarily from ILO a specialized agency of UN and
the General Assembly of the UN itself. Most of the endeavors resulted in the adoption of
resolutions and recommendations as well as conventions featuring different legal effect. While
conventions produce a binding legal effect, resolutions, declarations and recommendation,
which are referred as soft laws, do not create binding legal effect. However, it does not mean

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 that they are adopted for no purpose since they can have a role to play in awareness raising,
influencing future development and encourage national policy initiatives.
International human rights instruments protect the rights of persons with disabilities
through the principles of equality and non-discrimination. There are a number of international
legal frameworks regarding people with disability that are aimed at protecting the rights of
persons with disabilities through the principles of equality and nondiscrimination. The table
below indicates the major types of international legal frameworks.
Key International Instruments and other Documents that Promote Inclusion

• 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Article 26

• 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education – Articles 1, 3 and 4
• 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination – Article
5
• 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights – Article 13
• 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights – Articles 18 and 19
• 1973 ILO Convention on the Minimum Age for Employment – Article 7
• 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women – Article 10
• 1982 World Program of Action Concerning Disabled Persons proposals for implementation,
national action, part 2
• 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child – Articles 23, 28 and 29
• 1989 ILO Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples – Articles 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 and
31
• 1990 The World Declaration on Education for All, Jomtien
• 1993 The Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities
• 1994 The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education
• 1999 ILO Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labor – Article 7
• 1999 Salamanca Five Years On Review
• 2000 World Education Forum Framework for Action, Dakar
• 2000 Millennium Development Goals focusing on Poverty Reduction and Development 2002
EFA Global Monitoring Report: EFA
• 2004 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Gender and Education for All – the leap to quality
• 2005 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Education for All – the quality imperative
• 2006 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Literacy for Life
• 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
• 2007 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Strong Foundations – early childhood care and education
2008 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Education for All by 2015
The following are some of the major international legal frameworks that support inclusion of
people with disabilities and vulnerabilities.
A) 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Article 26
(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional

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education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible
to all on the basis of merit.
(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the
strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall
further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their
children.
B) The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 Extracts from Articles, 2, 23, 28
and 29 Article 2
States Parties shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present Convention to each
child within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the child‘s or
his or her parent‘s or legal guardian‘s race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or other status.
Article 23
1. States Parties recognize that a mentally or physically disabled child should enjoy a full and
decent life, in conditions which ensure dignity, promote self-reliance, and facilitate the
child‘s active participation in the community.
2. Recognize the right of the child to special care......subject to available resources.
3. Recognizing the special needs of a disabled child...taking into account the financial
resources of the parents or others caring for the child... ensure that the disabled child has
access to and receives education, training, health care services, rehabilitation services,
preparathion for employment and recreation opportunities in a manner conducive to the
child‘s achieving the fullest possible social integration and individual development,
including his or her cultural and spiritual development
Article 28
1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to education and with a view to achieving this
right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall, in particular: (a) Make
primary education compulsory and available free to all; (b) Encourage the development of
different forms of secondary education, including general and vocational education, make
them available and accessible to every child;(c) Make higher education accessible to all;(d)
Make educational and vocational information and guidance available and accessible to all

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children; (e) Take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction of
drop-out rates.
Article 29
1. States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to: (a) The development
of the child‘s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential; (b)
The development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms;
(c) The development of respect for the child‘s parents, his or her own cultural identity,
language and values, for the national values of the country in which the child is living, the
country from which he or she may originate, and for civilizations different from his or her own;
120 (d) the preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society; (e) The development
of respect for the natural environment.‖ Article 23 focuses specifically on children with
disabilities and positively affirms their right to a ―full and decent life‖. However, it has
weaknesses because it makes the rights of children with disabilities ―subject to available
resources‖ and focuses on ―special needs‖ without defining this. This article needs to be
considered in the context of the underpinning principles of the UNCRC, plus Articles 28 and
29 on education that apply to all children.
C) World Conference on Education for All, Jomtien, and 1990 World Declaration on
Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs
It acknowledged that educational disparities existed and that many different particular groups
were vulnerable to discrimination and exclusion. These included girls, the poor, street and
working children, rural and remote populations, minority ethnic groups and other groups, with
particular mention made of people with disabilities. Jomtien also catalyzed a move away from
a rigid, prescriptive education system towards a flexible system that would be tailormade,
adapted to the needs, cultures and circumstances of learners.
Article III – Universalizing access and promoting equity
1. ―Basic education should be provided to all children, youth and adults. To this end, basic
education services of quality should be expanded and consistent measures must be taken to
reduce disparities.
2. For basic education to be equitable, all children, youth and adults must be given the
opportunity to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of learning.

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3. The most urgent priority is to ensure access to, and improve the quality of, education for
girls and women, and to remove every obstacle that hampers their active participation. All
gender stereotyping in education should be eliminated.
4. An active commitment must be made to removing educational disparities. Underserved
groups: the poor; street and working children; rural and remote populations; nomads and
migrant workers; indigenous peoples; ethnic, racial, and linguistic minorities; refugees; those
displaced by war; and people under occupation, should not suffer any discrimination in access
to learning opportunities.
5. The learning needs of the disabled demand special attention. Steps need to be taken to
provide equal access to education to every category of disabled persons as an integral part of
the education system.‖
D) The World Programmed of Action, 1982 and the Standard Rules, 1993 the World
Programmed of Action Concerning Persons with Disability
This originated from the International Year of Disabled Persons in 1981, a landmark period
in the history of disability rights. The World Program of Action laid the foundations for
inclusive education by stating that:
• The education of disabled persons should as far as possible take place in the general school
system.
• Responsibility for their education should be placed upon the educational authorities. (Note,
in many countries the education of disabled children was under the authority of other
ministries such as health or social welfare, or none at all)
• Laws regarding compulsory education should include children with all ranges of
disabilities, including the most severely disabled
• Educational services for disabled children should be individualized, locally accessible and
comprehensive.

E) The Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with

Disabilities - Rule 6
This consists of rules governing all aspects of the rights of people with disabilities. Rule 6
focuses on education and agrees with Jomtien that people with disabilities should be educated
as ―an integral part of the educational system‖, and that States should have responsibility for
the education of people with disabilities. Too often, education for people with disabilities was
provided by non-government agencies, letting governments ‗off the hook‘. Key points include:

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• The State should take responsibility for the education of people with disabilities, and
should a) have a clear policy b) have a flexible curriculum c) provide quality materials, and
on-going teacher training and support.
• Integration in mainstream schools is promoted with some key conditions; it should be
properly resourced and of high quality – it should not be seen as a cheap option.
• Special attention should be given to very young and pre-school children, and to women
with disabilities
• Community-based program are seen as complementary to ‗integrated‘ education
• Special education is not ruled out where the mainstream system is inadequate, and for deaf
and deaf/blind students
• Rule 6 States should ensure that the education of persons with disabilities is ―an integral
part of the educational system‖
• Para 1: general education authorities are responsible for the education of people with
disabilities
• Para2: education in mainstream schools presupposes provision of appropriate support
services
• Para 6: states the need to a) have a clear policy, b) have a flexible curriculum, c) provide
quality materials, and on-going teacher training and support
• Para 7: community-based programs should be seen as complementary to integrated
education
• Para 8: in cases where the general school system does not adequately meet the needs of all
disabled persons, special education may be considered in some instances special education
may currently be the most appropriate form of education for some students
• Para 9: deaf and deaf/blind students may receive more appropriate education in separate
schools, special classes or units

F) The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education,
1994
The Framework gave rise to the thinking and practice from a different perspective –
not from disabled activists, but from the professionals working in schools, trying to find ways
to enable all children to learn together. A key difference is that, rather than talking about a

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particular group (for example children with disabilities or girls) and their rights, in Salamanca
the focus was on diversity of children‘s characteristics and educational needs. It marked a big
shift away from the dominant paradigm in special needs education, which was strongly
supportive of segregated special schools. It reflected the ‗new thinking‘ in special needs
education and promoted the concept of the fully inclusive school. The Salamanca Statement
and Framework for Action is still a key international document on the principles and practice
of inclusive education. It brings together very eloquently several pioneering and fundamental
principles of inclusion, some of which had not been discussed in earlier documents.
Article 2: ―Education systems should take into account the wide diversity of
children‘s different characteristics and needs regular schools with this inclusive orientation are
the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming
communities, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all; moreover, they
provide an effective education to the majority of children and improve the efficiency and
ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire education system.‖
Article 3: Governments should ―adopt as a matter of law or policy the principle of inclusive
education... unless there are compelling reasons for doing otherwise‖. This Article ―The
guiding principle of this Framework is that schools should accommodate all children. This
should include disabled and gifted children, street and working children, children from remote
or nomadic populations, children from linguistic, ethnic or cultural minorities and children
from other disadvantaged or marginalized areas or groups. The challenge confronting the
inclusive school is that of developing a child-centered pedagogy capable of educating all
children.

Article 4: ―human differences are normal and learning must be adapted to the needs
of the child rather than the child fitted to preordained assumptions, a child-centered pedagogy
is beneficial to all students, and as a consequence, to society as a whole... it can substantially
reduce drop-out and repetition while ensuring higher average levels of achievement.
Childcentered schools are, moreover, the training ground for a people-orientated society that
respects both the differences and dignity of all human beings.‖
Article 6: ―Inclusion and participation are essential to human dignity and to the enjoyment
and exercise of human rights.‖

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 Article 7: ―The fundamental principle of the inclusive school is that all children should
learn together, wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have.
Inclusive schools must recognize and respond to the diverse needs of their students,
accommodating both different styles and rates of learning...‖
Article 10: ―Experience suggests that inclusive schools, serving all of the children in a
community, are most successful in eliciting community support and in finding imaginative and
innovative ways of using the limited resources that are available.‖
Article 18: ―Educational polices at all levels, from the national to the local, should stipulate
that a child with a disability should attend the neighborhood school that is, the school that
would be attended if the child did not have a disability.‖
G) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2006 Article 24 – Education
1. States Parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to education. With a view to
realizing this right without discrimination and on the basis of equal
opportunity, States Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all
levels and lifelong learning directed to:
(a) The full development of human potential and sense of dignity and
selfworth, and the strengthening of respect for human rights, fundamental
freedoms and human diversity;
(b) The development by persons with disabilities of their personality, talents
and creativity, as well as their mental and physical abilities, to their fullest
potential;
(c) Enabling persons with disabilities to participate effectively in a free society.
2.In realizing this right, States Parties shall ensure that:
(a) Persons with disabilities are not excluded from the general education
system on the basis of disability, and that children with disabilities are not
excluded from free and compulsory primary education, or from secondary
education, on the basis of disability;
(b) Persons with disabilities can access an inclusive, quality and free primary
education and secondary education on an equal basis with others in the
communities in which they live;
(c) Reasonable accommodation of the individual‘s requirements is provided;

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 (d) Persons with disabilities receive the support required, within the general
education system, to facilitate their effective education;
(e) Effective individualized support measures are provided in environments
that maximize academic and social development, consistent with the goal
of full inclusion.
3. States Parties shall enable persons with disabilities to learn life and social development
skills to facilitate their full and equal participation in education and as members of the
community. To this end, States Parties shall take appropriate measures, including:
(a) Facilitating the learning of Braille, alternative script, augmentative and
alternative modes, means and formats of communication and orientation and
mobility skills, and facilitating peer support and mentoring;
(b) Facilitating the learning of sign language and the promotion of the linguistic
identity of the deaf community;
(c) Ensuring that the education of persons, and in particular children, who are
blind, deaf or deaf blind, is delivered in the most appropriate languages and
modes and means of communication for the individual, and in environments
which maximize academic and social development.
4. In order to help ensure the realization of this right, States Parties shall take appropriate
measures to employ teachers, including teachers with disabilities, who are qualified in sign
language and/or Braille, and to train professionals and staff who work at all levels of education.
Such training shall incorporate disability awareness and the use of appropriate augmentative
and alternative modes, means and formats of communication, educational techniques and
materials to support persons with disabilities.
5. States Parties shall ensure that persons with disabilities are able to access general tertiary
education, vocational training, adult education and lifelong learning without discrimination
and on an equal basis with others. To this end, States Parties shall ensure that reasonable
accommodation is provided to persons with disabilities
H) World Education Forum, Dakar, 2000
In April 2000, more than 1,100 participants from 164 countries gathered in Dakar, Senegal, for
the World Education Forum. Ranging from teachers to prime ministers, academics to policy-
makers, non-governmental bodies to the heads of major international organizations, they

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adopted the 2,000-word Dakar Framework for Action – Education for All: Meeting Our
Collective Commitments.
Education For All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments-this was the text adopted by the
World Education Forum Dakar, Senegal, 26-28 April 2000 7. ―We hereby collectively
commit ourselves to the attainment of the following goals:
i) expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education,
especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children;
ii) ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult
circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and
complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality;
iii) ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through
equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programs;
iv) achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015,
especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education
for all adults;
v) eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and
achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls‘
full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality;
and
vi) improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all
so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all,
especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.‖

I) 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education – Articles 1, 3 and 4

Article 1
1. For the purposes of this Convention, the term `discrimination' includes any distinction,
exclusion, limitation or preference which, being based on race, color, sex, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, economic condition or birth,
has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing equality of treatment in education and
in particular:

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 a. Of depriving any person or group of persons of access to education of any type or at any
level;
b. Of limiting any person or group of persons to education of an inferior standard;
c. Subject to the provisions of Article 2 of this Convention, of establishing or maintaining
separate educational systems or institutions for persons or groups of persons; or
d.Of inflicting on any person or group of persons conditions which are in-compatible with
the dignity of man.
2. For the purposes of this Convention, the term `education' refers to all types and levels of
education, and includes access to education, the standard and quality of education, and the
conditions under which it is given.
Article 3
In order to eliminate and prevent discrimination within the meaning of this Convention, the
States Parties thereto undertake:
(a) To abrogate any statutory provisions and any administrative instructions and to
discontinue any administrative practices which involve discrimination in education; (b) To
ensure, by legislation where necessary, that there is no discrimination in the admission of
pupils to educational institutions;
(c) Not to allow any differences of treatment by the public authorities between nationals,
except on the basis of merit or need, in the matter of school fees and the grant of scholarships
or other forms of assistance to pupils and necessary permits and facilities for the pursuit of
studies in foreign countries ;
(d) Not to allow, in any form of assistance granted by the public authorities to educational
institutions, any restrictions or preference based solely on the ground that pupils belong to a
particular group;
(e) To give foreign nationals resident within their territory the same access to education as
that given to their own nationals.
Article 4
The States Parties to this Convention undertake furthermore to formulate, develop and apply
a national policy which, by methods appropriate to the circumstances and to national usage,
will tend to promote equality of opportunity and of treatment in the matter of education and
in particular:

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(a) To make primary education free and compulsory; make secondary education in its
different forms generally available and accessible to all; make higher education equally
accessible to all on the basis of individual capacity; assure compliance by all with the
obligation to attend school prescribed by law;
(b) To ensure that the standards of education are equivalent in all public educational
institutions of the same level, and that the conditions relating to the quality of the education
provided are also equivalent;
(c) To encourage and intensify by appropriate methods the education of persons who have
not received any primary education or who have not completed the entire primary education
course and the continuation of their education on the basis of individual capacity; (d) To
provide training for the teaching profession without discrimination.
Reflection Exercise
1. Have you read the above legal frameworks carefully? Well, most of them have
overlapping concepts. Please find out the main overlapping ideas tell them to one of your
course mates.
2. Which of the international legal frameworks are directly related to inclusive education of
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities? Discuss them with your classmates.

National Laws and Policy Frameworks

Brain storming questions
1. Why do you think countries enact national laws and policy frameworks regarding issues o
the persons with disability and vulnerability?
2. What national laws and policy frameworks do you know? List and discuss in relation to
how they protect rights of persons with disabilities in various areas of life.
If we talk about Ethiopia‘s legal and policy documents, he/she finds no disability related
instrument until 1971 of the imperial order to provide for the establishment the rehabilitation
agency. Hence, it is possible to speak confidently that ‗disability was not a matter of law and
policy before 1991‘. This is because of the fact that Ethiopia‘s serious policy and legal regard
towards the right of PWDS had begun after the introduction of a new constitutional order in
the country.

Ethiopia has signed most of the international conventions and declarations protecting the rights
of persons with disabilities. There are also national policies on the rights of persons with
disabilities. These different national and international policies, conventions and declarations
are presented in various international and local policy documents. The table below is about

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 major national legal frameworks that are related with protecting persons with disabilities rights
in participating different areas of life.
National Laws and Policy Frameworks Related With Rights of People with Disabilities
Equal Participation in Education, Social, Economic, Apolitical and Other Aspect of Life
1. Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia-1995: Article 41(5) of the
Constitution sets out the State‘s responsibility for the provision of necessary rehabilitation and
support services for people with disabilities. This provision, which is found in the
socioeconomic rights of citizens, does not ensure the equal employment opportunity of PWDs.
Rather, it conveys a message that PWDs are among those who deserve assistance since they
are incapable of engaging in productive life.
2. Labor Proclamation, No. 377/2003, amended by Labor Proclamation No. 494/2006: It states that it is
unlawful for an employer to discriminate against workers on the basis of nationality, sex,
religion, political outlook or on any other conditions.
3. The Federal Civil Servant Proclamation- No. 515/2007: It offers for special preference in the
recruitment, promotion, and deployment, among others, of qualified candidates with
disabilities. This provision is applicable to government offices only.
4. Proclamation concerning the Rights to Employment for Persons with Disabilities- No. 568/2008: The
proclamation makes null and void any law, practice, custom, attitude and other discriminatory
situations that limit equal opportunities for persons with disabilities. It also requires employers
to provide appropriate working and training conditions; take all reasonable accommodation
measures and affirm active actions, particularly when employing women with disabilities; and
assign an assistant to enable a person with disability to perform their work or follow training.
5. Framework Document- 2009: provides for Special Needs Education (SNE) in Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET).
6. Building Proclamation- No. 624/2009: provides for accessibility in the design and construction of
any building to ensure suitability for physically impaired persons.
7. Proclamation on Definition of Powers of Duties of the Executive Organs of the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, No. 691/2010: This provides for conditions of equal opportunities
and full participation of persons with disabilities and those living with HIV/AIDS.
8. Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) 2010-2015: It focuses on establishing disability as a cross
cutting sector of development where focus is given to preventing disability and to providing

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 education and training, rehabilitation and equal access and opportunities to persons with
disabilities.
9. National Plan of Action of Persons with Disabilities -(2012-2021): The documents aim at making
Ethiopia an inclusive society. It addresses the needs of persons with disabilities in Ethiopia for
comprehensive Rehabilitation services, equal opportunities for education, skills training and
work, as well as full participation in the life of their families, communities and the nation.
10. Proclamation concerning the Rights of Disabled Persons to Employment-No.101/1994: This
document was the only legislation in Ethiopia which specifically provides for the employment
of disabled persons. The Proclamation aims to protect and promote the rights of disabled
persons to appropriate training, employment opportunities and salary, and to prevent any
workplace discrimination. Sections 3 and 4 refer to the promotion of employment opportunities
for disabled persons in the open labor market
11. The Federal Civil Servant Proclamation (Proclamation -No 1064/2017: Article 13/2 of proclamation
no 1064/2017 recognizes that:‘ There shall be no discrimination among job seekers or civil
servants in filling vacancies because of their ethnic origin, sex, religion, political outlook,
disability, HIV/AIDS or any other ground.‘ Therefore, there can be no discrimination against
persons with disabilities during job recruitment on the basis of their disability. Moreover,
Article 49 of the same proclamation provides for the applicable conditions of work for workers
with disabilities as follows: 1) Persons with disabilities shall be entitled to affirmative action
in recruitment, promotion, transfer, redeployment, education and training; 2) Any government
institution shall ensure that its working environment is conducive to civil servants with
disabilities, provide them with the necessary tools and materials and train them how to use
such tools and materials; 3) Any government institution shall have the responsibility to assign
a person who shall provide proper assistant for those civil servants with disability that requires
assistance; and 4) Privileges prescribed by other laws to persons with disabilities shall be
applicable for the implementation of this Proclamation.
12. Labor Proclamation-1156/2019: This proclamation controls the private sector employment
relationship. Article 15 of the proclamation outlaws discrimination on the basis of disablement.
It provides: discrimination any distinction, exclusion or preference made on the basis of nation,
race, color, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction, social origin, HIV/AIDS status,

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 disablement and others which has the effect of nullifying or impairing equality of opportunity
or treatment in employment or occupation.
13. Organization of Civil Society Proclamation -No. 1113/2019: This proclamation is a newly enacted
legislation replacing its predecessor proclamation 621/2009. It regulates issues concerning
formation, registration, activities and dissolution of civil society organization. Agency for civil
society organization has been also established to facilitate and monitor the activities of civil
society organization. Article 11 of this proclamation expressly provides that persons with
disabilities should be included as a member to enhance and strengthen benefit and
involvement of part of the society with disability. Furthermore, article 62/9 of the same
proclamation orders those civil society organizations working on the benefit of the general
public to take into account the issue of persons with disabilities. It is established for the benefit
of the general public or third parties shall ensure that its activities take into account the interests
of women, Children, persons with disabilities, the elderly and others exposed to threat or
vulnerable groups of the society.
14. The Revised higher institutions proclamation- No. 1152/2019: This proclamation has been enacted
in replacement of its predecessor proclamation 650/2009. This proclamation has incorporated
some rights entitling students with disabilities. According to article 51 of such proclamation.
accordingly the institutions shall: make, to the extent possible, their facilities and programs
amenable to use with relative ease for students with physical disabilities; shall, to the extent
that situations and resources permit, relocate classes, develop alternative testing procedures,
and provide different educational auxiliary aids in the interest of students with physical
disabilities and learning disabilities; consider building designs, campus physical landscape,
computers and other infrastructures of institutions shall take into account the interests of
physically disabled students; shall ensure that students with physical challenges get academic
assistance, including tutorial sessions, exam time and submission date deadline extensions;
shall provide additional resources, as necessary, to maintain the speed and need of education,
the allocation of additional resources, is necessary. The details shall be determined by a
directive
15. Advertisement Proclamation -No. 759/2012: It focuses on regulating commercial advertisement
are made. According to article 7/4 of this proclamation, advertisement which undermines the
dignity and emotional feeling of a physically disabled person is immoral. According to Article

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 7 advertisements shall be deemed to be as having unlawful or immoral content or presentation
when they undermine the dignity or emotional feeling of physically disabled person or a person
living with HIV/AIDS or suffering from other disease.
16. The Ethiopian Building proclamation -No 624/2009: Its focuses on buildings and construction- it
says that all public building to have a means to access by physical disabled persons. Moreover,
it dictates that toilet on such buildings must be accessible. Article 36 states that any public
building shall have a means of access suitable for use by physically impaired persons,
including those who are obliged to use wheelchairs and those who are able to walk but unable
to negotiate steps. Additionally, toilet facilities are required in any building, as adequate
number of such facilities shall be made suitable for use by physically impaired persons and
shall be assessable to them
17. Definition of Powers and Duties of the Executive Organs of the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia Proclamation -No. 1097/2018: It mainly focuses on addressing common responsibility
of ministries in general and the specific duty for ministry of labor and social affair in Creating
conditions whereby persons with disabilities, the elderly, and segments of society vulnerable
to social and economic problems benefit from equal opportunities and full participation
(article10/4). Moreover, it obliges the mistress work in cooperation with concerned bodies
(Article 29/11 A).
18. Developmental Social Welfare Policy 1997: It specifically targets people with disabilities and sets
out to safeguard their rights and to promote opportunities for vocational rehabilitation. full
participation in education, health, political, economic and social activities and other activities
19. The FDRE Education and Training Policy of 1994: This document recognizes that special attention
must be provided for those with special needs. However, it does not have any clear recognition
for reasonable accommodation
20. The FDRE special needs/inclusive education strategy 2012: This document focuses on inclusive
education policy, strategies and responsibilities of stakeholders.

Reflection activities
List down at least six national policies and laws and discuss their impact on equal
participation of people with disabilities participation in education, socio-economic and other
activities.

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What factors do you think affect implementation of international and national legal
frameworks to promote inclusive education in Ethiopia?

Chapter Summary
Legal frameworks are one of the drivers for the rights of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities. They have influence on especially educational rights of these people with their
peers. Legal frameworks are supposed to serve people with disabilities needs by keeping equal
rights and creating equal opportunity of learning for all such as children and youth in the
mainstreamed classrooms. Moreover, it is believed to create academic and social inclusion,
and maintain friendship among persons with and without disabilities and vulnerabilities.
Besides, legal frameworks are thought to help the persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
to exploit their potential to the optimum possible level.
International national legal frameworks are written in the form of public laws and acts,
declarations, conventions and frameworks. These legal frameworks focus on various issues
(social, educational, occupational, vocational etc) of children, youth and adults with
disabilities.
The Ethiopian government has endorsed almost all of the conventions and declarations. But
studies showed that various challenges are facing their implementations. As a result, there is
mismatch between practice and these frameworks implantation.
There also national legal frameworks mainly in the form of laws and policies that promote
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities equal participation in education, social welfare,
economy and other areas of life. Although Ethiopia has lots of laws, polices and others
international legal frameworks ratified by the country, there is gap in implementation and
practices that promote equality of people with disabilities and vulnerabilities equal
participation in social, educational, occupational, vocational and other aspects of life.

References
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……… (2009). Defining an inclusive education agenda: reflections around the 48th session of the international
conference on education. UNESCO: International Bureau of Education. Retrieved from http://
unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001868/ 186807e.pdf ……… (2013). Promoting inclusive education-
curriculum (Advocacy Guide 3). Bankok: Tiland.

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Chapter 7: Resources Management for Inclusion Overview of the Chapter
Inclusion demands resources to meet the need of all members of communities and to facilitate
equal participants in all sphere of life. Our environment, now more so than before, need to be
ready to include people from different backgrounds, with differing needs and abilities. For
such a situation we need to adapt and modify our environment to all people be accessible.
Inclusion refers to the process of providing all necessary services according to the needs of
divers‘ population in the community and bringing support services instead of mobilizing
resources in a separate setting. Inclusion assumes that the best provision for all according to
their need and potential regular schools, in the work place and in the community. Population
with a wide range of diversities such as disabilities, cultural and linguistic minorities and
vulnerabilities, academic abilities and behavioral needs are represented in inclusive
environment.
Activity
1. Dear student, Please list resources important for people with diversities in Education.
2. What are the resources important for persons with disabilities to be successful in the
world of work and social life?

Provisions of Resources
The resource should be considered for people with disabilities in workplaces, social gatherings,
recreational and in schools that help them to feel comfortable, secure and work at their
independent and team activities. Available resources those meet their needs can help persons
with disabilities move towards success.
Resources for school children
All concerned bodies should be inclusive in their planning, budgeting and taking action for the
education of persons with disabilities. In the school settings resource rooms are very important
at.
School based resource room
The resource room is a classroom where a special education program can be delivered to a
student with a disability and learning difficulty. It is for those students who belong to a regular
class but need some special instructions in an individualized or small group setting for a portion
of the day. It is typically a large room in the main school building with lots of facilities for
children with special needs. This program includes remedial, compensatory and developmental
instruction, which is provided in small groups for usually three to five hours per week.
Students may be provided direct services in the classroom. Indirect services can also be
provided to the student through consultation with the general education teachers to support in

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adjusting the learning environment or modify the instructional methods. When additional
support is appropriate to meet the student‘s needs, the student can receive the pullout program.
This form of a ―pull out‖ system, where a child attends a session in the resource room during
a light period of the day such as singing or physical training, receives individual help in a weak
area of learning such as reading or writing. Methods and materials are adapted to students'
learning styles and characteristics using multisensory and other specialized approaches
Activity
1. What human resources are required in this resource room?
2. What material resources are important for equally present in the classroom,
participate, receive support and achievement?

Human resources in schools

• Sign language interpreter
• Braille specialist
• Mobility and orientation expert
• Special needs educators
• Speech and language therapist
• Physiotherapist
• Behavioral therapists…etc
School based material resources

• LCD and/or Smart Board

• E - Chart
• Various magnifying lenses
• Slate and styles
• Perkins Braille writer
• White Cane
• Blind folder
• Tuning fork Audiometer
• Hearing aids (various type)
• Sign language books and videos
• Various instructional videos related this unit
• Braille atlases

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 • Molded plastic, dissected and un-dissected relief maps
• Relief globs
• Land form model
• Abacus
• Raised clock faces
• Geometric area and volume aids
• Write forms for matched planes and volumes
• Braille rulers
• Raised-line check books
• Signature guide
• Longhand-writing kit
• Script letter – sheets and boards
• Talking calculator
• Closed-circuit television
• Computer software for various students with special needs; for example Jawse
for blind and sign language software for deaf
• Orthosis
• Prosthosis
• Environmental accessibilities

- Ramps
- Elevators
- Wheel chairs

• And others additional resources

Accommodations
Accommodations are adjustments that teachers and school personnel make to maximize
learning and social well-being for individual students.
Instructional accommodation checklist
• Use a multisensory approach.
• Use a highly structured format for presentations.
• Use graphic organizers.

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 • Present material in small, sequential steps.
• Teach specific strategies (e.g. taking notes, reading comprehension).
• Review key points frequently.
• Assign a buddy reader or note taker.
• Provide students with outline of notes.
• Use color coding to match materials and concepts.
• Reduce visual distractions.
• Seat student close to board, teacher, or student helper: away from door or window.
• Provide a quiet work area.
• Allow students to move if needed. Use visual reminders as memory aids.
• Use teacher-initiated signals for redirecting attention.
• Highlight sections of text.
• Provide tape recording of lecture or required texts.
• Give oral and written directions.
• Speak slowly and clearly.
• Allow for longer response time.

Organization and Task Completion

Keep work area clear.
• Post assignments and work completed in a consistent spot.
• Assist student with notebook organization.
• Use assignment notebook.
• Extend time to complete assignments.
• Shorten or chunk assignments.
• Give timeline for longer projects.
• Give specific feedback.
• Provide peer tutoring.
• Use cooperative learning groups.
• Provide structured daily activities.
• Explain changes in routine.

Evaluation
• Explain grading and give rubric.
• Give specific feedback.

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 • Preview before test; give frequent quizzes; give sample questions.
• Orient student to test format.
• Use a clear, uncluttered copy; enlarge print.
• Make test directions simple and clear.
• Provide ample space for answers on test.
• Allow alternate test response (oral, computer).
• Read test aloud to student. Give open-note or take-home tests.
• Use alternate forms of evaluation (oral report, group projects, and debate).
• Reduce required assignments.
• Provide proofreading checklist.
• Accept print or cursive writing
Resources for work/social environment
Activity
1. What human resources are required work places?
2. What material resources are important for persons with disability in work places and
social environment?

Human resources
• Special needs educator at every organization to create inclusive environment
• Sign language interpreter
• Sighted guide
Material resources

• Various magnifying lenses

• Slate and styles
• Perkins Braille writer
• White Cane
• Hearing aids
• Sign language books and videos
• Braille atlases
• Braille rulers
• Signature guide
• Talking calculator

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 • Talking mobile
• Closed-circuit television
• Computer software for various students with special needs; for example Jawse
for blind and sign language software for deaf
• Orthosis
• Prosthosis
• Environmental accessibilities

- Ramps
- Elevators
- Wheel chairs

• And others additional resources

Chapter Summary

Resources are very important to create inclusiveness. Resources are for all human being;
though the attention if much given for persons with disabilities. All individuals can grow and
develop if they are accessed and provided. Primarily understanding the diverse needs of all
people is very important to plan for the resources. Incorporating the communication
styles/channel of diver‘s population is vital. Creating equal opportunities and access to equal
growth and development is necessary and considering and encouraging different perspective
using the provided resources is important to celebrate diversity. If we neglect human and
material resources to create inclusiveness, we remain with our poverty ever.

REFERENCES
Abrams, B. J.. & Segal. A. {1998). How to prevent aggressive behavior. Teaching Exceptional Children. 30(4),
10-15. Bradley, D. R, King-Sears, M. E., & Tessier-Switlick, D. M. (1996). Teaching students in
inclusive settings: From theory to practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Bentum, K. E., & Aaron, P. G. (2003). Does reading instruction in learning disability resource rooms really
work?: A longitudinal study. Reading Psychology, 24, 361-382

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Gardill, M. C, DuPaul, G. J., & Kyle, K. E. (1996). Classroom strategies for managing students with
attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. Intenention in School and Clinic. 32(2), 89-94.
Hall, S. (2007). NCLB and IDEA: Optimizing success for students with disabilities. Perspective on Language
and Literacy, 33(1), 35-39 Retrieved from http://search.proquest.comproxy-iup.klnpa.org.
Malouf, D.. & Schiller, E. (1995). Practice and research in special education. Exceptional Children. 61. 414424.
Peterson, A. (1995). Teacher-researcher compatibility: A view from both sides. Remedial and Special
Education. 16{6), 364-367. Salend, S. J. (1995). Modifying tests for diverse leamers. Intervention in
School and Clinic. i7(2), 84-90. Schumm, J. S., & Vaughn, S. (1992). Planning for mainstreamed special
education students: Perceptions of general classroom teachers. Exceptionality. 3. 81-98.
Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S., & Hams, J. (1997). Pyramid power for collaborative planning. Teaching Exceptional
Children, 29(6), 62-66. Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S., & Leavell, A. (1994). Planning pyramid: A
framework for planning for diverse student needs during content area instruction. The Reading Teacher,
47, 608-615.
Semmel, M. I., Abemathy, T V., Butera, G., & Lesar, S. (1991). Teacher perceptions of the regular education
initiative. Exceptional Children, 58, 9-24.
Stainback, W., Stainback, S., & Stefanich, G. (1996). Learning together in inclusive classrooms: What about the
curriculum? Teaching Exceptional Children, 25(3), 14-19.
Vaughn, S., Hughs, M. T., Schumm, J. S., & Klinger, J. (1998). A collaborative effort to enhance reading and
writing instruction in inclusion classrooms. Learning Disability Quarterly, 21, 57-74. Vaughn, S., &
Schumm, J. S. (1995). Responsible inclusion for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Leaming
Disabilities, 25(5), 264-270, 290.
Vannest, K. J., Hagan-Burke, S., Parker, R. I., & Soares, D. A. (2011). Special education teacher time use in
four types of programs. The Journal of Educational Research, 104, 219-230.
Walther-Thomas, C. S. (1997). Co-teaching experiences: The benefits and problems that
teachers and principals report over time. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(4), 395 407.
Chapter 8: Collaborative (Cooperative) Partnerships with
stakeholders
Time allotted: 5 hours
Introduction
An individual or an institute cannot do everything they want for the success of inclusiveness.
They require collaboration and partnership. Collaborative is becoming an effective team
player for the intended success. Collaboration referred to as collaborative consultation,
cooperative planning, implementation, assessment, co-teaching and any kind of team-based
services or community of practice. It has potential to create synergy – where the whole is
greater than the sum of the parts. It has the potential to provide opportunities for you to learn
new ways of addressing barriers to learning, working, living and for colleagues to learn from
each other. Collaboration should be with all human being for the success of inclusiveness.
Collaboration should be based on avoiding stereotype thinking that discriminate or undermine
the capacities of human being, demands equality, equity and creating mutual respect. Besides
collaboration, cooperation is also vital for human being to meet life goal.
Chapter objectives
Dear students at the end of this unit you will be able to:

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 • Define collaboration, partnership and stakeholder
• Identify key elements of successful collaboration
• Describe the benefits and challenges of collaboration for various stakeholders
for the success of inclusion
• Discus the strategies for effective co-planning and team working
• Identify characteristics of successful partnerships Design strategies for
community involvement
Activities
1. What is collaboration from your own understanding?
2. Have you every create collaboration with people? For what purpose? What
have you achieved?
3. What was the successful of your collaborations?
4. What will be your future collaboration?

Definition of collaboration, partnership and stack holder

Collaboration is defined as ―the act of working together to produce or create something

according to the capacities and abilities of individuals. Each individual‘s collaboration is based
on his knowledge and skills. A person should not be discriminated due to mismatch with other
people‘s abilities; because he has his own quality in other perspectives. Collaboration means
'to work with another person or group in order to achieve accomplish intended goals.
Collaboration provides every team member with equal opportunities to participate and
communicate their ideas. Collaboration in the workplace is when two or more people (often
groups) work together through idea sharing and thinking to accomplish a common goal. It is
simply teamwork taken to a higher level. The phrase 'putting our heads together' would be a
good example of this important element of collaboration.

Collaboration enables individuals to work together to achieve a defined and common business
purpose. It exists in two forms:
• Synchronous, where everyone interacts in real time, as in through telephone, email,
online meetings, through instant texts messages, or via Viber, and

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 • The team sees value in working together as the common goal gives them a
meaningful reason to work together, along with receiving mutual benefits for the
institution as well as the team.
The advantages of collaboration can also be seen in terms of individual output. Creating a
sense of teamwork and building bonds encourages team members to work for the collective
rather than just themselves.
Activities
1. Mention some important experiences of collaboration in your community?
2. What are the important elements of collaboration in your community?
3. What is your intention to create collaboration with people in your life?

Key elements of successful collaboration

The relationship includes a commitment to: mutual relationships and goals; a jointly developed
structure and shared responsibility; mutual authority and accountability for success; and
sharing of resources and rewards. A Collaboration Checklist What factors are helping or
hindering your collaboration efforts?
We've got the four most important elements of teamwork to help you build a team that will
lead your company to success.
• Respect. This one should be a no-brainer. ...
• Communication. While respect is probably the most important element of teamwork,
communication is the tool that will generate that respect. ...
• Delegation. ... Support.

To kick off our All about collaboration series, we consider the nature of successful
collaboration, its benefits and what is needed within an organization for it to flourish.
Collaboration in the workplace is when two or more people work together through idea
sharing and thinking to achieve a common goal.

Here are a few qualities that a successful team possesses.

1. They communicate well with each other. ...
2. They focus on goals and results. ...
3. Everyone contributes their fair share. ...
4. They offer each other support. ...
5. Team members are diverse. ...
6. Good leadership. ...
7. They're organized. ...

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 8. They have fun.

General principles of collaboration

• Establish clear common goals for the collaboration.

• Define your respective roles and who is accountable for what, but accept joint
responsibility for the decisions and their outcomes
• Take a problem-solving approach – with a sense that all those in the collaborative
arrangement share ownership of the problem and its solution.

• Establish an atmosphere of trust and mutual respect for each others‘ expertise. Aim
for consensus decision-making.
• Ask for and give immediate and objective feedback to others in a nonthreatening and
non-judgmental manner.
• Give credit to others for their ideas and accomplishments
• Develop procedures for resolving conflicts and manage these processes skillfully.
• Better still, anticipate possible conflicts and take steps to avoid them as far as possible.
This is not to say that disagreements can, or even should, be avoided.
• Arrange periodic meetings to review progress in the collaborative arrangements.

What are the advantages of collaboration?

• Higher employee productivity
• The advantages of collaboration can also be seen in terms of individual output.
• Creating a sense of teamwork and building bonds encourages team members to work
for the collective rather than just themselves
Benefits of collaboration
• Greater efficiency and less duplicated effort.
• Access to additional resources or lower costs through sharing resources such as office
space, administration or other aspects of an organization‘s operation.
• Improved service coordination across agencies, with better pathways or referral
systems for service users.
Challenges to Team Collaboration
• Indecisive decision-makers. Ironic, isn't it? ...
• "E-fail" This is a little term used for when email straight up fails. ...
• Mis (sing) communication. When collaborating, there is always room for
misinterpretation and miscommunication.
• Process sinking vs. process syncing.

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 • Too many cooks. Negative Nancy.

Cooperativeness

Cooperation is one of the components of collaboration. As an adjective, cooperative describes

working together agreeably for a common purpose or goal as in cooperative play or
cooperative employee. As a noun, a cooperative is a jointlyowned business or enterprise
where members pool their resources to purchase, do work, and/or distribute things.
Cooperativeness helps individuals to willing learn from each other. Learners work together in
small groups, helping each other to carry out individual and group tasks. Interdependence: all
group members seek to achieve a group goal and help each others‘ achievement; Individual
accountability: each member of the group is held responsible for his or her own learning, which
in turn contributes to the group goal; Cooperation: the learners discuss, problem-solve and
collaborate with each other; Face to face interaction and establish consensus; and Evaluation:
members of the group review and evaluate how they worked together and make changes as
needed. It requires interdependence, which can take one or more forms that help to create
inclusiveness:

1. Goal interdependence: the group has a single goal.

2. Reward interdependence: the whole group receives acknowledgement for achieving
the goal
3. Resource interdependence: each group member has different resources (knowledge
or materials) that must be combined to complete a task
4. Role interdependence: each group member is assigned a different role (e.g, leader,
reporter, time-keeper)

In cooperative learning and works, the strategies for effective co-planning and team working
are very important. The following steps will help you and your group to work effectively
together.

1. Have clear objectives

2. At each stage you should try to agree on goals
3. Set ground rules

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 4. Communicate efficiently
5. Build consensus
6. Define roles
7. Clarify your plans, process and achievements all the time
8. Keep good records
9. Stick to the plan

Reflection
Do you think collaboration and cooperation move us towards inclusive life? How?

Stakeholder
Definition of a Stakeholder

A stakeholder is any person, organization, social group, or society at large that has a stake in
the business. Thus, stakeholders can be internal or external to the business. A stake is a vital
interest in the business or its activities. Be both affected by a business and affect a business. A
business is any organization where people work together. In a business, people work to make
and sell products or services. A business can earn a profit for the products and services it
offers. The word business comes from the word busy, and means doing things. It works on
regular basis. All human being can participate in any kind of business equally without
discrimination based on their disability, culture, language, religion, gender, rural, urban and
the like.
Stakeholders can affect or be affected by the organization's actions, objectives and policies.
Some examples of key stakeholders are creditors, directors, employees, government (and its
agencies), owners (shareholders), suppliers, unions, and the community from which the
business draws its resources.

In business, a stakeholder is usually an investor in your company whose actions determine

the outcome of your business decisions. Stakeholders don't have to be equity shareholders.
They can also be your employees, who have a stake in your company's success and incentive
for your products to succeed.
Activities
1. Do people have stakeholders in their daily business? Please describe from your
communities perspective

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 2. Do these stakeholders meet their goals? How?
3. Do you have stakeholders in your university experiences? Who are they?
4. Explain the benefits and challenges of collaboration for various stakeholders for the
success of inclusive life

Roles of Stakeholders in a Project

Stakeholders are usually parties who have a stake in a project and have a great influence on
its success or failure. They may be equity or preference shareholders, employees, the
government agencies, contractors, financial institutions, competitors, suppliers and the general
public

What are the benefits of stakeholder participation?

• Provide all stakeholders with full opportunities to share their views, needs and
knowledge on flood management.
• Build consensus through bringing together a diverse range of stakeholders to share
needs, information, ideas and knowledge and harmonize the objectives of individual
groups to reach common societal goals.

Characteristics of successful stockholders partnerships

• Existence of an agreement: Partnership is the outcome of an agreement between two

or more persons to carry on business or offer services for the community
• Sharing of profits or stratification for the services offered to the community
• Establishing equal and equitable relationship
• Membership without discrimination
• Nature of liability
• Fusion of ownership and control
• Non-transferability of interest
• Trust. Without trust there can be no productive conflict, commitment, or accountability
• Common values. I believe that having common values is the very foundation of the
successful partnership
• Defined expectations
• Mutual respect
• Synergy
• Great two-way communications
What makes a good strategic alliance partner?
• They have a similar audience
• They are not your competitors
• They can give you access to new customers and prospects
• They want to work with you

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 • They want something you can offer What qualities make for a great business partner?
• Passion
• Reliability
• Compatibility
• The Ability to Build Strong Relationships
• Fiscal Responsibility
• Creativity
• Open-Mindedness
• Comfort with Risk.
What are the main features of a partnership?

Participants described the right partnership behaviors principally as being effective

coordination and chairing, and a set of personal skills and qualities including good listening,
clear communication, honesty, patience, enthusiasm, acceptance and love.

A strategic alliance implies that: the success of the alliance impacts one or more major business
or service goals. The success of the alliance develops or reinforces a core competency,
especially one which provides a competitive advantage and / or blocks a competitive threat

Strategies for community involvement inclusive development

• Commit to participation of all persons with diversities

• Establish non-discriminative effective communication with all people with divers back
ground
• Expect to do most of the work yourself following the inclusive principle
• Tap into local networks, culture and indigenous experiences of inclusiveness
• Use all possible communication channel including sign language for deaf people

Community development is about the inclusive involvement of all people, regardless of their
diversities, enhancing equality, respecting their full right in terms of educational opportunities
and employability. The creation of opportunities to enable all members of a community to
actively contribute to and influence the development process and to share equitably in the fruits
of any development endeavors. Participation has an intrinsic value for participants and a
catalyst for further development; encourages a sense of responsibility; guarantees that a felt
need is involved; ensures things are done the right way; uses valuable indigenous knowledge;

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frees people from dependence on others' skills; and makes people more independent and
productive

References
Alemayehu Teklemariam and Temsegen Fereja (2011). Special Need Education in Ethiopia:
Practice of Special Needs Education around the World. Washington: Gallaudet
University Press.
Alemayehu Teklemariam (2019). Inclusive Education in Ethiopia: WILEY and Blackwell:
Singapore
A Teachers Guide (2001). UNESCO. Inclusive Education and Classroom Practice in Secondary Education
(2004).
Berit H. Johanson and Alemayehu Teklemariam (2006). Towards Special Needs Education
as a University Discipline: An Important step on the way to Education for All. In
When All Means All. Hakapaino Oy: Helsinki
Tirussew Teferra and Alemayehu Teklemariam (2007). Including the Excluded: Integrating disability into
EFA Fast Track Initiative Process and National Education Plans in Ethiopia. World Vision MOE (2010).
Special Needs Program strategies implementation guide.
MOE (Ministry of Education). (2006). Special Needs Education Program Strategy. Addis Ababa Understanding
and responding to children‘s need in inclusive classroom (2010). www.european-agency.org
ዓለማየሁ ትክለማርያም (2009). በመተባበር መማር፡- አንድ ለሁሉም፣ ሁሉም ለአንድ፣ አዲስ አበባ፡-
ፋርኢስት አታሚ
ዓለማየሁ ትክለማርያም (2011). አካቶ ትምህርት ለምን፣ምን፣ለነማን እንዴት፤ አዲስ አበባ፡- ፋርኢስት
አታሚ
Approach/Methods/Strategies of learning and Teaching

This section is flexible to involve the instructor‘s creativity in identifying selecting and
adapting the instructional method to the context of the learner. Some general approaches are
listed below. The instructor can select among this and add his own that he/she feels appropriate.

Approach/Methods/Strategies

This section is flexible to involve the instructor‘s creativity in identifying selecting and
adapting the instructional method to the context of the learner. Some general approaches are
listed below. The instructor can select among this and add his own that he/she feels appropriate.

 Interactive lectures
 Cooperative learning
 Brainstorming
 Discussion  Role play

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  Independent/self learning
 Field visits
 Individual and group assignments and presentation
 Seminars
 Individual and group presentations
 Special needs/inclusive education expert consultancy

Assessment and Evaluation Methods

Dear students, for each contents you will complete getting started activities, read selected
materials complete course works and group assignments. Assessment of the students would
be a continuous process. The following schemes of evaluation would be used:
• Tests 10%
• Assignment/group/assignment 10%
• Mid exam 30%
• Final exam 50%
Course Policy

Responsibilities of Instructors
Profile of instructors in this course must be the right professional in Special
needs/inclusive education. In order to produce quality teachers, this course should be
offered only instructor, MEd/MA or PhD in special needs/inclusive education. To meet
the learning outcome aforementioned and enhance teachers‘ quality, the special
needs/inclusive education instructors will have the following major responsibilities.
 Advise students on all the aspects of the course
 Provide the students with the syllabus and other materials well ahead of
the delivery of it
 Conduct the interactive lectures as per the plan
 Facilitate students‘ individual assignments, group assignments, field
works, practicum, seminars, presentations, and collaborative learning
 Periodically assess the students‘ work
 Provide the students with timely feedbacks on their graded and
ungraded academic works
 Follow on students‘ progress and communicate to the students
 Keep student records on the whole work of the students

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  Design and execute students‘ consultation program
Responsibilities of Students
This course is designed for would teachers after completion of Bachelor degree in various
fields. For successful completion of this course the teacher candidates would have the
following responsibilities
 Students are expected to actively and fully attend as per the university
legislation and participate all the in class and outclass learning
activities. Missing a single class will cost students 2 points.
 Carry out individual assignments, group assignments, field works,
practicum as per the details and deadlines
 Students are expected to read given materials before class
 Students are expected to read selected books and ten articles
 Actively participate in the planning, organizing and conducting of all
the seminars and presentations
 Reflect on feedbacks and initiate actions on them
 Passing the exams successfully

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