- RAPID REVISION -

Chemical Reactions
and Equations
 Rapid
Revision

First watch One Shot

Chemical Reaction:
The transformation of chemical substance into another chemical.
substance. e.g. Rusting of iron, the setting of milk into curd.

Chemical Equation: Representation of chemical reaction using

symbols and formulae of the substances

A+B→C+D
Reactant Product

Mg + O2 → MgO
Make equations more informative:
Physical states - solid (s), liquid(l), gas(g), aqueous solution (aq).
Concentration of acid - Concentrated (conc.) Dilute (dil.)
Heat changes - Reactant(s) -> Product(s) + Heat
Reactant(s) + Heat -> Product(s)
Conditions to yield products -
Kuch important terms:
Precipitate: is the insoluble solid which settles down after the
completion of the chemical reaction.

Exothermic reactions: The chemical reactions that release heat

energy.

Endothermic reactions: The chemical reactions in which heat energy

is absorbed.

Catalyst: A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical

reaction, or lowers the temperature or pressure needed to start one,
without itself being consumed during the reaction. e.g. Formation of
ammonia (Haber’s Process) - Fe (+ve catalyst)
Characteristics of Chemical Reaction:
i. Change in Colour

ii. Change in temperature (heat is generated)

iii. Change in State: (i.e. from gas to liquid)

iv. Evolution of Gas:

v. Formation of Precipitate

vi. Endothermic reaction (photosynthesis also)

(digestion and
vi. Exothermic reaction
respiration also)
Balanced Chemical Equation:
number of atoms of each element in reactants = number of atoms of each
element in products
Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass of reactants = Mass of products
“ Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. ”
Balancing ke
Balance these: questions bohut
important h!
Types of Chemical Reactions:
1.Combination Reaction:
Two or more reactants combine to form single products.

A + B → AB

Carbon The most effective way to test for CO2 is to bubble the gas through lime water,
dioxide Test which is a diluted solution of calcium hydroxide.

2.Decomposition Reaction:
A single reactant decomposes to form two or more products.

AB → A + B
 Decomposition Reaction

Thermal Decomposition Photolytic Decomposition

(initiated by thermal energy) (initiated by absorbing energy from photons)

black and white photography

Electrolytic Decomposition
(initiated by electrical energy)

Hydrogen Hydrogen (cathode) will produce a popping sound when a burning candle is brought close.
Test Oxygen (anode) will make the flame of the candle burn brighter.
Anode orr cathode
kisse lenge yaad
rakhna!
 3.Displacement Reaction
chemical reaction in which a more reactive element
displaces a less reactive element from its compound.

Single Displacement

A + BC → AC + B Double Displacement

AB + CD → AD + CB
Reactivity Series:

Secret trick to
remember
 Magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling white flame
and changes into a white powder (magnesium Oxide)

Take some lead nitrate solution in a A yellow precipitate of lead iodide forms, and the
test tube or beaker and add potassium solution changes color from colorless to yellow.
iodide solution

Take some zinc granules in a conical Bubbles of hydrogen gas will form around the zinc
flask and add sulfuric acid. metal. The reaction releases heat along with the gas.

Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce

slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), releasing a large
amount of heat.

Originally green 🡢 Color changes to white, then brown

(ferric oxide) 🡢 smell of burning sulfur.
Brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide gas are released,
oxygen also present, Yellow lead monoxide solid
remains🡢appears reddish-brown when hot and yellow
when cold.

White silver chloride turns grey in sunlight.

Deep blue color of the solution fades to light green, and

the iron nail becomes covered with a red-brown layer
of copper

A white precipitate will form.

Forms a black substance CuO. Hydrogen gas can be

passed over the CuO causing a reverse reaction.
Redox Reactions: Oxidation + Reduction

Oxidation: + oxygen or - hydrogen

Reduction: - oxygen or + hydrogen

Oxidizing agent: An oxidizing agent is a substance that causes oxidation by

accepting electrons; therefore, it gets reduced.

Reducing agent: A reducing agent is a substance that causes reduction by losing

electrons; therefore it gets oxidized.
Effects of oxidation in daily life:

Corrosion: metals are gradually destroyed by chemical reactions with

substances in their environment, such as moisture and acids. Examples:
Rusting of iron, Tarnishing of silver, Green coating on copper
Prevention: Coating metals with protective layers (e.g., paint or
galvanization) helps prevent direct exposure to oxygen and moisture,
reducing the risk of corrosion.

Silver develops a black coating after some time.

Ag + H 2 S Ag 2 S + H 2

Copper develops a green coating after some time.

Cu + H 2 O + CO2 + O 2 CuCO 3 .Cu(OH) 2
Effects of oxidation in daily life:

Rancidity: the spoilage of fats and oils in food, leading

to unpleasant taste and smell. Examples: Spoiled butter,
Old cooking oil, Stale chips
Prevention: Adding antioxidants, storing foods in
airtight containers, and refrigerating can help slow
down or prevent the oxidation process and,
consequently, rancidity

Class 10th
Phodenge!
[2021]
 - RAPID REVISION -

Acids, Bases & Salts

 Rapid
Revision

First watch One Shot

 Acid Base

Usually sour in taste. Bitter in taste and soapy to touch.

Turns blue litmus paper red. Turns red litmus paper blue.

Gives hydrogen ions in solution Gives hydroxyl ions in solution

pH < 7 pH > 7

e.g. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl), Acetic Acid e.g. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH), Calcium Hydroxide
(CH₃COOH): (Ca(OH)₂)

ANT
ORT
IMP
 INDICATORS A chemical compound that changes its colour in presence of an acid or a base.

NATURAL (found in nature) SYNTHETIC (from chemical proesses) OLFACTORY

Neutral Reaction Reaction Reaction Reaction substances whose odour changes

Indicator Indicator
solution with Acid with Base with Acid with Base
in acidic or basic medium are
called Olfactory indicators.
Pale Phenolpht
Litmus purple Red Blue halein
Colourless Pink eg- Vanilla, Onion. clove oil.
(Mauve) base (no smell), acid (smell
remains)
Methyl
Red Yellow
Hydrangea Orange
Blue Blue Pink
flowers

Turmeric Yellow Yellow Red

Litmus solution is a purple dye from

lichen, used as an indicator
 Acid with Reaction Example Key Observations

H₂SO₄, HCl, HNO₃, and CH₃COOH

Hydrogen gas evolved; bubbles
Metal + Dilute Acid → Salt + Hydrogen in soap solution ignite with a
Metal Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Gas popping sound when a burning
candle is brought near.

Carbon dioxide turns lime

Metal Carbonate + Acid → Salt + Carbon Na₂CO₃ + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO₂
Metal Carbonate water milky, indicating its
Dioxide + Water + H₂O
presence.

Carbon dioxide turns lime

Metal Metal Hydrogencarbonate + Acid → Salt NaHCO₃ + HCl → NaCl + CO₂ +
water milky, indicating its
Hydrogencarbonate + Carbon Dioxide + Water H₂O
presence.

Neutralization reaction The solution turns blue-green,

Metallic Oxide Metallic Oxide + Acid → Salt + Water CuO + 2HCl → CuCl₂ + H₂O indicating the formation of
basic in nature copper(II) chloride.

excess CO₂
 Reaction Type Reaction Example Key Observations

Hydrogen gas evolved;

Base with Metal Metal + Base → Salt + Hydrogen Gas Zn + 2NaOH → Na₂ZnO₂ + H₂ indicates a reaction with the
base.

Neutralization reaction; forms

Base with Non- Non-Metallic Oxide + Base → Salt + salt and water, indicating
CO₂ + Ca(OH)₂ → CaCO₃ + H₂O
Metal Oxide Water acidic nature of non-metal
acidic in nature oxide.

Neutralization Reaction: when an acid and a base react to form water and a salt and involves the
combination of H+ ions and OH- ions to generate water

Base + Acid → Salt + Water phenolphthalein test

NaOH solution pink
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O NaOH + HCl
Both acids and bases are good colorless
conductors of electricity.
 Dilution occurs when an acid or base is mixed with water, reducing the
concentration of H₃O⁺ or OH⁻ ions per unit volume, making the acid or acid is slowly added to water:
base less concentrated. adding water to a concentrated
acid releases a huge amount of
heat, which can cause an
diluted acid - small amount of acid (solute) Concentrated acid - large amount of acid explosion and acid burns
dissolved in a large amount of water (solvent) dissolved in a small amount of water.

Strength of Acids and bases: Strong acids release more H⁺

ions, while weak acids release
Strength of Acid and Base can be estimated using universal indicator. fewer H⁺ ions. The same
applies to bases.
It shows different colours at different concentrations of H+ ions in the solution.

P(potenz)H: pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.

{power of hydrogen}

pH<7 { Acidic }
ph = 7 { neutral }
pH>7 { Basic }
 Importance of pH in daily life:

Digestion: The stomach uses hydrochloric acid with a pH of 1 to 3 to break down food.

Soil: Plants thrive in soil with a pH of 6.3 to 7.3. If soil is too acidic, adding lime helps; if too basic,
gypsum is added.

Tooth Decay: Bacteria in the mouth make it acidic, leading to tooth decay. Toothpaste, being basic,
balances the mouth's pH.

Blood: Blood functions best with a pH between 7.0 to 7.8.

Plants and Animals: They prefer specific pH levels, with most plants growing best in soil around pH 7.

Bee Stings: Baking soda neutralizes the acidity caused by bee stings.

Acid Rain: Pollution can cause rain to become acidic, harming fish and other animals.
 Salts
Salts are ionic compounds composed of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged
ions (anions), These ions are held together by ionic bond.
pH: strong acid + strong base are neutral (pH 7).
strong acid + weak base are acidic (pH < 7),
strong base + weak acid are basic (pH > 7).

Salt pH Reaction Origin Uses

common salt Used in food seasoning,

Sodium Chloride Found in seawater raw material for
Neutral HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
(NaCl) and rock salt deposits chemicals like NaOH,
baking soda, and more.

Sodium Used in soap making,

2NaCl + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + Cl₂ + H₂ (Chlor-alkali Produced by
Hydroxide Basic paper industry, and as a
process) electrolysis of brine
(NaOH) cleaning agent.

baking soda Produced using

Sodium Hydrogen Used in baking powder,
sodium chloride,
Carbonate Basic NaCl + H₂O + CO₂ + NH₃ → NH₄Cl + NaHCO₃ antacids, soda-acid fire
water, and carbon
(NaHCO₃) extinguishers.
dioxide
 Salt pH Reaction Origin Uses

Obtained by heating
Sodium Used in glass, soap, and
sodium hydrogen
Carbonate Basic 2NaHCO₃ → Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O paper industries, and to
carbonate and
(Na₂CO₃) remove water hardness.
recrystallization

bleaching powder Used for bleaching in

Calcium Produced by reacting textile and paper
Oxychloride Basic Ca(OH)₂ + Cl₂ → CaOCl₂ + H₂O chlorine with slaked industries, disinfecting
(CaOCl₂) lime water, and as an
oxidizing agent.

Used in plaster for

plaster of paris
supporting fractured
Calcium Sulphate
CaSO₄·2H₂O (gypsum) → CaSO₄·½H₂O (Plaster Found as gypsum in bones, making toys,
Hemihydrate Neutral
of Paris) + 1½H₂O natural deposits decorations, and for
(CaSO₄·½H₂O)
making surfaces
smooth.

Used as washing soda,

Sodium washing soda
Produced by in glass, soap, and paper
Carbonate
Basic Na₂CO₃ + 10H₂O → Na₂CO₃·10H₂O recrystallization of industries, and for
Decahydrate
sodium carbonate removing permanent
(Na₂CO₃·10H₂O)
hardness of water.
 Copper(II) Sulphate
Acidic CuSO₄·5H₂O (blue) → CuSO₄ (white) + 5H₂O
(CuSO₄·5H₂O)

Are the Crystals of Salts really Dry?

Copper sulphate, contain water molecules in their crystal structure, known as water of crystallisation.
When copper sulphate crystals are heated, they lose their water of crystallisation and turn from blue to white.
Rehydration: Adding water back to the white, anhydrous copper sulphate restores its blue color.
Chemical Formula: The hydrated form of copper sulphate is represented as CuSO₄·5H₂O, indicating it has five water molecules per
formula unit..

At anode: Cl2 (uses Water

treatment, PVC, disinfectants)
At cathode: H2 gas (uses
Fuels, margarine.)
Near cathode: NaOH solution
is formed
Cl2 + NaOH-> Bleach: household
bleaches, bleaching fabrics
2NaCl + 2H2O -> 2NaOH + Cl2 + H2
 [2020,2023]
Q. Which Acid is Present in a Tomato
(1) Tartaric Acid
(2) Malonic Acid
(3) Lactic Acid
(4) Oxalic Acid
 - RAPID REVISION -

Metals & Non Metals

Rapid
Revision
 Elements

Metals Non Metals Metalloids Noble Gas

e.g. Gold (Au), Iron (Fe), e.g. Hydrogen (H), e.g. Boron (B), Silicon e.g. Helium (He),
Zinc (Zn), Lead (Pb). Helium (He),Oxygen (O), (Si), Germanium (Ge), Neon (Ne), Argon
Antimony (Sb) (Ar)

Property Metals Non Metals

Malleable (can be hammered). Ex: Aluminium, Iron

Malleability Brittle (easily break). Ex: Sulphur, Phosphorus
Exceptions : Zinc, Arsenic, Mercury

Ductile (can be drawn into wires). Ex: Copper, Al

Ductility Not ductile. Ex: Sulphur, Iodine
Exceptions: Mercury, Zinc

Mostly hard. Ex: Iron, Aluminium

Hardness Soft (except diamond).
Ecept - sodium and potassium
 Property Metals Non Metals

Sonorous (produces sound). Ex: Iron, Copper

Sonority Non-sonorous.
Exceptions: Mercury

Lustre Lustrous (shiny). Ex: Gold, Aluminium Dull (except iodine).

High. Ex: Tungsten, Gold

Melting/Boiling Point Exceptions: Sodium, Potassium, Mercury, Gallium, Low (except diamond).
Cesium

Good conductor. Ex: Silver, Copper

Electrical Conductivity Poor conductor (except graphite).
Exceptions: Mercury, Lead

Good conductor. Ex: Silver, Copper

Heat Conductivity Poor conductor (except graphite).
Exceptions: Mercury, Lead

State Solid (except mercury). Can be solid, liquid, or gas.

Density High density. Ex: Gold, Iron Low density. Ex: Hydrogen, Nitrogen

Interesting Facts Mercury is liquid at room temp. Gallium melts in hand. Graphite conducts electricity. Diamond is hardest.
 Reactions of Metals and Non Metals

Reaction with Metals Non Metals

Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide (Basic)

Example: 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO
Amphoteric Metals: Beryllium (Be), Zinc (Zn), Tin (Sn), Lead (Pb), Aluminium
Non-Metal + Oxygen → Non-
(Al), (Antimony (Sb)
Metal Oxide (Acidic/Neutral)
Oxygen Aluminium with Oxygen: 4Al(s) + 3O₂(g) → 2Al₂O₃(s)
Example: C + O₂ → CO₂
Zinc with Oxygen: 2Zn(s) + O₂(g) → 2ZnO(s)
S + O₂ → SO₂
Aluminium Oxide Reactions:
1. Al₂O₃(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl₃(aq) + 3H₂O(l)
2. Al₂O₃(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaAlO₂(aq) + H₂O(l)

Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide + H₂

Na₂O, K₂O, CaO, and MgO dissolve in water to form metal hydroxides
Non metals don’t react with water
Example: 2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂
Non-Metal Oxide + Water → Acid
K, Na react violently with water; Ca reacts mildly;
SO₂ + H₂O → H₂SO₃
Water Ca+2H2​O→Ca(OH)2​+H2​
SO₃ + H₂O → H₂SO₄
Mg reacts with hot water. Al, Fe, Zn react with steam;
CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃
2Al+3H2​O (steam)→Al2​O3​+3H2​
NO₂ + H₂O → HNO₃ + HNO₂
3Fe+4H2​O (steam)→Fe3​O4​+4H2
Pb, Cu, Ag, Au do not react with water.
 Reaction with Metals Non Metals

Metal + dil. Acid → Salt + H₂

Example: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Hydrogen gas isn't produced when metals react with HNO₃ because it
oxidizes H₂ to water and reduces to nitrogen oxides. Only Mg and Mn with
very dilute HNO₃ release H₂ gas.
Metal (Mg and Mn) + Dilute nitric acid → Salt + Hydrogen gas
Acids 2Mg + 4HNO₃ → 2Mg(NO₃)₂ + H₂ No Reaction
Mn + 2HNO₃ → Mn(NO₃)₂ + H₂
Other Metals + Dilute nitric acid → Salt + Water + NO₂/N₂O/NO
Aqua regia is a mix of concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acids in a 3:1
ratio. It’s highly corrosive and can dissolve gold and platinum.

More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from their salt solutions
(displacement reaction).
Metal Salts No Reaction
Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A + Metal B
Example: Pb + CuCl₂ → PbCl₂ + Cu
Reactivity
Series
 Reactions of Metals + Non Metals

When metals react with non-metals, electrons transfer from metals to non-metals, forming ions. The
compound formed is ionic.
Metal + Non-metal → Ionic compound

Sodium loses 1 electron, forming Na+ cation.

Chlorine gains that electron, forming Cl- anion.

Opposite charges attract. Strong

electrostatic forces hold them together.

Ionic bond forms due to electrostatic

attraction between the ions.

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is formed.

 Property Description

Properties Physical nature Solid, hard, brittle due to strong ionic bonds.

of Ionic Melting & Boiling points High, due to strong inter-ionic attractions requiring more energy to break.

Compounds Solubility Soluble in water, insoluble in organic solvents like kerosene and petrol.

Electrical conductivity Conducts in molten and aqueous states, not in solid due to immobile ions.

Metallurgy: Science & tech of metals' properties, production, purification

Minerals: Naturally occurring elements/compounds in Earth's crust

Ores: Minerals from which metals can be extracted economically and conveniently

Gangue Particles: Impurities in ores (sand, oil, etc.)

Enrichment of Ore/Concentration: Process of removing gangue particles from ores

 Minerals Ores

Elements or compounds occurring naturally in Earth's

Minerals with a high percentage of metal, profitable for extraction.
crust.

May or may not contain metals. Definitely contain metals.

All minerals are not ores. All ores are minerals.

Example: Salt, Clay, Marble Example: Bauxite, Hematite, Rock Salt

K (Potassium)
Na (Sodium)
Highly reactive metals (K, Na, Ca, Mg,
Ca (Calcium) Electrolysis
Mg (Magnesium) Al) are extracted using electrolysis.
Al (Aluminum)

Zn (Zinc) Moderately reactive metals (Zn, Fe,

Fe (Iron) Reduction using carbon Pb) are usually extracted through
Pb (Lead)
carbon reduction.
Cu (Copper)
Metals like gold and silver are
Ag (Silver) Found in native state
Au (Gold)
found in a free state due to low
reactivity.
 Metallurgy
Reactivity Metals Process Key Reactions

1. HgS + O₂ → HgO + SO₂

2. HgO → Hg + O₂
Low Reactivity Mercury (Hg), Copper (Cu) Reduction by heating
3. Cu₂S + O₂ → CuO + SO₂
Cu₂O + Cu₂S → Cu + SO₂

Roasting (for sulphides), 1. ZnS + O₂ → ZnO + SO₂

Medium Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Lead
Calcination (for 2. ZnCO₃ → ZnO + CO₂
Reactivity (Pb)
carbonates) 3. ZnO + C → Zn + CO

Reduction using carbon MnO₂ + Al → Mn + Al₂O₃

or displacement Fe₂O₃ + Al → Fe + Al₂O₃ (Thermit reaction- highly exothermic)

Sodium (Na), Magnesium 1. Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na

High Reactivity (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Electrolytic reduction 2. 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻
Aluminium (Al) 3. Al₂O₃ (electrolysis) → Al

Acche se dekhlena reactions!

 Cathode : Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na
Electrolytic Reduction
Anode : 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻

Refining of Metals
Electrolytic refining is
widely used for impure metal is the anode
purification.
Metals like copper, zinc,
tin, nickel, silver, gold are
Electrolyte
refined using this method.

pure metal is the cathode Insoluble impurities form

anode mud, while soluble
ones stay in the solution.
 Roasting Calcination

Heating of a metal ore in the presence of excess air or oxygen. Heating of a metal ore in the presence of limited air or oxygen.

Requires an excess amount of air or oxygen. Done with limited air or oxygen.

Mainly done for sulphide ores. Done for carbonate ores.

Releases toxic gases and substances (e.g., SO₂). Releases volatile compounds, often less toxic than in roasting.

Corrosion
Metal Reaction/Result Prevention Methods Chemical Reaction

Turns black when exposed to air due to the Painting, oiling, greasing, galvanizing,
Silver 4Ag + 2H₂S + O₂ → 2Ag₂S + 2H₂O
formation of silver sulphide. chrome plating, anodizing, alloying

Gains a green coat (copper carbonate) when Galvanization (coating with zinc), Cu + H₂O + O₂ + CO₂ →
Copper
reacting with moist carbon dioxide. Alloying (e.g., stainless steel) CuCO₃·Cu(OH)₂ (green)

Forms a brown flaky substance (rust) when Galvanization, alloying, painting, oiling, Fe + O₂ + H₂O → Fe₂O₃·xH₂O
Iron
exposed to moist air. greasing (rust)
 Alloying
An alloy is a mixture of metals or a metal with a non-metal, altering properties like conductivity and melting
point.
Examples :
Brass (Copper + Zinc) and Bronze (Copper + Tin) are poor conductors, unlike Copper, which powers electrical
circuits.
Solder (Lead + Tin) melts easily, making it perfect for welding electrical wires.
Pure gold is soft, so it is alloyed with silver or copper to make jewelry, typically in 22 carat form in India.
The Iron Pillar near Qutub Minar in Delhi, over 1600 years old, resists rust due to ancient Indian
metallurgy techniques
Class 10th
Phodenge!
 - RAPID REVISION -

Carbon and it's

compounds
 Rapid
Revision

First watch One Shot

 Carbon: Carbon is the 15th most abundant in the earth's crust.

Atomic mass of C : 12u. Valency of C : 6 Atomic number : 6.

no. of protons = no. of neutrons = 6 .

shell - K L
elctronic arrangment
No. of electrons- 2 4

chemical bond that involves the sharing of electrons to form electron

Covalent bond
pairs between atoms.
 Three types of covalent bonding

Single Covalent Bond Double Covalent Bond Triple Covalent Bond

Properties of Covalent Compounds:

- Low melting/boiling points due to weaker intermolecular forces compared to ionic compounds.
- Physical state can be solid, liquid, or gas.
- Poor conductors of electricity as they lack charged particles.
- Generally soluble in organic solvents, insoluble in water (exception: sugar in water).
 Allotropes: an element existing in the same physical state as other
forms but with different chemical and physical properties.

Property Diamond Graphite Fullerene

3D network, each carbon Layers of hexagons

Hollow, cage-like with 60
Structure bonds with four others; held by weak forces;
carbons; soccer ball shape.
very hard. soft and slippery.

Three covalent
Four strong covalent
bonds per carbon, Strong covalent bonds in
Bonding bonds per carbon; highly
with delocalized hexagons and pentagons.
stable.
electrons.

Hard, transparent, high Unique electronic

Soft, used in pencils
Properties refractive index; jewelry, properties; used in
and lubricants.
abrasives. nanotech, drugs.
 HYDROCARBON Compounds made up of H & C

Aliphatic Aromatic hydrocarbons

Saturated Single bond Unsaturated Double or Triple bond

ALKANES ALKENE ALKYNES

Single bond between carbon Double bond between carbon Triple bond between carbon
atoms. atoms. atoms.
General formula General formula General formula
Intro to saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

SATURATED UNSATURATED

ALKANES
ALKENE ALKYNES
 Three types of Hydrocarbons

Straight chain Branched chain Cyclic Hydrocarbon

Each carbon atom is bonded to Each carbon atom is bonded to one,
either one or two other carbon atoms. two, or more than two other carbon Saturated cyclic unsaturated
atoms. hydrocarbon cyclic chain
Cycloalkanes (CnH2n) hydrocarbon

Cycloalkenes (CnH2n-2) Cycloalkynes (CnH2n-4)

Common They are named after their sources of isolation. Formic acid derives from
Nomenclature "Formectus," meaning red ant, and acetic acid from "Acetum," meaning vinegar.

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), founded in 1919, establishes standardized
naming rules in chemistry
Functional groups:
In hydrocarbons, hydrogen atoms can be replaced by heteroatoms (e.g., Cl, S, N, O),
forming functional groups that determine the compound’s reactivity and properties.

Rules for Naming Compounds with Functional Groups:

If a secondary suffix starts with "a," "i," "o," "u," or "y," omit
the "e" in the primary suffix.
Homologous series:
a collection of compounds with the same general formula that differ only in the
carbon chain length.

- Homologues share the same general formula.

- Differ by a –CH₂ group; molecular mass difference is 14 µ.
- Similar chemical properties.
- Gradual change in physical properties.
- Functional group influences properties.

Compounds with identical molecular formula but different

Isomerism structures.
 Chemical properties of carbon Compounds

Type of Reaction Reaction Observations

Carbon burns in oxygen to release CO₂, heat,

Combustion (i) C + O₂ → CO₂ + heat and light
and light.

Methane combustion releases CO₂, H₂O,

(ii) CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + heat and light
heat, and light.

Ethanol combustion produces CO₂, H₂O, heat,

(iii) CH₃CH₂OH + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + heat and light
and light.

Ethanol oxidizes to acetic acid using an

Oxidation CH₃CH₂OH + [O] → CH₃COOH
oxidizing agent.

Unsaturated hydrocarbon + H₂ → Saturated Hydrogen adds to unsaturated hydrocarbons,

Addition Reaction
hydrocarbon (Nickel catalyst) used in hydrogenating oils.

Substitution Chlorine replaces hydrogen in a fast

CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl (in sunlight)
Reaction substitution reaction.
Chemical properties of Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid
 Esterification Reaction

Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst (usually concentrated sulfuric
acid) to form an ester and water.

Saponification Reaction:

When an ester reacts with sodium hydroxide, it produces an alcohol and a sodium salt of the
carboxylic acid.
Cleansing action of Soap/Detergent
 Soaps VS. Detergents
Aspect Soap Detergent

Sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts with

Chemical Composition Sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids
chloride or bromide ions

Has a hydrophilic (water-attracting) ionic end and a

Structure Similar structure with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
hydrophobic (water-repelling) hydrocarbon tail

Formation of Micelles Forms micelles in water, which trap dirt and oil inside Also forms micelles in water, making it effective for cleaning

Effectiveness in Hard Forms scum with calcium and magnesium ions in hard
Does not form scum in hard water, remains effective
Water water, reducing cleaning efficiency

Foam Formation Less foam in hard water, more in soft water Produces foam even in hard water

Use in Cleaning Commonly used for personal hygiene and in soft water Used in laundry, shampoos, and hard water cleaning applications

Some detergents are non-biodegradable, may contribute to

Environmental Impact Biodegradable, generally environmentally friendly
water pollution

Often more expensive, especially those formulated for specific

Cost Usually cheaper than detergents
cleaning tasks
 - RAPID REVISION -

Life Processes
 Rapid
Revision

First watch One Shot

 Life Processes:
The basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain their
life on this earth are called life processes.

Nutrition Respiration Transportation Excretion

Multicellular Organism (multiple cells)

Unicellular Organisms (single cell)
 Nutrition The process of taking in food and converting it into energy
and other vital nutrients required for life.

Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition

Organisms that prepare their own Organisms that are dependent on other
food. e.g., Green plants, Algae, etc. organisms for food. E.g., Animals, fungi,etc.

Holozoic nutrition: involves organisms Saprophytic nutrition: Parasitic nutrition:

ingesting whole food material, which is then Organisms feed on dead Organisms derive nutrition
digested and absorbed inside their bodies. and decaying matter. Food from plants or animals
Examples include: Animals - [Herbivores: is digested externally and without killing them. They
Cow, goat], [Carnivores: Lion, tiger], then nutrients are obtain nutrition by living
[Omnivores: Human beings], Unicellular absorbed. e.g. Bread mold, on or inside the host. e.g.
organisms: Amoeba, Paramecium Mushroom, Yeast. Tapeworm, Lice .
 Nutrition in Plants:
Photosynthesis is the process of capturing light energy and transforming it into chemical energy (glucose).

Humans - glycogen
(chlorophyll) (carbohydrates) Energy
Starch (stored carbohydrates)

Conversion of light energy to chemical

Absorption of light energy Reduction of carbon
energy and splitting of water molecules
by chlorophyll dioxide to carbohydrates
into hydrogen and oxygen.

(Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate which is acted upon by the energy absorbed by
the chlorophyll during the day)
Pore like structure
Gaseous exchange photosynthesis
(stems, roots & leaves)
opening and closening of stomata
guard cells swell -> when water flows into them -> causing the
stomatal pore to open (endosmosis)
pore closes -> the guard cells shrink (exosmosis)
Nutrition in Amoeba
 Nutrition in Humans:
Alimentary canal: A long hollow tube which contains organs through which the
food actually passes (Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, etc.)

Salivary gland Saliva

swallowing, mixing and pushing the Ingestion Salivary amylase

food, secretes saliva (wets the Starch (complex sugar)
food) and mucus Maltose (Simple sugar)

TEETH - chewing and grinding of food

Receives secretion from liver
(bile) and pancreas (pancreatic
juice). Bile emulsifies fat. Movement of food from mouth to stomach
through peristaltic movementsv
Pancreatic juice contains trypsin
(breaks down proteins) , lipase J-shaped organ which expand when food
(breaks down fats) and enters and muscular walls help in mixing
Pancreatic amylase - helps in the food thoroughly with digestive juices
digestion of carbohydrates. Gastric glands secrete gastric juice -
pepsin (breaks down proteins), HCl
(makes medium acidic), and mucus
5-7 meters long, Site of final ingestion , (protects stomach lining)
secretes Intestinal enzymes. . Food in the
small intestine is absorbed by finger-like unabsorbed food is sent into
structures called villi. These projections
the large intestine also
increase the surface area for absorption
Absorbs excess water
and are rich in blood vessels, which
transport the absorbed nutrients to all
Egestion
body cells for energy, tissue building, and
repair.
 Respiration
Respiration is the process by which food is burnt in the cells (mitochondria) of the body with the help of
oxygen to release energy. Energy is stored in the cells in the form of ATP molecules.
Respiration
Breathing Respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Physical process Biochemical process
Location: Cytoplasm and
Location: Cytoplasm
Large number of enzymes are mitochondria
No enzymes involved
involved
Stages: Glycolysis
Link Reaction Stages: Glycolysis
Confined to certain organs Occurs in all the cells of the body
The Krebs Cycle Fermentation
Oxidative Phosphorylation
No energy is released; rather, Energy is released in the form of
energy is used ATP Oxidation of Glucose: Complete Oxidation of Glucose: Incomplete

Total ATP Produced: High (~36

Extracellular process Intracellular process Total ATP Produced: Low (2 ATP)
ATP)

Intake of fresh air and removal of Oxidation of food to form carbon Products: Yeast: CO₂, ethanol
foul air dioxide, water, and energy Products: CO₂, H₂O
Mammals: Lactate
 Breakdown of Glucose:

Absence of Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy

oxygen (in yeast) (2-carbon molecule)
Pyruvate
Glucose (6- In cytoplasm (3-carbon Lack of oxygen Lactic acid + Energy
Carbon molecule) molecule) (in our muscle (3-carbon molecule)
cells)
+ Energy
Presence of oxygen
(in mitochodria)
Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
 Respiration in Humans:
Nostrils: Air enters the body through the nostrils.

Nasal Cavity: Air is filtered, warmed, and moistened; hairs and moist surfaces remove tiny
dirt particles

Pharynx: Junction for passage of digestive and respiratory systems.

Larynx: Contains vocal cords; produces sound when air passes over them.

Trachea: Windpipe channeling air to the lungs.

Bronchus: Trachea divides into two bronchi, each leading to a lung.

Bronchioles: Smaller branches of bronchi within the lungs.

Alveolus: Air sacs where gas exchange occurs; blood capillaries take up oxygen and expel Diaphragm and ribs: These structures facilitate
carbon dioxide breathing by changing the size of the chest cavity.
When we breathe in, the ribs lift, and the
Blood: Carries oxygen to body cells and collects carbon dioxide from them. diaphragm flattens, expanding the chest cavity and
allowing air to be sucked into the lungs.
 Transportation
Movement of water, minerals, nutrients, etc. from one part of
the body to other

Blood Blood Vessels Heart

Blood is a fluid connective tissue that
consists of plasma, blood cells and platelets. Feature Arteries Veins Capillaries

Direction of Away from the Towards the Link arteries

Blood heart heart and veins
Blood Plasma Platelets
cells Pressure High Low Medium
Fluid medium carrying Help in blood Lymphatic System:
nutrients, waste clotting to Lymph: Colorless fluid
Oxygenated Deoxygenated
products, and other prevent leaks Oxygen Both carrying digested fats
blood blood
substances. (pale and maintain and excess tissue fluid;
yellowish in color) pressure Valves Absent Present Absent
drains into lymphatic
capillaries and
Walls Thick and elastic Thin Extremely Thin eventually into veins.
Function: Helps in fat
Exchange O2 absorption and returns
Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells Carries oxygen Returns blood to
Function and nutrients excess tissue fluid to
and nutrients heart
with cells blood.
Contain haemoglobin to Provides Immunity,
transport oxygen and produce antibodies Distributes Carries carbon Picks up CO2
carbon dioxide. (red in against disease causing Role blood pumped dioxide and other and waste from
color) microbes by heart waste cells
 Transportation in Plants:
Plants absorb raw materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals from the soil through roots.

Water Transport in Xylem: Food Transport in Phloem (Translocation)

Xylem Phloem

1. Conducts food from leaves to all parts of the

1. Conducts water and minerals from roots to leaves.
plant.

2. Transport is unidirectional. 2. Transport is bidirectional.

3. Composed of mainly dead elements. 3. Composed of mainly living elements.

4. Has four types of cells: Tracheids, Vessels, Xylem 4. Has four types of cells: Phloem fibers, Companion
parenchyma, and Xylem fibers. cells, Sieve tubes, and Phloem parenchyma.
 Transportation in Humans
Heart - Muscular organ, Located in chest cavity, as big as fist. It is a blood pumping organ that pumps oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood to and from the lungs and the rest of the body.

Very Important
Double Circulation

Chambers in heart - To prevent mixing of oxygenated and

deoxygenated blood. More oxygen will be supplied to body organs in
better way. Highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body. More
respiration leading to more energy production.
Excretion in Human Beings
Location: Abdomen, one on either side of the backbone.
Function: Filter waste products from the blood to produce urine. The basic filtration
units in the kidneys are nephrons, which consist of a cluster of thin-walled blood
capillaries associated with a cup-shaped end of a tube that collects the filtered urine.
Nephrons selectively reabsorb useful substances like glucose, amino acids, salts, and
water as the urine flows along the tube.

Location: Tubes connecting the kidneys to the urinary bladder.

u,
Function: Transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.

Location: Pelvic region.

Function: Stores urine until it is ready to be expelled from the body. The
bladder is muscular and under nervous control, allowing us to control the urge to
urinate.

Location: Tube leading from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body.
Function: Allows urine to be excreted from the body
 Excretion in Human Beings
Structural & functional unit of kidney/excretion system. Responsible for filtration of blood. There are millions of nephron in each kidney.
Glomerular Filtration: Blood enters the kidneys, and in the nephrons, nitrogenous
wastes, glucose, water, amino acids, and excess salts are filtered out. This initial
filtrate enters the Bowman’s capsule of each nephron.

Selective Reabsorption: As the filtrate moves through the nephron, useful substances
such as glucose, amino acids, salts, and a significant amount of water are reabsorbed
back into the blood by the capillaries surrounding the nephron.

u,
Tubular Secretion: Urea, additional water, and excess salts are secreted into the
tubule, which then opens into the collecting duct. The urine then flows from the
collecting ducts into the ureters.

Urine Formation: After filtration and reabsorption, the remaining fluid is urine,
containing waste products and extra water.
Transport: Urine travels from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary
bladder.
Storage: Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until it becomes full.
Excretion: When the bladder is full, the nervous system triggers the urge to
urinate, and urine is released from the bladder through the urethra and out of
the body.
 Excretion in Plants
Oxygen as a Waste Product: Oxygen, produced during photosynthesis, is considered a waste product and
is released through the process of transpiration.

Dealing with Gases: Plants manage excess oxygen and carbon dioxide through stomata during gas exchange.

Transpiration: Excess water is removed by transpiration through stomata in leaves.

Dead Tissues and Leaf Shedding: Plants use dead cells u, and shed leaves to eliminate waste. Waste
products are often stored in parts of the plant that will be discarded.

Cellular Vacuoles: Many waste products are stored in the vacuoles of plant cells.

Storage in Leaves: Some waste products are stored in leaves that eventually fall off the plant.

Resins and Gums: Old xylem stores waste products in the form of resins and gums.

Excretion into Soil: Plants can also excrete some waste substances directly into the soil around their
roots.
 - RAPID REVISION -

Control & Coordination

 Rapid
Revision

First watch One Shot

Coordination: working together of the various organs of an organism to adjust various
activities of life.

Stimuli: change in the environment that can cause a physical or behavioral change in a living
organism.

Response: the reaction of an organism to an internal or external stimulus.

Receptors: Cells or groups of cells in Effectors: Parts of the body that respond to
sense organs that detect stimuli and impulses sent by the nervous system, converting
convert them into impulses. them into actions. e.g. muscles and glands.

Photo receptors Phono receptors Thermo receptors Olfactory receptors Gustatory receptors
 Coordination
COORDINATION IN ANIMALS:

Nervous system Endocrine system

Hormones
Central Peripheral

Brain Spinal cord Cranial nerves Spinal nerves

Fore - Brain Arise from the brain Arise from spinal cord
Mid - Brain
Hind- Brain
 Neuron NEURONS:
The structural & functional unit of nervous system.
Longest cell of the human body.

Cell body Axon

Acquired information Longest fibre on the cell body.
travels as an It transmits electrical impulse
electrical impulse. from cell body to dendrite of
next neuron.

Synapse:

Dendrites Gap between the nerve ending of

one neuron and dendrite of the
Acquires information
other neuron.
Electrical signal Chemical signals

Nerve ending
Neuromuscular junction (NMJ):
a synaptic connection between the
Dendrites Cell body Axon Nerve ending Synapse terminal end of a motor nerve and a
muscle.
 Types of Neuron:

Sensory Neurons Motor Neurons Relay Neurons

Transmit impulses from sense Transmit impulses from Allow sensory and motor
organs to brain Brain and spinal cord to body neuron to communicate

Aspect Voluntary Actions Involuntary Actions Reflex Actions

Sudden, automatic responses to

Definition Actions under conscious control Actions occurring without conscious control
stimuli

Involves the brain’s thinking and Controlled by the autonomic nervous system Controlled by the spinal cord via
Control
decision-making or lower brain centers reflex arc

Pulling hand away from a hot

Examples Walking, writing, speaking Heartbeat, digestion, breathing
object, blinking
 Reflex action: Involuntary and
reflex action ka
spontaneous automatic and involuntary response. difference yaad
rakhna!

Monitored through the spinal cord.

the pathway taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called reflex arc.

Stimulus
Receptors
Spinal cord
Effector
Response
Motor neuron
 Human brain: Brain is the main coordinating centre of the body.
1. Fore brain 2. Mid brain 3. Hind brain

Most complex or specialized part of

brain (largest also). Consists of
cerebrum, Thalamus, Hypothalamus.
Functions: Thinking part of the brain
Control the voluntary actions.
Store information.
Receives sensory impulse
Centre associated with hunger.

Controls involuntary actions such as:

controls voluntary act. Changing pupil size.
Eg: blood pressure, reflex movement of head, neck and trunk.
salivation, vomiting.

Control involuntary actions, regulation

of respiration

controls posture and balance.

Precision of voluntary act.
 Protection of nervous system
Brain Spinal cord

Brain in cranium (bone box, Spinal cord wrapped in meninges.

part of skull). Protected by vertebral column
Covered by 3 membrane layers (backbone).
(meninges). Vertebral column made of 33 bones
Fluid protects brain from (vertebrae).
injuries.

Spinal cord: cylindrical extension of brain, starts from medulla.

Surrounded by meninges.
31 pairs of nerves arise. more about
Handles spinal reflexes.
Spinal cord
Conducts nerve impulses to/from brain.
 CHEMICAL COORDINATION IN ANIMALS:
structure made of cells or tissue that
GLANDS secretes specific substances in the body.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS EXOCRINE GLANDS

Secrete substances directly into the bloodstream (ductless). Secrete substances through ducts onto body surfaces.
Substances are hormones. Substances include enzymes, sweat, saliva, etc.
Secretion occurs throughout the body via blood. Secretion occurs on external body surfaces or into body cavities.
Examples: Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands. Examples: Sweat glands, salivary glands, digestive glands.
Part of the endocrine system. Not part of the endocrine system.

HORMONES: Chemical messengers in the bloodstream that

regulate and control the activity of organs and tissues.

Feedback Mechanism: A process that maintains hormonal

balance by adjusting hormone secretion in response to changes
in hormone levels.
 CHEMICAL COORDINATION IN ANIMALS:
Gland Location Hormone Function Related Condition

Hypothalamus Brain Releasing & Inhibitory Regulates pituitary gland hormones -

Pituitary Gland Below the brain Growth Hormone Controls body growth (bones, muscles)- master gland Dwarfism, Gigantism

Thyroid Gland Attached to windpipe Thyroxine Regulates metabolism of carbs, fats, and proteins Goitre (iodine deficiency)

Parathyroid Embedded in thyroid

Parathormone Regulates calcium and phosphate levels in blood -
Gland gland

Lower neck/upper Develops immune system; large in children, shrinks

Thymus Gland Thymus Hormone -
chest after puberty

Regulates blood sugar levels; insulin helps glucose

Pancreas Below the stomach Insulin & Glucagon Diabetes
uptake

Prepares body for 'fight or flight' response (increases

Adrenal Glands On top of kidneys Adrenaline -
heart rate, breathing, energy mobilization)

Male reproductive
Testes Testosterone Controls male puberty (voice, hair growth) -
organs

Female reproductive Estrogen & Controls female puberty (voice, skin, breasts);
Ovaries -
organs Progesterone progesterone supports menstrual cycle and pregnancy
 COORDINATION IN PLANTS:

MOVEMENTS
Not related to growth Related to growth

NASTIC TROPIC

Thigmonasty Phototropism
Non-directional movement in response to touch (e.g., Mimosa pudica). Growth towards or away from light.

Photonasty Hydrotropism
Non-directional movement in response to light (e.g., dandelion, moonflower) Growth in response to water.

Geotropism
Nastic Movement Tropic Movement Growth in response to gravity.

Non-directional response to stimuli. Directional response to stimuli.

Chemotropism
Growth towards or away from chemicals.
Fast movement. Slow movement.
Thigmotropism
Growth in response to touch.
Involves flat organs (leaves, petals). Involves all plant parts.
 COORDINATION IN PLANTS:

HORMONES (PHYTOHORMONES)

Growth of a plant can be divided into three stages: 1.Cell division 2.Cell enlargement 3.Cell differentiation (or cell specialization

Plant
Functions
Hormone

Promotes cell enlargement, differentiation, and fruit growth. Controls response to light and gravity. Speeds up
Auxin
stem growth, slows root growth. Used in agriculture.

Promotes cell enlargement, differentiation (with auxins), and shoot elongation. Breaks seed and bud dormancy,
Gibberellins
promotes fruit growth.

Promotes cell division, delays leaf aging, opens stomata, and promotes fruit growth. Breaks seed and bud
Cytokinins
dormancy.

Abscisic Growth inhibitor, promotes seed and bud dormancy, closes stomata, causes leaf wilting, and promotes
Acid (ABA) detachment of flowers and fruits.
 - RAPID REVISION -

How do Organisms
Reproduce?
 Rapid
Revision

First watch One Shot

 Reproduction: is a biological process by which living organisms produces new individuals similar
to themselves. It ensures continuity of life on earth and helps in evolution of species.

DNA: (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) is thread-like structure that carries all information about
our traits and is passed from one generation to the next.

DNA Copying Process Errors in Copying Variations in DNA

(Biochemical reactions are not fully (DNA is not identical to the
reliable) original)

Mild/Moderate Variation ➔
Extreme Variation ➔ New cell
No severe consequences
can't function ➔ Cell dies
(Cell continues to function normally)
Importance of Variation:
(i) Variation helps organisms adapt to changing environments.
(ii) It provides stability to a species and supports evolution.
(iii) DNA variation leads to different forms of a species and the creation of new species.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

A single individual give rise to new individual. Two individuals, i.e one male and one female need

Gametes are not formed Gametes are formed.

New Individual is identical to parents New Individual is genetically similar but not identical to parents

It is extremely useful as a means of rapid

It is useful to generate more variations in species.
multiplication.

Example - Microorganisms Example - plants and humans

 Neuron MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Axon
Cell body
spore formation vegetative
Fission
Fragmentation
propagation
budding
Regeneration
Fragmentation : The organism breaks up into
Fission : The parent cell divides into
small pieces upon maturation, each piece
daughter cells.
develops into new individual. E.g spirogyra.
Regeneration: If organism is somehow cut or broken into many pieces each piece growns into a complete
organism. Example - Planaria, Hydra.

Regeneration in hydra Regeneration in planaria

Budding: A bud is formed which develops into tiny individual. It detaches from parent body upon
maturation and develops into new individual. Example - Hydra

Budding in hydra Budding in Yeast

Spore formation : Spores are small bulb like structures

which are covered by thick walls. Under favourable
Spore formation in Rhizopus
conditions, they germinate and produce new organism.
 vegetative propagation: In many plants, new plants develops from vegetative parts such as :

Benefits of Vegetative Propagation:

Quick and cheap method to produce many plants.
Disease-free plants can be produced.
Desired traits can be introduced.
Genetically identical plants are produced.
Almost 100% survival rate of new plants.

Tissue Culture
Tissue culture: Growing new plants from small plant pieces.
Cells from growing tip placed in artificial medium form a callus.
Callus is moved to a hormone-rich medium for growth and
development.
Plantlets are transferred to soil to mature.
Many disease-free plants are grown from one parent.
Commonly used for ornamental plants.
 Sexual reproduction:
When reproduction takes place as a result of the fusion of male
and female gametes is called Sexual reproduction.

Gamete formation Reproduction in Plants

Parts Function

Gametes transfer
SEPALS Usually green and provide protection to flower during bud stage

Fertilization
PETALS Brighly coloured and have strong fragrance to attract pollinators

Formation of zygote ANTHER Produces pollen grain which consists male gametes

Development of FILAMENT It forms the stalk that bears anther

zygote into embryo

STIGMA Recievea pollen grain during pollination

Growth and development

Elongated structure, connects stigma and ovary, pollen tube travel
of embryo into a whole STYLE through the style to reach the ovule.
new individual.
OVARY Basal swallen part of pistil, converts into fruit after fertilization.

OVULE Present inside ovary, consists of female gamete, site of fertilization.

 Reproduction in plants

Stamen/Male reproductive organ Pistil/Carpel/Female reproductive organ

BISEXUAL: Both stamen and pistil are UNISEXUAL: either stamen or pistil is
present in a same flower. E.g., Rose, lily present. E.g., Papaya, Watermelon,

PARTS OF SEED

SEED COAT
EMPRYO COTYLEDON
Parts of plants
PLUMULE RADICLE
yaad rakhna
 Reproduction in plants
The process of transferring of pollen grain from anther
Pollination
of a flower to the stigma.

Self pollination Cross pollination

It is transfer of pollen to stigma of the It is the transfer of pollen to stigma of another

same f!ower. flower of the same plant or another plant of
It is occurs only in bisxual flower . same kind.
It does not lead to genetic diversity. It takes place both in unisexual and bisexual
f!owners
It leads to genetic diversity.
 Reproduction in human beings
The period of life when production of germ cells, i.e ova
PUBERTY (female) and sperm (male) start in the body.

IN GIRLS These changes IN BOYS

signs that sexual
Breast size begin to increase. Thick hair growth on face.
Girls begin to menstruate. maturity is taking Voice begin to crack.
Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area. place. Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area.
Skin becomes oily, may result in pimples. Skin becomes oily may result in pimples.

Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of germ-cells from two individuals

Primary sex organs

Males Females

Sperm cell
Human female reproductive system Egg cell
Male sex hormone Female Sex hormones
 Human female reproductive system

Receives the egg produced by the

ovary and transfer it to the uterus.
Ovaries: A pair located on Fertilisation i.e, fusion of gametes takes
both sides of the abdomen. place here.
Function: Produce female germ
cells (eggs).
At birth, thousands of
immature eggs are present.
At puberty, some eggs start
maturing.
It is a bag like structure where
One egg is released monthly
development of the offspring takes
from one ovary.
place.

Ring of muscles that is nearby Gathers sperm deposited by

the lower end of the uterus. the penis, act as birth
channel for a child.
Human male reproductive system
seminal vesicles and prostate gland
add their secretion to the sperms.
It passes sperms from This fluid provide nourishment to
testis upto urethra sperms and make their transport
easy.

Stores urine.

Deposits sperm inside the vagina;

Location: In the scrotum, outside
furthermore disposes of urine
the abdomen.
Function: Produce sperms and
release testosterone.
(i) Regulates sperm production. It is a common passage
(ii) Causes puberty changes like for both sperms and
voice deepening and body hair. urine.

Testes are in the scrotum outside the

abdomen as sperm formation needs lower
temperature than body temperature
 Reproduction in human beings
After copulation, millions of sperms are released during ejaculation.

Sperms swim towards female gamete, with the help of tail.

Only one sperm will fertilizes the egg . The fertilized egg will move towards the uterus.

Zygote develops into an embryo, and after about 8 weeks of development, the embryo becomes a fetus.

Implantation
Placenta
Attachment of The embryo grows inside the mother's womb and gets
growing nourishment from mother's blood through tissue called
embryo to placenta.
Villi on placenta provide a large surface area of glucose
endometrium.
and oxygen to develop embryo.
 Reproduction in human beings
Female ovary
Menopause
[45+] Produces egg ova once a month Menarche
[11-12]
uterus wall become thick

Fertilized by sperm Not fertilized

Pregnancy Menstruation

Menstrual cycle
The uterus prepare itself every month to receive fertilized egg.
The lining of the uterus becomes thick and spongy, required to support the embryo.
When fertilization had not taken place, this lining is not needed any longer.
The lining breaks and comes out through vagina as blood and mucus. This cycle takes around 28 days
every month called menstruation.
 Reproductive health is a condition of overall physical, mental and
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH social prosperity, and not just the nonattendance of reproductive
disease or ailment.

Diseases transmitted to healthy person because

Sexually Transmitted disease (STDs) of matting with contaminated person

Bacterial Viral

Gonorrhoea AIDS
Inflammation of the mucous membrane of urogenital tract, rectum, Is caused by HIV virus. It is fast spreading incurable disease,
victims feels burning and pain during urination. which weakens the body's immune system.
Syphillis Wards
A small bump on the genitas caused by a common st infection.
Is caused by bacterium, which affects the
mucous membrane of genital, rectal area.

Methods and techniques to prevent pregnancy Some common contraceptive devices

Axon
Mechanical method Chemical methods IUCD Surgical method
Vasectomy
Condom PILLS Loop
Tubectomy
Cervical cap Copper T
- RAPID REVISION -

Heredity
 Rapid
Revision

First watch One Shot

 the process of passing down traits and characteristics from parents to their
Heredity: offspring through genes

Variation Importance of Variation Accumulation of Variation

The difference During Reproduction
between individuals in a 1) Variation helps organisms
species or group of adapt to changing environments.
organisms Asexually Sexually
2) It drives the evolution of
new, better-adapted species. Variation are fewer. Variation are large.
Occurs due to small Occurs due to
Environment variation
inaccuracies in DNA crossing over,
separations of
Genetic Variation
chromosomes.

Father of Genetics
The biological science, which deals with the mechanism of
(Gregor Johann
heredity and causes variation called genetics.
"genetics" was coined by English biologist William Bateson
Mendel)
 Acquired Traits Inherited Traits

a) Do not change germ cells Bring changes in germ cells

b) Cannot be passed on to future generations Can be passed on to their progeny

c) Do not lead to evolution May lead to evolution

Example: Losing limbs due to an accident Example: Deformed limbs at birth due to a genetic defect

DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that contains genetic information for the development and
functioning of an organism.

Chromatin: refers to a mixture of DNA and proteins that form the chromosomes found in the cells of
humans and other higher organisms
Chromosomes: is a DNA molecule that consists of a part or all of the genetic material of an organism

Genes: a segment of DNA that is the basic unit of heredity and is passed from parent to child, is a
molecule that contains genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism.
Alleles: a pair of genes that occupy a specific location on a particular chromosome and control the same
trait

Haploid Cells Diploid Cells

Contain one set of chromosomes (n). Contain two sets of chromosomes (2n).

Formed by the process of meiosis. Undergo mitosis for division.

Examples: Sperm and egg cells. Examples: Nerve and muscle cells.

Rules of inheritance
Alleles: a pair of genes that occupy a specific location on a particular chromosome and control the same trait

Recessive allele
Dominant allele
Homozygous Heterozygous
Condition: Condition: The recessive allele is the weaker
The dominant allele is the stronger of the two alleles.
Inherits Inherits
of the two alleles. Represented by a lowercase letter,
identical different
Represented by a capital letter, it it remains suppressed in the
alleles of a alleles of a
determines the dominant traits. presence of a dominant allele.
gene from gene from
Dominant traits manifest in both both parents each parent. Recessive traits are expressed
homozygous and heterozygous only in the homozygous condition.
conditions.

Definitions yaad
- Genotype: The unique DNA sequence or allele combination inherited from rakhna!!
parents.
- Phenotype: Observable traits like appearance and behavior, influenced by
genotype and environment.
 Plant selected by Mendel: Pisum sativum( garden pea) .
Gregor Mendel's experiment
used a number of contrasting characters for garden pea

AnnualI Plant
Mendel's rules for the inheritance of traits.
Short Life
I Cycle
Law of Dominance: In heterozygous pairs, the
Choice of cross or dominant allele masks the recessive one.
Law of Segregation: Traits have two alleles that
Why only pea self-fertilization
separate during gamete formation; one from each
plant? Large no. ofS offsprings parent combines during fertilization.
Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of
Pisum sativum 7 pairs of allelic different genes assort independently into gametes.
characteristics

Mono Hybrid Cross: Cross between two pea plants with one pair of contrasting characters
 Characters/traits like T
are called dominant trait
( because it express
itself ) and t are
recessive traits.

Dihybrid cross: A cross between two plants having two pairs of contrasting characters.

Round, yellow :9
Phenotype ratio Round, green : 3 Parents-> Round green ×
Wrinkled , yellow: 3 wrinkled yellow
Wrinkled, green :1
Sex determination the process through which the sex of a newborn individual is established.

Factors affecting the sex determination

Environmental Genetic
In certain animals, like turtles, the In humans and other animals, gender is
temperature at which fertilized eggs determined by a pair of sex chromosomes.
are kept determines the gender. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
 - RAPID REVISION -

Light- Reflection &

Refraction
 Rapid
Revision

First watch One Shot

 Rectilinear propagation of light - light travels in a straight line.
8
Speed of Light = c = 3 x 10 m/s

Reflection: The bouncing back of light from any shiny surface e.g. mirror or water.

Normal

The Laws of reflection states

that:
1. The Incident ray, the
Reflected ray and Normal
all lie in the same plane.

2. Angle of incidence (∠i) =

The angle of reflection (∠r).
Plane mirror: A smooth and polished surface with very few
bumps that reflects light.

The image formed by a plane mirror is :

always virtual and erect.
size of the image is equal to that of the object.
image formed is as far behind the mirror as the object
is in front of it.
image is laterally inverted.

Spherical mirror: a mirror whose reflecting surface is part of a hollow sphere of glass.

CONCAVE MIRROR CONVEX MIRROR

reflecting surface is
reflecting surface is
curved inwards,
curved outwards.
towards the center of
the sphere
 Terms Definition

The center point of the reflecting surface

Pole (P)
of a spherical mirror.
CONCAVE
Centre of The center of the sphere of which the
Curvature (C) mirror's reflecting surface forms a part. MIRROR
Radius of The radius of the sphere of which the
Curvature (R) mirror's reflecting surface forms a part.

The straight line passing through the pole R = 2f

Principal Axis
and the center of curvature of the mirror.

The point where parallel rays of light

Principal Focus
either converge or appear to diverge after
(F)
reflecting from the mirror. CONVEX
Focal Length
(f)
The distance between the pole and the
principal focus.
MIRROR
The diameter of the reflecting surface of
Aperture
the spherical mirror.
 Ray Diagrams

(i) A ray parallel to principal axis will (iii) A ray passing through center of curvature will
pass through focus after reflection. follow the same path back after reflection.

(ii) A ray passing through the principal focus will (iv) Ray incident at pole is reflected back making
become parallel to principal axis after reflection same angle with principal axis.
Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

Mirror parts ki
definitions orr ray
diagrams kaafi
important h!
Concave Mirror
Uses of Concave Mirrors:
Torches, Search-lights, and Vehicle
Headlights:
Shaving Mirrors
Dentist's Mirrors
Solar Furnaces

Convex Mirror Uses of Convex Mirrors:

Rear-view Mirrors in Vehicles:
Preferred in Vehicles:
Provide erect, though diminished,
images.
Have a wider field of view due to their
outward curve.
Allow drivers to view a larger area
compared to plane mirrors.
 Convention Key Terms

Object Placement Object to the left of the mirror

Distance Measurement Measured from the pole of the mirror

Positive x-axis Right of origin (positive)

Negative x-axis Left of origin (negative)

Positive y-axis Above principal axis (positive)

Negative y-axis Below principal axis (negative)

Important Formulas: Magnification refers to the ratio of the height of an image to the height of an object

or
irr h’ = positive (virtual images)
M ula h’ = negative (real images)
o rm
F m = negative (real)
m = positive (virtual)
 Type of Questions asked?
Step 1 : Firstly check what question is asking and what values are given. Out of u,v,f two
quantities will be given adn you’ll have to find third one.
Step 2 : Use the mirror formula for finding the values,

concave convex from sign of f we can find out

f = always -ve f = always +ve which type of mirror is given
u = always -ve u = always −ve from sign of v we can find out
v = -ve (real) v = always +ve (virtual) the nature of image formed by
= +ve (virtual) concave mirror

Step 3 : if about magnification is asked, use this formula:

concave convex (m > 0): image is upright.

h = +ve (m < 0): The image is inverted
h = +ve
h′ = +ve (upright, virtual)
h′ = +ve (virtual and upright)
= −ve (inverted, real)

from value of ‘m’ we can find out the nature of image formed , from m we can also find the values of h and h’.
also h’ tells about the nature of image, from this we can also get an idea of which type of mirror is present
 Phenomenon of change in the direction of light when it passes from
Refraction of Light one transparent medium to another.

Laws of refraction of light.

(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the
interface of two transparent media at the point of incidence, all
lie in the same plane.

(ii) Snell’s law of refraction.

Refractive index: measurement of how much a light ray bends when

it passes from one medium to another.
 Lenses: A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are spherical.

Term Meaning CONVEX LENS

A lens with two spherical surfaces bulging outwards, thicker in
Convex Lens
the middle than at the edges. (Converging Lens)

A lens with two spherical surfaces curved inwards, thicker at the

Concave Lens
edges than at the middle. (Diverging Lens)

Centre of Curvature
The center of the sphere from which the lens surface is a part.
(C, C1, C2)

An imaginary straight line passing through the two centers of

Principal Axis
curvature of a lens.
CONCAVE LENS
The central point of a lens where a ray of light passes without
Optical Centre (O)
deviation.

Aperture The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens.

Principal Focus (F, The point where rays of light parallel to the principal axis
F1, F2) converge (convex) or appear to diverge (concave).

The distance between the principal focus and the optical centre
Focal Length (f)
of a lens.
 Ray Diagrams

(i) A ray of light from the object, (iii) A ray of light passing through the optical
parallel to the principal axis centre of a lens

(ii) A ray of light passing through a principal

focus

One of the most

important
chapter!
Convex Lens Concave Lens
Convex Lens
Uses of Convex Lens:
overhead projector
camera
focus sunlight
simple telescope
projector microscope
magnifying glasses

Uses of Concave Lens:

Concave Lens spy holes in the doors
glasses
some telescopes
 Important Formulas of Lens:
All measurements are taken from the optical centre of the lens.
focal length of a convex lens = positive, and that of a concave lens = negative.
Lens formula: Magnification:

Power of Lens: The ability of a lens to converge or diverge the ray of light after refraction
through it is called the power of the lens. It is defined as the reciprocal of focal length. ‘
SI unit = Dioptre (D)
1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length Formulas
is 1 metre. 1D = 1m.-1 yaad rakhna!

power of a convex lens = positive

power of concave lens = negative.
 Type of Questions asked?
Step 1 : Firstly check what question is asking and what values are given. Out of u,v,f two
quantities will be given adn you’ll have to find third one.
Step 2 : Use the lens formula for finding the values,

concave convex from sign of f we can find out

f = always −ve f = always +ve which type of lens is present
u = always −ve u = always −ve from sign of v we can find out
v = always −ve v = +ve (real image) the nature of image formed by
= −ve(virtual image) convex lens

Step 3 : if about magnification is asked, use this formula:

concave convex (m > 0): image is upright.

h = +ve h = +ve (m < 0): The image is inverted
h′ = +ve (virtual and upright) h′ = +ve (upright, virtual)
= −ve (inverted, real)

from value of ‘m’ we can find out the nature of image formed , from m we can also find the values of h and h’.
also h’ tells about the nature of image, from this we can also get an idea of which type of lens which is present
 if further power of lens is asked

Step 4 : here f will be given or we’ll have to find from above formulas, then

Convex Concave
f = always +ve f = always −ve

formula used:

P (convex lens) = positive power (concave lens) = negative.

from sign of P we can get an idea of type of lens used

 More Types:
screen vaale questions
a slide projector has lens and other quantities are given. Position of screen is asked that
slide projector remains in focus

Refractive indexes and speed of light in medium

refractive indexes are given of particular medium and speed of light is also then asked
what will be the speed of light in those mediums.

formula used:
Human Eye
and the Colorful World
 Rapid
Revision
First watch One Shot
 Human eye: Types of Neuron:
Sense organ for vision, located in the eye sockets of the skull; it helps
us see by detecting light and colors.

Lens: Fibrous, jelly-like, convex; Ciliary Muscles: Hold and adjust

Aqueous Humor: Clear fluid focuses light on the retina, creating the lens curvature for focus.
between cornea and lens; maintains a real, inverted image.
eye pressure and nourishes cornea
and lens.
Retina: Delicate membrane with
light-sensitive cells.
Pupil: Small opening in the iris; Rods: Detect light intensity.
controls light entry into the eye. Cones: Detect primary colors.

Iris: Ring-like, muscular tissue Optic Nerve: Transmits visual

behind the cornea; determines eye information from the retina to the
color and adjusts pupil size. brain.

Cornea: Outermost transparent

Vitreous Humor: Provides nutrients
part; provides most light refraction.
and maintains eye shape.

Sclera: Tough, white outer covering of the eye; provides protection.

 Power of Accommodation
The ability of the human eye to focus on objects at different distances by changing the focal length of
the eye lens, controlled by ciliary muscles.

Near point: Far point:

Minimum distance for clear vision without Maximum distance seen clearly,
strain, typically 25 cm for a normal eye. normally at infinity.

ciliary ciliary
muscles muscles

relaxed contract

Lens becomes Lens becomes

thin thick

focal length Focal length

increases decreases
 Defects of Vision & their Correlation
Defect Description Cause Correction Image Formation

- Excessive curvature
- Can see nearby objects clearly but
Myopia (Near- of the eye lens. Concave lens of Image forms in
not distant ones.
sightedness) - Elongation of the suitable power. front of the retina.
- Far point is closer than infinity.
eyeball.

- Can see distant objects clearly - Focal length of eye

Hypermetropia Convex lens of Image forms
but not nearby ones. lens is too long.
(Far-sightedness) appropriate power. behind the retina.
- Near point is farther than 25 cm. - Eyeball is too small.

- Weakening of ciliary Bifocal lenses

- Difficulty seeing nearby objects Image formation
muscles. (concave for
Presbyopia due to aging. issues corrected
- Reduced flexibility of distance, convex for
- Near point recedes with age. with bifocal lenses.
the eye lens. near vision).

- Cannot focus on both horizontal - Irregularly shaped Image clarity

Astigmatism and vertical lines simultaneously. cornea or distorted Cylindrical lens. varies based on
- Objects clear in one plane only. lens. plane.
Defects of Vision & their Correlation cataract

cloudy or blurry vision

Causes: age related

condition, weakening of eye
muscles

treatment: surgery.

Gives a wider field of view.

Enhances the ability to detect faint objects.
Defects ko
Provides three dimensional view. acche se
padhna!
 Refraction through a glass prism
Prism: Transparent refracting
medium. Structure: Two
triangular bases, three
rectangular lateral surfaces.
Angle of Prism: Angle between
two lateral faces.
Angle of Deviation: Angle
between incident and emergent
rays.

Dispersion of white light..

Dispersion of White Light: Splitting of white light into seven colors when passing through a prism.
Spectrum: The band of seven colors formed.
Color Sequence: VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red).
Causes:
Varying refraction indices of different colours.
wavelength of light when passing through transparent medium like prism.
 Newton’s Experiment: Used a second inverted prism to recombine the spectrum into white light, proving sunlight
is made up of seven colors.
White Light: Any light producing a similar spectrum to sunlight is called white light.

Red is the least deviated colour as it has largest/longest wavelength.

Violet is the most deviated colour as it has smallest wavelength in visible spectrum.

Natural spectrum: Rainbow :

Refraction of Sunlight Dispersion into Colors Internal Reflection Refraction Again

Rainbow: A natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain

shower, caused by the dispersion of sunlight by tiny water
droplets in the atmosphere.

Mechanism: Water droplets act like prisms, refracting and dispersing sunlight,
reflecting it internally, and refracting it again.
Color Sequence: Red at the top, violet at the bottom.
Formation Direction: Always opposite to the sun.
 Atmospheric Refraction

The refraction of light caused by the Earth‘s atmosphere (having air layers of varying optical densities)

Stars Twinkle Advanced Sunrise & Why Planets Don’t Twinkle

Delayed Sunset:
Caused by atmospheric refraction; Planets are closer and seen as
starlight bends as it enters Earth's Sun appears ~2 minutes before sunrise and after extended sources, averaging out the
atmosphere, causing stars to appear sunset due to atmospheric refraction. The Sun's light variations and reducing the
to change position and flicker. disc also appears flattened at these times. twinkling effect.
 Scattering of Light

Scattering of light occurs when light is absorbed by particles and then re-emitted in different directions.

Red Sun at Sunrise/Sunset Blue Sky

During sunrise and sunset, sunlight travels a longer due to the scattering of sunlight by small air molecules and
distance through the atmosphere. Blue light is scattered fine particles. Blue light, having a shorter wavelength,
away, while red light, with a longer wavelength, reaches the scatters more than red light, making the sky appear blue.
observer's eyes, making the sun appear red.

Tyndall Effect:

Light scatters when it strikes particles in a colloid, making the

light path visible.
Seen in sunlight passing through mist or a dense forest canopy.
Smaller particles scatter blue light, while larger particles scatter
red light.
 - RAPID REVISION -

Electricity
 Rapid
Revision

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 Electricity

Electric charge Electric potential & Resistance Electric power

potential difference

Electric current Laws related to.

electric current
N
Electric circuit and it's effect
Diagram
Ohm's law Joule's law of heating

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

Allow Current to pass Medium Conductivity Don’t allow Current to pass

 physical property of matter that causes it to experience a
Electric Charge force when placed in an electromagnetic field.
S.I. Unit: Coulomb (C)

Positive charge : Loss of electron Negative charge : Gain of electron

Properties:
1. Additivity of Charge :Total charge =Nsum of all charges on the body.
2. Charge is Conserved : Charge cannot be created or destroyed.
3. Charge is Invariant : Charge value remains the same, regardless of speed.
4. Quantization of Charge : Charge is a multiple of electron charge:

Q = ne.
For a material to be a good conductor
of electricity, it must have free charge
e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C. carriers like electrons or ions that can
move freely within it.
 Electric Current
Flow of electric charge through a conductor.
Unit: Ampere (A) → 1 A = 1 C/s.

I = current, Q = charge, t = time.

1 Ampere: When 1C of charge flows in 1 second then current is said to be 1A.

Ammeter: Measures and shows the intensity Nof electric current.

Milliammeter: Measures small electric currents.
Galvanometer: Detects and measures tiny electric currents.
Voltmeter: Measures electric potential difference between two points in a circuit

Potential Difference
The work done to move a unit positive charge
between two points. Unit: Volt (V) → 1 V = 1 J/C.

1 Volt:1 Joule of work done to move 1 unit

V = W/Q
positive charge between two points.
Type of Questions asked?

Step 1 : Firstly check what question is asking and write given, to find from question .
Out of V,W,Q two quantities will be given and you’ll have to find third one.
Also you might need to find out Q from the formulas:

I = Q/t or through Q = ne

Step 2 : Then use the give formula to find unknowns:

V = W/Q

*Don’t forget to write units*

Electric Circuit
A continuous path for current flow, consisting of a power
source, conductor, and load.

A schematic diagram of an electric circuit

comprising – cell, electric bulb, ammeter and
plug key
 Ohm’s Law
Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends, at a constant temperature

Resistance: Property of a conductor that resists the flow of charges. Unit: Ohm (Ω).

Factors Affecting Resistance:

Length (l): R∝l
Area (A): R∝1/A
Material: Different materials have different resistivities (ρ).
Type of Questions asked?

Step 1 : Firstly check what question is asking and write given, to find from question .
Out of V,I,R two quantities will be given and you’ll have to find third one. Other
information might also be provided to find other two values.

For V; V = W/Q For I; I = Q/t For R; R = ρl/A

Questions like what
will happen to
resistance if we
double area or length?
Step 2 : Then finally use Ohm’s Law:
V = IR

*Don’t forget to write units*

 Resistance Resistivity

Opposition to the flow of electric current in a substance. Resistance of a material with unit length and unit cross-sectional area.

Extrinsic property. Intrinsic property.

Depends on length and size of the conductor. Independent of length or size of the conductor.

Unit: ohm (Ω). Unit: ohm-meter (Ω·m).

Electric circuit

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Current remains the same through all resistors. Current divides inversely proportional to resistance.

Voltage divides across resistors based on resistance. Voltage remains the same across all resistors.
Derivations
Electric circuit
 Type of Questions asked?
Analyze the circuit and see if resistance are in which connection

Series Parallel Mixed

1. Calculate reciprocal of each resistance
1 . Add individual resistances 1. Simplify circuit by identifying
(1/R1, 1/R2, ...).
(Rt = R1 + R2 + ...). series and parallel combinations.
3. Add reciprocals
3. Use Ohm's Law to find total 2. Calculate total resistance for each
(1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + ...).
current (I = V/Rt). combination.
4. Take reciprocal of total reciprocal
4. Find voltage across each 3. Use Ohm's Law to find currents
resistance (Rt = 1/(1/Rt)).
resistor (V = I x R). and voltages.
5. Use Ohm's Law to find total current
(I = V/Rt).
6. Find current through each resistor
(I = V/R).

Ques practice
ache se karna!!
 Heating effect of electric current

Joules Law oh Heating ; Heat is proportional to the square of the current, resistance, and
time.
For a current I flowing through a resistor of resistance R with a
potential difference V, the work done to move a charge Q across the
resistor is VQ. The power input to the circuit is:
Applications;
Electric Bulb: has a tungsten filament inside
a neutral gas or vacuum. When current passes
through, the filament heats up and emits
The energy supplied by the source in time t is VIt. This energy is light, with most energy lost as heat.
dissipated as heat in the resistor, so the heat produced is: Electric Fuse: is a low melting point wire in a
circuit. If current rises suddenly, the wire
melts, breaking the circuit and preventing
Using Ohm's law, V=IR, the heat can also be expressed as:
damage.
Electric Heater: use a nichrome coil with
high resistance to generate heat when
current flows.
 Power (P): Rate of energy consumption.​
Electric Power : Unit: Watt (W) → 1 W = 1 J/s.

1 watt is the power consumed by a device carrying 1A of current at

1V. In practice, a larger unit, the kilowatt (1000 watts), is used.

energy used by a circuit to allow current flow. It is the product

Electric Energy : of power and time, measured in watt-hours (Wh).

Commercial Unit of Energy:

One watt-hour is the energy used when 1 watt of power is consumed for 1 hour. The commercial unit
of electric energy is the kilowatt-hour (kWh), also called a "unit."
 Type of Questions asked?
Steps to solve numericals based on heating effect of electric current

Step 1: Read the question carefully. Identify the given values (V, I, R) and determine what needs to be found.
Out of voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R), two values will be given, and you'll have to find the third.
Other information might be provided to calculate remaining values like power or heat.
Step 2: Use Ohm’s Law: V=IR
Ensure all units are correct before proceeding.
Step 3: For heat produced:

or

Step 4:
For power calculation:

Step 5:
Substitute the values into the appropriate formulas and calculate the required quantity. Always check your
units at the end.
 - RAPID REVISION -

Magnetic Effect of
Electric Current
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Revision

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Hans Christian Oersted (1820): Discovered that electric current deflects a compass
needle, proving the link between electricity and magnetism.

Hans
Christian
Oersted
Magnet: is any substance that attracts iron or iron like substances.
Properties of Bar Magnet:
A freely suspended bar magnet aligns in the Earth's north-south direction.
Attractive and Repulsive Forces: Like poles repel, opposite poles attract.
Dipole Nature: Always has two poles (north and south); cutting the magnet Horseshoe Bar
creates smaller magnets, each with two poles.
shaped magnet
Creates a magnetic field around it where its effect can be felt.
It retains its magnetic properties over time.

Magnetic Field: is the area around a magnet in which the effect of magnetism is felt.

Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines that show the strength and direction of a magnetic
field.
Properties of Magnetic Filed Lines:
Magnetic field lines start at the north pole and end at the south pole.
Closer lines mean a stronger magnetic field (near poles).
Field lines never cross each other.
They form closed continuous curves.
They show the direction of magnetic force.
 Maxwell's Right Hand Thumb Rule
The rule states that if a straight conductor carrying current is held in the right hand such
that the thumb is pointed in the direction of the current, then the direction in which your
fingers encircle the wire gives the direction of the magnetic lines of force around the wire

Thumb = upwards, curled fingers = magnetic field (clockwise), the field direction = anticlockwise.
Thumb = downwards, curled fingers = magnetic field (anticlockwise), the field direction = clockwise.

concentric circles with their

Magnetic field lines due to Straight conductor centers on the conductor
Magnetic field lines due to current carrying loop

circular pattern
around the arms

straight at the center of the loop

Magnetic field lines due to Solenoid electromagnet.

A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped

closely in the shape of a cylinder.
Outside the solenoid: North to South
Inside the solenoid: South to North
Factors: number of turns in the coil, amount of current flowing
through it, radius of coil, Material of core of the solenoid.
Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in an external magnetic field, the
conductor experiences a force which is mutually perpendicular to both the Magnetic
field and to the direction of the current flow.
Stretch the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of your left hand perpendicular
to each other.
Forefinger = Magnetic field direction, Middle finger = Current direction, Thumb = Force/motion direction.

1/100 second in India, i.e. the

frequency of A.C in India is 50 Hz. Domestic Circuit Potential Difference in India:
220V at 50Hz.

Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)

AC can travel safely over long distances, even between cities. DC cannot travel long distances; it loses power.

Frequency is 50 or 60 Hz, depending on the country. DC has zero frequency.

Current direction reverses periodically. Current flows steadily in one direction.

Cheaper then DC generation Expensive then AC generation

Power sockets (15A): For high-power
appliances (geyser, fridge, AC).

Normal sockets (5A): For low-power

appliances (TV, bulbs, fans).
Short Circuit : occurs when a live wire and a neutral wire come into direct contact, causing a sudden
and large amount of current to flow in the circuit.
Reasons: damage of insulation in power lines, fault in an electrical appliance.

Overloading: If the total current drawn through a wire by the appliances connected to it exceeds the
safety limit for that wire, it gets overheated.

Electrical fuse: is a low melting point copper or other metal wire that breaks due
to heat caused by overvoltage or high load to avoid short circuit or failure to the
device.

Ekdum simple
chapter!
 - RAPID REVISION -

Our Environment
 Rapid
Revision

First watch One Shot

Environment: Coordination
everything that is around us, which includes both living and nonliving things such as
soil, water, animals and plants, which adapt themselves to their surroundings.

a community of living organisms and their physical

Ecosystem environment that interact together in a specific area

Natural ecosystem Artificial ecosystem

The ecosystem which exist in nature on its own. Man-made ecosystem.
Example: forest, lake, ocean. (Aquarium, Garden, Crop field etc )

Aquatic Territorial

Marine Fresh water

Forest Desert Grassland
 Components of Ecosystem
Living Organism Non living organisms
Biotic components Aboitic Components

Autotrophs Heterotrophs
Physical factors Chemical factors
Producers Consumers Decomposers
Air
Protein,
All green plants and Include all animals Include organisms which Organic
fats
blue green algae can which depend on decompose the dead plants Water
produce their own food producers directly or and animals. Example:
using abiotic factors. indirectly for their food bacteria, fungi, earthworms Minerals
Hydrogen,
Inorganic
(i) Herbivores: Plant Eaters Oxygen
e.g., goat, deer, etc. Soil

(ii) Carnivores: Flesh Eaters

e.g., tiger, crocodile, etc.
Fundamental energy driving
(iii) Omnivores: Eat both plants
and animals e.g., human. our climate system Sunlight
 Environment Ecosystem

The physical and biological surroundings where A system where living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)
organisms live. components interact.

Includes all the external conditions affecting an Includes interactions like food chains, food webs,
organism's life. and nutrient cycles.

Environment changes as an organism moves from one Ecosystems remain stable regardless of an
place to another. organism's movement.

Focuses on the physical surroundings like air, water, Focuses on interactions between biotic and abiotic
and land. factors like plants, animals, and sunlight.

Environment does not depend directly on life Ecosystems depend on processes like photosynthesis
processes. and decomposition.
How Ecosystem works?
 Food Chain: Food Web:
A series of organisms feeding on one A food web is a network of interconnected
another. food chains showing complex feeding
relationships in an ecosystem.
It demonstrates how each organism can be
consumed by multiple organisms and vice versa.
Trophic level
It is the position an organism occupies in a food chain, based
on its role in the flow of energy

First Level: Autotrophs/Producers (e.g., green plants)

Fix solar energy and convert it into chemical energy.
Second Level: Herbivores/Primary Consumers
Third Level: Small carnivores/Secondary Consumers
Fourth Level: Larger carnivores/Tertiary Consumers

ENERGY FLOW:

The 10% law of energy transfer, proposed by Raymond Lindeman, states that only 10% of the
energy from one trophic level is passed on to the next level in a food chain. The remaining 90%
is lost as heat, during movement, growth, and other life processes.
 KEY OBSERVATIONS about ENERGY FLOW:
Green plants capture 1% of solar energy falling on their leaves.
At each trophic level:
Heat loss: A large part of energy is lost as heat to the environment.
10% Rule: Only 10% of the consumed energy is converted into biomass and made available
to the next level.
Due to energy loss, food chains are usually limited to 3-4 levels.
Producers are the most numerous, with numbers decreasing progressively at higher trophic
levels.

BIO MAGNIFICATION
Progressive accumulation of harmful chemicals (e.g.,
pesticides) in organisms at higher trophic levels.
 Food Chain Food Web

A linear sequence of organisms where each is eaten by A complex network of interconnected food chains in an
the next organism. ecosystem.

Simple and straightforward, showing one pathway of Complex and branched, showing multiple pathways of
energy flow. energy flow.

Each organism is linked to only one other organism at the Each organism is connected to multiple organisms at
next trophic level. different trophic levels.

Less stable; affected if one organism is removed from More stable; removal of one organism has less impact
the chain. due to multiple connections.

Energy flows in a single direction (unidirectional). Energy flows through multiple interconnected pathways.

Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Example: Grass is eaten by grasshoppers, rabbits, or
Hawk deer, which are eaten by frogs, hawks, or lions.
 Ozone Layer and its Depletion :
OZONE: Molecule made of three oxygen atoms.
Protects Earth from harmful UV radiation, which can
cause skin cancer in humans.

Ozone is formed when UV rays split oxygen molecules

(O₂), and free oxygen atoms combine with O₂ to form
ozone (O₃):
O₂ → O + O (by UV rays) Stratosphere
O + O₂ → O₃ (ozone formation)

Depletion
of Ozone
Layer:
 Improvements in lifestyle have resulted in
Garbage disposal : accumulation of large amounts of waste material.

Types of waste
Ozone depletion

Biodegradable Non biodegradable

Waste materials that can be Waste materials that Air, soil and
broken down into simpler cannot be broken down by water pollution
substances by natural processes natural processes and Harmful
such as the action of remain in the environment effects of
microorganisms (bacteria and for a long time. waste
fungi). Bioaccumulation
Examples: Plastic, glass,
Examples: Food waste, paper, and metals.
cotton, and vegetable peels.
Bio magnification
 Some methods of Waste disposal

CHALLENGES: Improper disposal of plastics and electronic waste harms the soil and water.
Recycling processes, like for plastics, may also have environmental impacts.
Q. What is the main cause of ozone layer depletion?

(a) Carbon dioxide

(b) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
(c) Methane
(d) Sulphur dioxide
Bataaooo!
Q. What percentage of energy is transferred from
one trophic level to the next in a food chain?

(a) 1%
(b) 5%
(c) 10%
(d) 50% Bataaooo!