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High-Temperature Superconductors

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DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.1006616

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Chapter

High-Temperature Superconductors
Derejaw Gardew

Abstract

One of the main areas of focus in condensed matter physics over the past several
years has been research on high-temperature superconductors and their physical
characteristics. One of a metal’s most crucial characteristics is its electrical resistivity,
and scientists were especially curious about how this value varied with temperature.
Because superconducting wires can carry enormous electrical currents without
heating up or losing energy, superconductor-based electromagnets are incredibly
strong. The current state of technology is predicted to alter with the development of
a superconductor that runs at room temperature. Compared to existing technologies,
a superconducting power grid would save a great deal of energy because it would not
waste energy owing to very little resistance. High magnetic fields can be produced by
high-temperature superconductors, which are advantageous for applications in medi-
cine, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) equipment. Superconductors are
used in levitating trains, very accurate electromagnets, lighter and smaller engines,
generators, transformers, and SQUIDs.

Keywords: condensed matter physics, high-temperature superconductors, Cooper

pairs, Meissner effect, unconventional superconductors, BCS

1. Introduction

At low temperatures, a phenomenon in solid materials is known as superconduc-

tivity. It is remarkable and gives a clear explanation of the development in condensed
matter physics, which could have a significant impact on society if we can transition
to a low-carbon future. Mercury has no electrical resistance below the transitional
temperature of 4.2 K, as Onnes observed in 1911 [1]. Certain materials have the ability
to have strictly zero electrical resistance below a threshold temperature (TC), a phe-
nomenon known as superconductivity (SC). The scientific and engineering potential
of superconductivity’s uses has not yet been completely realized after more than a
century of research on the phenomenon; the microscopic mechanics of supercon-
ductivity are still up for debate [2]. Even though superconductivity was discovered by
accident, the experiment was part of a well-planned Leiden research program. It was
fascinating to examine how metals, like gold and platinum, behave in terms of electri-
cal resistance at extremely low temperatures, both theoretically and practically [3].
Merely a tiny portion of the electrons in a superconducting material are condensed
into a molecule that fills the entire system and has the ability to move independently.

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Figure 1.
Resistance versus temperature superconductivity in mercury [7].

Even while all electrons contribute to the formation of this superfluid at absolute zero
temperature, only those electrons close to the Fermi surface have their movement
critical understanding by the condensation. A weakly interacting gas of excitations is
created when some of the condensates’ electrons evaporate at a higher temperature.
This gas permeates the superfluid and the full volume of the system. The system
undergoes a second-order phase transition from the superconducting to the normal
state when the temperature hits a critical point (TC), at which time the fraction of
remaining electrons in the superfluid approaches zero. This two-fluid model of a
superconductor is conceptually comparable to that which represents superfluid
He, despite dramatic differences between the two systems [4–6]. Research on high-
temperature superconductors and their physical properties has been one of the major
activities in condensed matter physics in the past several years, and still, there are
some limitations on the superconductor material in general. The main goal of this
chapter is to review high-temperature superconductors based on their different
properties (Figure 1).

2. Discovery of superconductors

Following the discovery of superconductivity in mercury, it was discovered

through measurement that a number of other metals were also superconducting,
albeit at extremely low temperatures. Niobium has the highest elemental metal
transition temperature (TC), measuring 9.25 K. The so-called cuprate high-temper-
ature superconductors are a novel type of ceramic superconductors that Bednorz
and Müller discovered in 1986. Their highest TC to date is 135 K at ambient pressure
[8]. Since the 2008 discovery of the iron-based SC LaFeAsO1−xFx, researchers
have been more interested in the phenomenon of high-temperature superconduc-
tivity [9].

3. Cooper pair and BCS theorem

One-particle states with time reversal typically yield Cooper pairs. As a result,
any disruption that has a different effect on each member of a pair will cause
the paired state to become unstable and subsequently collapse [10–13]. In iron-
based superconductors, the pairing symmetry that is most often known is the
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Figure 2.
Cooper pair formation in a lattice [16].

spin-fluctuation-mediated nodeless s ± model, where the superconducting gap

between the hole and electron pockets moves in one direction [14].
In 1957, Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer (BCS) introduced a remarkably successful
microscopic quantum theory which is nowadays known as the BCS theory. Although
experimentalists in the field do not yet have a reliable theoretical framework for deter-
mining high-TC materials, the BCS theory provides the theoretical background for super-
conductivity at the microscopic level [5]. The remarkable accuracy of the BCS theory of
the superconducting state increases the possibility that, in the future, researchers may
be able to grasp and estimate specific numerical values for the superconducting transi-
tion temperature [15]. According to the BCS theory, electrons in a superconductor form
Cooper pairs together while also condensing in a way that is analogous to the way bosons
condense into a superfluid state. Two electrons with opposing momenta are drawn to
one another in a superconducting state to create a bonded pair. The binding interaction
is the connection of electrons with lattice vibration. The Boltzmann constant, kB, and
the pairing strength, which is expressed as an energy gap (∆), are related as follows:
2∆ = 3.53kBTC. After electron-phonon interactions in fundamental superconductors were
quantified and confirmed by experiments in the mid-1960s, the BCS theory became the
accepted theory for typical superconductors (Figure 2) [16].

4. Meissner effect and types of superconductors

Unquestionably, the Meissner effect’s discovery in 1933 marked a turning point

in the development of superconductivity [17]. The Meissner effect occurs when a
superconductor is maintained in a magnetic field. This phenomenon is associated
with the elimination of magnetic fields upon cooling a superconductor to its critical
temperature. This attribute, which is perhaps the most crucial for superconduc-
tors, indicates that their resistance is zero. Hence, superconductors exhibit zero,
or almost zero, resistance to electrical currents in accordance with the Meissner
effect; additionally, they are ideal diamagnetic [18]. We shall draw inspiration
from another well-known electromagnetic interaction, namely the Coulomb repul-
sion between two electrons, to describe the Meissner effect, which is caused by an
electromagnetic interaction [19]. Both the internal magnetic field of the supercon-
ductor and the external magnetic field are expelled in the superconducting state.
Superconductivity’s perfect diamagnetism allows the superconductor to hover above
magnets (Figure 3) [20, 21].
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Figure 3.
Diagrams of the Meissner effect (a) and magnetic levitation (b) [20].

Figure 4.
Phase diagrams of type I and type II superconductors [22].

Superconductors are divided into two categories based on their response to applied
magnetic fields. These are type I and type II superconductors. Meissner and normal
states are supported by type I superconductors, whereas type II superconductors can
generate magnetic vortices under sufficiently strong applied magnetic fields. Among
the most amazing occurrences in crystalline materials is the development of vortices
in type II superconductors when they are exposed to magnetic fields. These vortices
are found in all type II superconductors, or superconductors where the GL character-
istic parameter (the ratio of the magnetic field penetration length to the coherence
length), 𝜅 > 1/√2 (Figure 4) [22–24].

5. High-temperature superconductors

High-critical temperature cuprates and the iron-based superconductors have com-

mon properties. Each of them has a layered crystal structure. (i) It is built on a planar
layer of iron atoms connected by tetrahedral coordinated chalcogenide (S, Se, Te)
or pnictogen (P, As) anions arranged in a stacking sequence and separated by alkali,
alkaline-earth, or rare-earth blocking layers. These typical iron layers, which resem-
ble the typical copper-oxygen layers in high-critical temperature cuprates, are where
the superconductivity is observed. (ii) In high-critical temperature cuprates and the
majority of iron-based superconductors, the superconductivity arises from the parent
compounds by doping electrons or holes into them. The parent compounds possess a
magnetic ground state. (iii) Many experimental and theoretical findings point to the
existence of spin-singlet pairing in both cuprates and iron-based superconductors,
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which are both unconventional superconductors. (iv) It is believed that an essential

component of understanding superconductivity and its associated features is the
Coulomb interaction between electrons, primarily because the superconducting state
of the parent material is close to its magnetic state. Yet, there are several more dif-
ferences between iron-based superconductors and cuprates. That is, cuprate parent
compounds are mostly Mott insulators. On the other hand, the iron-based supercon-
ductors are mostly metals. Iron-based superconductors are typically thought to be in
the intermediate correlation domain. The magnetic order in iron-based superconduc-
tors is spin density wave, as opposed to the localized magnetism of the Heisenberg
antiferromagnetic [25–29].

5.1 Copper-based superconductor

Several families of cuprate HTS superconductors have now been identified. They
are all composed of layers of CuO2 divided by layers of insulating material. The
insulating layers act as charge reservoirs, feeding the charge carriers to the CuO2
layers, where superconductivity is found [8]. Superconductivity was later found at a
transition temperature exceeding 105 K in the Bi-Sr-Ca-Cu-O system. Thallium-based
cuprates were discovered to exhibit superconductivity at 120 K that same year [30].
Due to the weak conductivity of these compounds, their conclusion was unex-
pected and required attention. The highest confirmed critical temperature at the
time was 33 K, and dozens of high-temperature compounds have been identified in
subsequent years. As nitrogen boils around 77 K, it is highly plausible that new tech-
nologies in the realm of high TC such as superconducting quantum interference device
(SQUID) magnetometers and Josephson integrated circuits may developed. While
this is interesting, early reports of levitating trains appear improbable. Although the
essential current densities are still too low for the majority of engineering fields, this
area is moving forward rapidly [31, 32].

5.2 Iron-based superconductors

The study of iron-based superconductors is currently one of the most interest-

ing fields of condensed matter physics since the discovery of superconductivity in
fluorine-doped LaFeAsO. Two significant subgroups of the numerous families of
components contained in the iron-based superconductors are the iron pnictides
and iron chalcogenides. The highest superconducting transition temperature (TC)
for iron pnictides is 56 K, but it is 65 K or even higher for single-layer iron chal-
cogenides. High-temperature superconductivity in iron-based superconductors
is considered to arise from interactions between electrons. This makes it easier to
compare and contrast cuprates and other related superconductors with iron-based
superconductors. Superconductivity only appears within a narrow spectrum of
chemical doping, and the majority of parent compounds of iron-based supercon-
ductors, like cuprates, have an antiferromagnetically ordered ground state. These
properties cause substantial questions regarding the role of electron correlations
in iron-based superconductors and how they interplay with the superconductivity
in these materials [33]. Understanding the process of unconventional supercon-
ductivity has shown to be one of the most challenging problems in condensed
matter physics. LaFeAsO1−xFx, an iron-based superconductor, has recently been
found to be superconducting, which has brightened interest and might provide a
creative viewpoint on this issue. Supposedly, it has been discovered that LaFePO,
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LaFeAsO, and similar compounds possess first-principles band structures. These

band structures, in contrast to the outcome for undoped LaFeAsO, have five Fermi
surface components and are metallic [34].
An early theory about the physics of the pnictides is comparable with that of the
cuprates and involves insulating properties driven by the proximity of antiferro-
magnetism and superconductivity [35–37]. Iron-based superconductors have several
unique properties such as robustness to impurity, high upper critical magnetic field,
and excellent grain boundary nature. These properties are advantageous for applica-
tions. Recent progress in the performance of superconducting wires of iron-based
superconductors are wide eyed, that is, the maximal critical current has reached the
level of commercial metal-based superconducting wires [38].

6. Families of iron-based superconductors

Iron-based superconductors can be classified into numerous different families,

such as 11, 111, 1111, and 122, depending on their crystal structures and stoichi-
ometry [39–41]. These four families have a variety of features similar to cuprate
superconductors, including layered structure, the presence of competing orders, low
carrier density, small coherence lengths, and unconventional pairing mechanisms.
All of these behaviors could be a drawback in real-world applications, particularly
given how they can cause significant thermal fluctuations and depressed grain
boundary superconductivity. The iron-based superconductors have metallic parent
compounds, their anisotropy is typically smaller and does not firmly rely on the
amount of doping, and their order parameter symmetry is generally assumed s-wave,
which is, in theory, not detrimental to current transport across grain boundaries [42,
43]. The 111 family has received significantly less attention than the 11, 1111, and 122
families of iron-based superconductors. It is still unclear where superconductivity
has emerged in this group of compounds and, more broadly, in all iron-based super-
conductors. When the substance is doped or is under pressure, some families such
as the 122 and 1111 possess long-range magnetic order, which is reduced in favor of a
superconducting phase (Figure 5) [45].
FeSe, FeTe, and their variations, which have a square lattice of Fe-atoms with
Se/Te above and below the Fe-plane, are among the families of Fe-based super-
conducting materials that are known to exist. Even though the 11 family members

Figure 5.
Schematic crystal structure of four representative iron-based superconductors [44].

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have the simplest structure compared to all the other families, they possess the
highest (TC = 100 K) when grown on single-layered SrTiO3 [46, 47]. Since there are
no intermediate layers in the 11 family, which is distinctive, it is thought that this
family will enable the isolation of the intrinsic features of iron-containing planes
[48, 49]. The magnetic correlations in the 111 family of iron-based superconduc-
tors have less attention than the other families. The origin of superconductivity in
these series of compounds and in general in all IBSCs has still to be well clarified. An
Angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (ARPES) study on the LiFeAs system has
addressed the consistency of the ARPES measurements on several families of IBSCs
(111) [50].
The 1111 family of superconductors are the first family of the IBSCs to be discov-
ered and one of the well-researched classes of high-temperature IBSCs [51–53]. The
great resolution of these compounds was highlighted in the preliminary work of the
critical current density (JC) of 1111 polycrystalline samples, which prevented global JC
levels to very low values [54]. Another contentious issue is whether or not all families
can be accurately depicted by a single image, specifically, the iron pnictides 1111
phase, whose parent molecule has the generic chemical formula REFeAsO (RE = La,
Sm, Nd, Ce) [55, 56].
A mother compound of the 122 family of iron-based arsenide unconventional
superconductors is BaFe2As2. It makes a tetragonal ThCr2Si2 crystal with the space
group I4/mm as it crystallizes [57]. The crystal structure of the AFe2As2 (A = Ca, Sr,
Ba) compound is simpler and consists of Fe2As2 layers that are similar to those present
in LnFeAsO and are separated by single elemental layers [58]. The main members of
the subclass of 122-type compounds are CaFe2As2, SrFe2As2, BaFe2As2, EuFe2As2, and
their derivatives. Furthermore, in the Ba-based 122 systems, methodical replacement
of Ba, Fe, or As atoms with a different element can, in some instances, motivate the
antiferromagnetic state of the parent compound to a superconducting ground state.
These factors made the parent BaFe2As2 composition the subject of most studies
[59–62]. Since there are so many high-quality single crystals in this family, ARPES
experiments have been done on iron-based superconductors, particularly for 122
families, to expose the Fermiology of iron-based superconductors. The basis of iron-
based superconductors is the 122 family, which includes BaFe2As2, CaFe2As2, SrFe2As2,
and other compounds of the highest quality single crystals [63, 64].

7. Crystal structure of high-temperature superconductors

These and related materials have been thoroughly investigated since the discovery
of potential high-T superconductivity in a mixture of molecules in the La-Ba-Cu-O
chemical system [65]. It has been stated that the structure of high-TC copper oxide or
cuprate superconductors is a deformed, oxygen-deficient, multi-layered perovskite
structure. These compound structures are frequently closely similar to perovskite
structures. Superconductivity occurs between alternating layers of CuO2 planes,
which is one of the characteristics of oxide superconductor crystal structures. Due
to the holes created in the oxygen sites of the CuO2 sheets, this structure results in
a significant anisotropy in normal conducting and superconducting properties.
With a far higher conductivity parallel to the CuO2 plane than in the perpendicular
direction, the electrical conduction is highly anisotropic. Critical temperatures are
typically influenced by the oxygen level, cations substituted, and chemical composi-
tions. They can be categorized as super stripes, which are specific implementations of
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superlattices at the atomic limit consisting of wires, dots, and superconducting atomic
layers divided by spacer layers, providing multiband and multi-gap superconductivity
(Figure 6) [66].
A vigorous hunt for novel superconductors has been sparked by the recent dis-
covery of superconductivity in LaFeAsO1−xFx at the superconducting temperature of
TC = 26 K. The discovery of a high-TC value of 55 K in SmFeAsO1−xFx later on shows
that Fe-based superconductors have promise that goes beyond that of traditional BCS
superconductors. The large range of compounds is also helpful in the search for novel
high-TC superconductors. Two-dimensional stacking layers make up the typical crystal
structure of Fe-based superconductors. The superconducting current is often con-
ducted by Fe Pn- or Fe-Ch-layers (Pn = pnictogen, Ch = chalcogen) (Figure 7) [67].

Figure 6.
YBCO unit cell [66].

Figure 7.
Crystal structures of iron-based superconductors. (a) LnFeAsO, (b) AFe2As2, (c) LFeAs, (d) Fe(Se,Te), and (e)
A4X2O6Fe2As2 [67].

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Figure 8.
Examples of the iron-based superconductors phase diagrams: a schematic one, and the diagrams measured for
(Ba1−xKx)Fe2As2, Ba(Fe1−xCox)2As2, La(O1−xFx)FeAs, Fe1+xSexTe1−x, BaFe2(As1−xPx)2 [68].

As a consequence of good crystal quality and the variety of its compounds, the 122
family is the most studied by ARPES (Figure 8) [68].
The phase diagrams in Figure 9, show the coexistence of the iron-based supercon-
ductors [69–71].

8. Pairing mechanisms of high-temperature superconductors

In iron-based superconductors, superconductivity can be produced by hole or

electron doping, as well as pressure or the isovalent substitution of one pnictide ele-
ment by another, such as As by P [72, 73]. In type II superconductors, the transitional
current frequently exhibits an unusual peak right before it drops to zero at the upper
critical field (HC2). Since the early 1960s, this peak effect has been well-known and
has received ongoing interest. Yet the exact mechanism is still unknown [74].
By using tunneling and neutron scattering experiments (TNSE) on conventional
superconductors, the electron-phonon interaction, which is responsible for electron
pairing and the existence of superconductivity, was proven. It is essential to compre-
hend the electron-boson coupling and how it relates to superconductivity in order to
collect the equivalent data for high-transition temperature superconductors [75–77].
A framework for investigating the process of high-temperature superconductiv-
ity is provided by iron-based superconductors. Since superconductivity is practi-
cally realized at a spin density wave phase, the significance of spin fluctuations as
a potential superconductor process is well acknowledged. An electronic nematic
phase, which is also near the superconducting phase, is present, as can be seen by
carefully examining the phase diagram of an iron-based superconductor. Although
the cause of the nematic phase is still debatable, it has been demonstrated that orbital
nematic fluctuations result in strong coupling superconductors with an observa-
tion compatible with the onset temperature. The electrical structure of iron-based
superconductors is distinguished by several bands that emerge from five of the Fe
ion’s third-order orbitals. As a result, orbital fluctuations are also investigated as a
potential superconducting mechanism. The transition temperature is thought to be
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Figure 9.
Coexistence of iron-based superconductors Ba1−xKxFe2 As2 (a), Ba(Fe1−xCox)2As2 (b), Ba1−xRbxFe2As2 (c), Sr1−
xNxFe2As2 (d) [69–71].

too low compared to the observation despite the fact that electron-phonon coupling
is present in real materials and is predicted to lead to superconductivity. One of the
main problems with iron-based superconductors is distinguishing between various
superconducting mechanisms [78]. It is important to clarify the pairing symmetry
of the superconducting wave functions for the recently discovered high-temperature
iron-based superconductors, for which the multi-gapped s-wave is often acceptable.
The conventional s ± wave without sign-reversal and the unconventional s ± wave
with sign-reversal are examples of potential candidates [79]. Spin fluctuation, charge
fluctuation, and electron excitation-based non-BCS mechanisms have recently
received considerable interest, especially in light of the potential for high-transition
temperature superconductivity. These methods share the fact that superconductivity
is the result of the electron-electron (e-e) interactions [80].

8.1 Phonon-mediated pairing mechanism

It has been demonstrated that certain dense metal hydrides have high-critical
temperatures (TC) and are conventional superconductors. Nevertheless, computing
the TC of such materials from first principles via electron-phonon calculations is still
quite costly. Prior to these computations, it was not always evident which specific
systems and structures could display high-temperature superconductivity [81].
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The creation of Cooper pairs is based on an attractive contact controlled by

phonons in most conventional superconductors. Furthermore, due to its inherent
interest, Cooper pairing driven by other bosonic excitations have also received a lot
of attention. Many compounds found during the past few decades have exhibited
superconducting property which has been explained by some of the suggested
mechanisms. But, in this discipline, detailed microscopic knowledge is really essen-
tial. In the boro-carbide materials, where new investigations have revealed that the
issue with the pairing interaction, which was formerly assumed to be typical electron-
phonon coupling, is far from being understood, the situation is especially perplexing.
These substances exhibit highly intriguing phase diagrams where superconductivity
coexists with antiferromagnetic order in modest critical temperatures ranging from
6 K to 16.5 K [82–84].
It is essential to acquire a thorough knowledge of electron-phonon physics in these
recently discovered superconductors since it is thought that the electron-phonon
interaction will play a significant role in these observations. ARPES has been exten-
sively used to study the strength of the electron-phonon coupling in graphite and
graphene, although the interpretation of the data is not always simple. For instance,
the anisotropy of the electron-phonon interaction in graphene adorned with alkali
metals led to intense discussion regarding the function of van Hove singularities [85].
Several theories have been proposed to explain the occurrence of superconductivity in
mercury and other metals since its discovery. The Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory,
which is still among the most effective theories to date was ultimately shown to be the
accurate explanation. The bosonic Cooper pairs formed by the electrons and an effec-
tive attraction between them are the two fundamental components of the BCS theory
[5]. The Bose-Einstein condensate is then formed by the Cooper pairs in the supercon-
ducting state. Nevertheless, electrons should have repelled one another rather than
attracted one another in accordance with Coulomb’s law. The attraction mediated by
phonons was used by the BCS theory to resolve this somewhat conflict (the quanta of
atomic ion vibration). But how can the Coulomb repulsion countered by a phonon-
mediated attraction that is powerful enough? The response to this question requires a
unique metal characteristic: A metal acts as though its electrons were quasi-particles,
which are non-interacting objects despite the strong Coulomb repulsion at low energy
(or low temperature). Any source of attractive interaction between the quasi-particles
will now serve. In typical materials like mercury, phonons are essential imaginary
excitations that convert the repulsive Coulomb attraction into a weak attraction.
However, it is generally believed that the electron-phonon interaction alone is insuf-
ficient to overcome the remaining Coulomb repulsion in high-transition temperature
superconductors, such as cuprates and iron-based superconductors [86].
Due to their special qualities and strong connection to the mysterious occurrence
of high-transitional temperature superconductivity, superconductors with atypical or
non-s-wave gap symmetries continue to be of significant interest [87]. The degree of
electron-phonon coupling and the specific energy range of phonon excitations are the
key indicators of the superconducting transition temperatures of phonon-mediated
superconductors [88].

8.2 Pairing mechanism by spin fluctuations

Fundamentally, a phonon mechanism was demonstrated to be impossible for

this system, and from the very beginning of the work, a spin-fluctuation-mediated
pairing was suggested [89]. The gap function possesses s-wave symmetry, but its
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sign is changed between the electron and hole Fermi surfaces, where the spin fluc-
tuation mediates s-wave pairing [90]. The adjacent phase’s order parameter fluc-
tuations could be a superconducting mediator. With a scientific study of the order
parameters and order parameter fluctuations of the adjacent phases, this idea could
contribute to the identification of novel types of superconductors. There have been
two hypotheses for the superconducting mechanism of iron-based superconduc-
tors, which are based on magnetic and orbital characteristics. Iron-based super-
conductors exhibit magnetic and structural phases close to the superconducting
phase. Two novel potential candidates for the superconductivity mechanism of
iron-based superconductors are spin fluctuations and orbital fluctuations [91].
It has been suggested that the pairing in iron-based superconductors is likewise
mediated by spin fluctuations with a sign change in the superconducting order
parameter based on the similarities of the phase diagrams for iron-based super-
conductors and cuprates. Hence, in order to obtain the Fermi surface geometry
of the iron-based superconductors, the sign changes symmetry must differ from
the cuprates d-wave symmetry. This can be met by an extended s-wave pairing
between various Fermi surface pockets [92].
It is important to note that the unconnected electron and hole Fermi surfaces
are present in this system because they cause spin fluctuations around the wave
vector that joins the Fermi surfaces. The corresponding pairing state, known as the
s ± state, occurs when the gap function between the electron and hole Fermi surfaces
change direction [93–95]. The relationship between magnetic spin fluctuations and
superconductivity has a historical background. It was first discovered as a way to
explain why the transition temperatures of some transition metals were suppressed,
then it provided a mechanism for p-wave pairing in 3He, and finally, it was proposed
as a d-wave pairing mechanism for some organic superconductors, heavy-fermion
systems, and perhaps the high-transition temperature cuprates [96].
Large isotope effects pointing at the involvement of phonons have also been
reported; however, resonances shown in inelastic neutron scattering experiments
suggest the presence of spin fluctuations in the pairing mechanism. The typical
energy of these phonons is of the same order of magnitude as the corresponding
spin fluctuations. The symmetry of the superconducting gap itself has shown to be
important in this situation for identifying the pairing mechanism that drives it [92].
Another benefit of this pairing mechanism is that if the gaps in the various bands have
the same or opposite signs, the inter-band pair interaction can increase superconduct-
ing regardless of whether it is attractive or repulsive [97–99].

9. Factors affecting superconductors

9.1 Effect of hole-electron doping

Currently, condensed matter researchers are debating on the symmetry, structure,

evolution, and potential effects of doping on the superconducting gap of the iron-
based superconductors. According to the researchers, superconductivity in iron-based
superconductors is of electronic origin and occurs from the standardized assessment
of Coulomb interaction, which is accelerated at specific moments by significant
magnetic fluctuations or orbital fluctuations [100]. Several theoretical investigations
and experimental findings strongly support the significance of inelastic inter-band

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scattering between hole and electron Fermi surface pockets connected via the antifer-
romagnetic wave vector, despite the fact that the specifics of the pairing mechanism
in the recently discovered iron-based superconductors are still one of the hotly
debated topics in physics [100, 101]. The structural phase of BaFe2As2 (122-family)
is especially well suited for a systematic investigation of the chemical potential shift
since it can be doped with either electrons or holes as a result of partial substitutions
by Fe2+ Co3+ or Ba2+ K+, respectively [101].
Superconductivity cases with electron and hole doping are undergoing extensive
experimental investigations. For instance, LnFeAsO1−xFx provides an illustration of
how electron doping successfully induces superconductivity in the 1111 phase (where
Ln: lanthanide). It is crucial to have knowledge of both the electron- and hole-doped
superconductivity instances when analyzing how carrier doping affects the Fermi
surface [63].
Generally, the electronic structure of Fe pnictides near the Fermi level consists
of several bands mainly from Fe 3d orbitals hybridized with Arsenic (phosphorus)
orbitals. The undoped compounds show two different types of Fermi surfaces:
hole pockets at the Γ-point and electron pockets at the M-point in the Brillion
zone. They are almost the same size, leading to spin-density-wave type instabil-
ity through strong inter-band nesting effects. Upon hole-doping, for example,
the hole pockets grow while the electron pockets shrink, which in turn spoils the
nesting condition for the spin density wave phase. Strong inter-band scattering is
thought to offer a key pairing channel for superconductivity after the spin density
wave phase is adequately suppressed [102]. More doping, however, causes the
electron bands to entirely empty and lose the inter-band pairing channel, which
suppresses superconductivity and causes the TC to fall. The electron-hole sym-
metry in the phase diagram may result from a similar mechanism working in the
electron doping regime as well [103, 104].

9.2 Effect of external pressure on iron-based superconductors

The AeFe2As2 (Ae = Ba, Sr, Ca) family of iron-based superconductors show a
comparable behavior under external hydrostatic pressure as under chemical ion
substitution. They work as a control parameter that inhibits the parent compound’s
static magnetic order and causes superconductivity [105]. From the initial study on
iron-based superconductors, it has been clear that one of the most common ways to
raise the critical temperature of superconducting is by introducing external pressure.
BaFe2As2, which has not been doped, is an antiferromagnetic metal that does not show
a superconducting transition in the presence of atmospheric pressure. Yet, applying
external pressures of 1–3 GPa exhibits superconductivity with a TC up to 34 K, and the
suppression of antiferromagnetism is exhibited [106].
The key to determining the normal and superconducting properties of iron-
based superconductors is thought to be their magnetic properties [107]. By changing
bond lengths and angles, the pressure modifies the lattice constants, which in turn
affects the electronic and magnetic correlations and has an impact on variables like
the electron-transfer integral and exchange coupling. Both cuprates and iron-based
superconductors exhibit the dome-shaped pressure dependency of TC, where pressure
initially improves TC to an ideal value, but later TC decreases. This implies that, the
Cooper pair coupling, strength fluctuates, and the electronic state with the highest TC
under high pressure is regarded as the ideal doped state [108].

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9.3 Effect of isovalent substitution on superconductivity

When the antiferromagnetic phase is inhibited by pressure or chemical doping of

the parent material, superconductivity appears in iron pnictides. It is now commonly
recognized that charge doping and an isovalent chemical dilution (such as the partial
replacement of As by P or Fe by Ru) exhibit distinct distinctions. Charged dopants
provide robust scattering potentials that have an impact on superconducting charac-
teristics including vortex pinning, the upper critical field, and even the superconduct-
ing gap symmetry while isovalently diluted chemicals are closer to the clean limit
[109, 110].
Superconductors formed via isovalent doping have completely different gap
structures than those created by hole or electron doping while being close to an
identical ground state of the parent material and having similar TC values. At the ideal
doping, the superconducting gap in charge-doped BaK-122 and BaCo-122 is full and
isotropic. Moving away from the appropriate doping level toward either end of the
superconducting dome becomes anisotropic and even produces nodes. Regardless
of the doping amount, the superconducting gap of isovalently substituted BaP-122
shows line nodes [111, 112]. Another way to look at how the transport characteristics
of the 122 family have changed is through the isovalent replacement of Fe by Ru. Ru
has recently been demonstrated to suppress spin density wave magnetic order and
generate superconductivity in polycrystalline materials [109, 113].

10. Applications of high-temperature superconductors

In fact, such wires already exist, but they are still relatively expensive and
therefore they are only used in applications where the best performance prevails
over costs [3]. The discovery of higher TC materials extends the feasible applica-
tions of superconductors [81]. A very high upper critical magnetic fields, low
anisotropy, and large JC values of iron-based superconductors, which are only
weakly lowered by magnetic fields at low temperatures, recommended significant
potential in large-scale applications shortly after the exploration of superconduc-
tivity in these materials. This is especially the case at low temperatures and high
fields. The 122 compounds with the chemical formula AFe2As2 (A = alkaline-earth
metal) are considered to be the most promising among the various families of
the IBSCs since they are the least anisotropic, have a fairly high TC of up to 38 K,
which is comparable to MgB2, and have high-critical current densities [114].
Ferromagnetic interactions also play a significant role in the hole- and electron-
doped BaFe2As2 families of iron-pnictide superconductors, according to recent
nuclear magnetic resonance observations [115].
The extremely low operating temperature of conventional superconductors
inhibits their use in practical applications. The practical uses of superconductors
are increased by the discovery of materials with larger TC. Lossless power transfer
is another potential used for superconductivity. A superconducting wire has the
ability to transmit an AC with a very small loss or a DC with no losses. The potential
of superconducting Maglev trains is made possible by the extreme type II feature
of high-temperature superconductors, which is characterized by extremely high
upper critical magnetic field values. Japan railways (JR) is working on a novel
project to build a superconducting magnetically levitated (maglev) train called
the JR Maglev, which travels at a high speed without touching the tracks due to
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1006616

persistent-current-mode superconducting magnets. Superconductivity has three

outstanding properties: persistent current, perfect diamagnetism, and the Josephson
Effect [116, 117].

11. Conclusions

Research on high-temperature superconductors and their physical properties

has been one of the major activities in condensed matter physics in the past several
years. The electrical resistivity of a metal is one of its most important properties, and
scientists were particularly interested in how this number changes with temperature.
As is well-known, Maglev trains, magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic confine-
ment fusion reactors, and particle accelerator beam-steering and focusing magnets
all require powerful superconducting electromagnets. Lossless wires and cables are
made possible by superconductor technology, which increases the grid’s dependability
and efficiency. Nowadays, it has been found that iron-based superconductors (IBSCs)
have high upper-critical magnetic fields ( HC2 ), low electromagnetic anisotropy, rela-
tively high superconducting transition temperatures ( TC ) and a large critical current
density ( JC ). Because of these, iron pnictides have attracted enormous attention since
the discovery of iron-based superconductivity in LaOFeAs with a superconductor
transition temperature of 26 K. Shortly after this discovery, higher TC values IBSCs
were discovered in these oxypnictides.
Furthermore, there are various compelling reasons to be interested in IBSCs. First,
they yield intriguing physics due to the coexistence of superconductivity and magne-
tism in these systems. Secondly, by giving a considerably wider range of compounds
for research and having a multiband electronic structure, they raise the prospect
of resolving the process of high-temperature superconductivity and discovering a
technique to increase TC . They are desirable for electrical power and magnet applica-
tions since they have higher HC2 than cuprates and high isotropic critical currents,
while the coexistence of magnetism and superconductivity makes them fascinating
for spintronics.

Acknowledgements

The corresponding author wants to acknowledge Debark University for outstand-

ing internet connection services.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

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Advances in Nanofiber Research – Properties and Uses

Author details

Derejaw Gardew
College of Science, Department of Physics, Debark University, Ethiopia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
16
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1006616

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