1.

What are the services provided by OS

Ans: Theoperating system is a system program that serves as an interface

between the computing system and the end-user. Operating systems create an
environment where the user can run any programs or communicate with
software or applications in a comfortable and well-organized way.
It also helps manage the software/hardware resource, such as file management,
memory management, input/ output and many peripheral devices like a disk
drive, printers, etc. These are the popular operating system: Linux OS, Windows
OS, Mac OS, VMS, OS/400 etc.

services provided by an operating system -

o Program execution
o Control Input/output devices
o Program creation
o Error Handling
o Accounting
o Security and Protection
o File Management
o Communication

Program Execution:

It is the Operating System that manages how a program is going to be

executed. It loads the program into the memory after which it is executed. The
order in which they are executed depends on the CPU Scheduling Algorithms.
no two processes come for execution at the same time. The Operating System
is responsible for the smooth execution of both user and system programs.

Program Creation

The Operating system offers the structures and tools, including editors and
debuggers, to help the programmer create, modify, and debugging programs.

Error Handling:

The Operating System also handles the error occurring in the CPU, in Input-
Output devices. It fixes the errors and also prevents the process from coming
to a deadlock. It also looks for any type of error or bugs that can occur while
any task.
While working with computers, errors may occur quite often. Errors may occur
in the:
o Input/ Output devices: For example, connection failure in the network,
lack of paper in the printer, etc.
o User program: For example: attempt to access illegal memory locations,
divide by zero, use too much CPU time, etc.
o Memory hardware: For example, Memory error, the memory becomes
full, etc.

To handle these errors and other types of possible errors, the operating system
takes appropriate action and generates messages to ensure correct and consistent
computing.

File management

Computers keep data and information on secondary storage devices like

magnetic tape, magnetic disk, optical disk, etc. Each storage media has its
capabilities like speed, capacity, data transfer rate, and data access methods.

For file management, the operating system must know the types of different
files and the characteristics of different storage devices. It has to offer the
proportion and safety mechanism of documents additionally.

Communication: The operating system manages the exchange of data and

programs among different computers connected over a network. This
communication is accomplished using message passing and shared memory.
2.Explain the types of structures of OS with diagrams
Ans: Simple Structure

It is the simplest Operating System Structure and is not well defined; It can
only be used for small and limited systems. In this structure, the interfaces and
levels of functionality are well separated;

 The MS-DOS operating System is made up of various layers, each with

its own set of functions.
 These layers are:
o Application Program
o System Program
o MS-DOS device drivers
o ROM BIOS device drivers
 Layering has an advantage in the MS-DOS operating system since all
the levels can be defined separately and can interact with each other
when needed.
 It is easier to design, maintain, and update the system if it is made in
layers. So that's why limited systems with less complexity can be
constructed easily using Simple Structure.
 If one user program fails, the entire operating system gets crashed.

Layered Approach

In this type of structure, OS is divided into layers or levels. The hardware is on

the bottom layer (layer 0), while the user interface is on the top layer (layer N).
These layers are arranged in a hierarchical way in which the top-level layers
use the functionalities of their lower-level levels.

In layered structure, debugging is easier as it is a hierarchical model, so all

lower-level layered is debugged, and then the upper layer is checked. So all
the lower layers are already checked, and the current layer is to be checked
only.

Layer 0: Memory Management

Layer 1: Input or Output
Layer 2 : File management
Layer 3: User interface

Micro-kernel

Micro-Kernel structure designs the Operating System by removing all non-

essential components of the kernel. These non-essential components
of kernels are implemented as systems and user programs. Hence these
implemented systems are called as Micro-Kernels.

Each Micro-Kernel is made independently and is isolated from other Micro-

Kernels. So this makes the system more secure and reliable. If any Micro-
Kernel fails, then the remaining operating System remains untouched and
works fine.

Modular structure or approach:

It is considered as the best approach for an OS. It involves designing of a
modular kernel. The kernel has only set of core components and other services
are added as dynamically loadable modules to the kernel either during run
time or boot time. each kernel has defined and protected interfaces but it is more
flexible than the layered structure as a module can call any other module.
3. What is a System call. Explain the types of System calls in
windows & Unix OS

Ans: A system call is a method for a computer program to request a service

from the kernel of the operating system on which it is running. A system call is
a method of interacting with the operating system via programs. A system call is
a request from computer software to an operating system's kernel.

The Application Program Interface (API) connects the operating system's

functions to user programs. It acts as a link between the operating system and a
process, allowing user-level programs to request operating system services. The
kernel system can only be accessed using system calls. System calls are
required for any programs that use resources.

A system call can be written in assembly language or a high-level language

like C or Pascal. System calls are predefined functions that the operating
system may directly invoke if a high-level language is used.
Types of System Calls

There are commonly five types of system calls. These are as follows:

1. Process Control
2. File Management
3. Device Management
4. Information Maintenance
5. Communication
Process Control

Process control is the system call that is used to direct the processes. Some
process control examples include creating, load, abort, end, execute, process,
terminate the process, etc.

File Management

File management is a system call that is used to handle the files. Some file
management examples include creating files, delete files, open, close, read,
write, etc.

Device Management

Device management is a system call that is used to deal with devices. Some
examples of device management include read, device, write, get device
attributes, release device, etc.

Information Maintenance

Information maintenance is a system call that is used to maintain information.

There are some examples of information maintenance, including getting system
data, set time or date, get time or date, set system data, etc.

Communication

Communication is a system call that is used for communication. There are some
examples of communication, including create, delete communication
connections, send, receive messages, etc.

Examples of Windows and Unix system calls

There are various examples of Windows and Unix system calls. These are as
listed below in the table:
 Process Windows Unix

Process Control CreateProcess() Fork()

ExitProcess() Exit()
WaitForSingleObject() Wait()

File Manipulation CreateFile() Open()

ReadFile() Read()
WriteFile() Write()
CloseHandle() Close()

Device Management SetConsoleMode() Ioctl()

ReadConsole() Read()
WriteConsole() Write()

Information Maintenance GetCurrentProcessID() Getpid()

SetTimer() Alarm()
Sleep() Sleep()

Communication CreatePipe() Pipe()

CreateFileMapping() Shmget()
MapViewOfFile() Mmap()

Protection SetFileSecurity() Chmod()

InitializeSecurityDescriptor() Umask()
SetSecurityDescriptorgroup() Chown()

4.Difference between Concurrent programming and Parallel

programming

Ans: Concurrency:
Concurrency relates to an application that is processing more than one task at
the same time. Concurrency is an approach that is used for decreasing the
response time of the system by using the single processing unit.

Parallelism:
Parallelism is related to an application where tasks are divided into smaller sub-
tasks that are processed seemingly simultaneously or parallel.
It enables single sequential CPUs to do lot of things “seemingly”
simultaneously.
S.N
O Concurrency Parallelism

Concurrency is the task of running and While parallelism is the task of

1. managing the multiple computations at the running multiple computations
same time. simultaneously.

Concurrency is achieved through the

While it is achieved by through
interleaving operation of processes on the
2. multiple central processing
central processing unit(CPU) or in other
units(CPUs).
words by the context switching.

While this can’t be done by

Concurrency can be done by using a single using a single processing unit.
3.
processing unit. it needs multiple processing
units.

While it improves the

Concurrency increases the amount of work
4. throughput and computational
finished at a time.
speed of the system.

Concurrency deals lot of things While it do lot of things

5.
simultaneously. simultaneously.

Concurrency is the non-deterministic While it is deterministic control

6.
control flow approach. flow approach.

While in this debugging is also

7. In concurrency debugging is very hard. hard but simple than
concurrency.

1. Explain about the following commands Sudo, su, sudo, cat, man,
ls, kill, ps, top, more, less, head, tail, info

Here's an explanation of the commands you mentioned:

1. **sudo**: "sudo" stands for "Superuser Do" and is used in Unix-
based systems to execute commands with administrative privileges.
It allows regular users to perform tasks that are typically reserved for
the root user or system administrator.

2. **su**: "su" stands for "Switch User" and is used to switch to

another user account. By default, it switches to the root user, but you
can specify a different user by providing their username as an
argument.

3. **sudo**: It seems that you've repeated the "sudo" command.

Please provide another command, and I'll explain it.

4. **cat**: "cat" is short for "concatenate" and is used to display the

contents of one or more files on the terminal. It can also be used to
create new files or concatenate multiple files into a single file.

5. **man**: "man" is short for "manual" and is used to display the

manual pages for various commands and system functions. It
provides detailed information, including usage, options, and
examples, about a specific command.

6. **ls**: "ls" stands for "list" and is used to list files and directories
in a directory. It displays the names of files and directories in the
specified location, allowing you to see what files and directories are
present.

7. **kill**: "kill" is used to terminate or send signals to running

processes. By default, it sends the "SIGTERM" signal to gracefully
stop a process, but you can specify different signals or send a
"SIGKILL" signal to force a process to stop immediately.

8. **ps**: "ps" stands for "process status" and is used to display

information about active processes on the system. It provides a
snapshot of currently running processes, including their process IDs
(PIDs), CPU and memory usage, and other details.

9. **top**: "top" is a real-time monitoring command that displays

system resource usage and information about running processes. It
shows a dynamic, constantly updating view of processes and their
resource consumption, such as CPU usage, memory usage, and more.

10. **more**: "more" is a command used to view the contents of a

file one page at a time. It allows you to scroll through the file using
the Enter key or the spacebar.

11. **less**: "less" is similar to "more" and is also used to view file
contents. However, it provides more advanced features like backward
scrolling, searching, and navigation within the file.

12. **head**: "head" is used to display the first few lines of a file. By
default, it displays the first 10 lines, but you can specify a different
number using the "-n" option.

13. **tail**: "tail" is used to display the last few lines of a file. By
default, it displays the last 10 lines, but you can specify a different
number using the "-n" option.
14. **info**: "info" is a command used to view the documentation
for a command or system function in the GNU Info format. It provides
more detailed and structured information compared to the
traditional man pages.

These commands are commonly used in Unix-based systems like

Linux to perform various tasks and manage the system efficiently.

2. Explain about the Linux file system with a neat diagram

 A Linux file system is a structured collection of files

on a disk drive or a partition.
 A partition is a segment of memory and contains
some specific data. In our machine, there can be
various partitions of the memory. Generally, every
partition contains a file system.
 Linux file system is generally a built-in layer of
a Linux operating system used to handle the data
management of the storage. It helps to arrange the
file on the disk storage. It manages the file name,
file size, creation date, and much more information
about a file.
o (root filesystem): It is the top-level filesystem
directory. It must include every file needed to boot
the Linux system before another filesystem is
mounted. Every other filesystem is mounted on a
well-defined and standard mount point because of
the root filesystem directories after the system is
started.
o /boot: It includes the static kernel and bootloader
configuration and executable files needed to start
a Linux computer.
o /bin: This directory includes user executable files.
o /dev: It includes the device file for all hardware
devices connected to the system. These aren't
device drivers; instead, they are files that indicate
all devices on the system and provide access to
these devices.
o /etc: It includes the local system configuration files
for the host system.
o /lib: It includes shared library files that are needed
to start the system.
o /home: The home directory storage is available for
user files. All users have a subdirectory inside
/home.
 o /mnt: It is a temporary mount point for basic
filesystems that can be used at the time when the
administrator is working or repairing a filesystem.
o /media: A place for mounting external removable
media devices like USB thumb drives that might be
linked to the host.
o /opt: It contains optional files like vendor supplied
application programs that must be placed here.
o /root: It's the home directory for a root user. Keep
in mind that it's not the '/' (root) file system.
o /tmp: It is a temporary directory used by the OS
and several programs for storing temporary files.
Also, users may temporarily store files here.
Remember that files may be removed without prior
notice at any time in this directory.
o /sbin: These are system binary files. They are
executables utilized for system administration.
o /usr: They are read-only and shareable files,
including executable libraries and binaries, man
files, and several documentation types.
o /var: Here, variable data files are saved. It can
contain things such as MySQL, log files, other
database files, email inboxes, web server data
files, and much more.

3. With examples explain the directory and file commands.

Directory Commands:
1. cd: Used to change the current working directory.
 Example: cd Documents changes the current directory to
"Documents".
2. pwd: Prints the current working directory.
 Example: pwd returns "/home/user/Documents".
3. mkdir: Creates a new directory.
  Example: mkdir Pictures creates a directory named "Pictures".
4. rmdir: Removes an empty directory.
 Example: rmdir Pictures removes the directory named "Pictures".
5. ls: Lists files and directories in the current directory.
 Example: ls displays the files and directories in the current
directory.
6. cp: Copies files and directories.
 Example: cp file.txt /path/to/destination copies "file.txt" to the
specified destination.
7. mv: Moves or renames files and directories.
 Example: mv file.txt newfile.txt renames "file.txt" to "newfile.txt".
8. rm: Removes files and directories.
 Example: rm file.txt deletes the file named "file.txt".
File Commands:
1. touch: Creates an empty file or updates the access timestamp of an
existing file.
 Example: touch file.txt creates a new empty file named "file.txt".
2. cat: Displays the contents of a file.
 Example: cat file.txt prints the contents of "file.txt" to the
terminal.
3. head: Displays the first few lines of a file.
 Example: head file.txt shows the first 10 lines of "file.txt".
4. tail: Displays the last few lines of a file.
 Example: tail file.txt shows the last 10 lines of "file.txt".
5. cp: Copies a file to a new location.
 Example: cp file.txt /path/to/destination creates a copy of
"file.txt" at the specified destination.
6. mv: Moves or renames a file.
  Example: mv file.txt newlocation/file.txt moves "file.txt" to the
"newlocation" directory.
7. rm: Removes a file.
 Example: rm file.txt deletes the file named "file.txt".
8. chmod: Changes the permissions of a file.
 Example: chmod 644 file.txt sets the file permissions to read and
write for the owner, and read-only for others.
9. chown: Changes the owner of a file.
 Example: chown user file.txt changes the owner of "file.txt" to the
specified user.

4. What is the purpose of ssh command and write the steps for
this process
The ssh command is used to establish a secure and encrypted connection to a
remote server or device over a network. It allows you to log in to and execute
commands on the remote system securely.
Here are the steps involved in using the ssh command:
1. Check for SSH: Ensure that the remote server you want to connect to has
SSH installed and running. Most Linux distributions have SSH pre-
installed, but if not, you may need to install the SSH server software.
2. Open Terminal: Open the terminal or command prompt on your local
machine from which you want to initiate the SSH connection.
3. SSH Syntax: The basic syntax of the ssh command is as follows:
ssh [options] [username@]hostname
 [options]: Specifies additional options for the SSH connection. For
example, you can use -p to specify a different port number if the SSH
server is running on a non-standard port.
 [username@]hostname: Specifies the username and hostname or IP
address of the remote server you want to connect to.
4. Connect to Remote Server: Use the ssh command with the appropriate
options and the target server's details to initiate the connection. For example:
ssh username@hostname
Replace username with your username on the remote server, and hostname
with the hostname or IP address of the remote server.

5. Provide Credentials: After executing the ssh command, you'll be prompted

to enter the password for the specified user on the remote server. Enter the
password carefully, as no characters will be displayed while typing.
Alternatively, you can use public key authentication for a more secure and
convenient login process. In that case, you need to set up SSH keys on both the
local and remote machines.
6. Connected: If the credentials provided are correct, the ssh command will
establish a secure connection to the remote server. You will now have a
terminal session on the remote machine, allowing you to execute commands as
if you were physically present on that server.
Remember to properly log out or close the SSH session when you are done
working on the remote server.

5. Explain pipes, what is its purpose, how many types of

communications we can do with pipes with examples and
diagrams.
 In the context of computer programming and operating systems, a pipe
is a mechanism used for inter-process communication (IPC).
 It provides a way for processes to communicate with each other by
sharing data streams between them.
 A pipe essentially acts as a conduit through which data can flow from
one process to another.
 The purpose of pipes is to enable communication and data exchange
between processes.
 They allow processes to collaborate and coordinate their activities,
enhancing the functionality and efficiency of a system.
 Pipes are typically used in situations where one process produces data
that another process needs to consume or process further.
 There are two main types of pipes used for
communication: 1. anonymous pipes
2. named pipes.

1. Anonymous Pipes: These pipes are used for

communication between related processes, typically a
parent process and its child process.
 Anonymous pipes are created using system calls or
library functions provided by the operating system.
The data flow is unidirectional, meaning data can
only flow from the writing end to the reading end of
the pipe.
 An example of anonymous pipes is when a parent
process sends input data to a child process for
processing and receives the results back.
2. Named Pipes: Unlike anonymous pipes, named pipes can
be used for communication between unrelated processes.
They have a unique name in the file system and can be
accessed by multiple processes simultaneously.
 Named pipes are commonly used for client-server
communication or inter-process communication
between independent processes.
 For example, in a networked system, a server
process can create a named pipe to receive requests
from multiple client processes, enabling
communication and data exchange between them.
6. What is zipping and what commands are used
in Linux for that with syntax and examples
 Zipping, in the context of Linux, refers to the process of
compressing one or more files or directories into a single
compressed archive. This archive, commonly known as a "zip
file," helps to reduce the overall file size and simplify the
process of transferring or storing multiple files.
 In Linux, the most commonly used command-line tool for
zipping files is zip. Here is the syntax and examples of using the
zip command:
Syntax:
zip options archive_name.zip file1 file2 directory1 directory2
Examples:
1. To create a zip file named archive.zip containing a single file:
 zip archive.zip file.txt
2. To create a zip file named archive.zip containing multiple files:
zip archive.zip file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt
3. create a zip file named archive.zip containing an entire directory:
zip -r archive.zip directory/
4.To add files to an existing zip file:
zip -u archive.zip additional_file.txt
5. To exclude certain files or directories from the zip file:
zip -r archive.zip directory/ -x "*.log" "*.tmp"
6. To compress files with maximum compression level:
zip -9 archive.zip file.txt
 The -r option is used to recursively include all files and subdirectories
within a directory. The -u option updates an existing zip file by adding
new files. The -x option excludes files or directories matching the
specified patterns. The -9 option sets the maximum compression level.
 Apart from zip, Linux also provides other compression and archiving
tools like tar and gzip that offer different functionalities and compression
algorithms.

MODULE – 3
8marks
1) a) Explain the file Hierarchy system with diagram.
Ans:
 The file hierarchy system, also known as the file system hierarchy or
directory structure, is a way of organizing files and directories on a
computer's storage system.
 It provides a logical structure that helps users and operating systems
locate and manage files efficiently.
 The file hierarchy system is typically represented as a tree-like structure,
where each node in the tree represents a directory (also known as a
folder) and each leaf node represents a file.
  Directories can contain both files and subdirectories, creating a
hierarchical organization.
 At the top of the hierarchy is the root directory, denoted by a forward
slash (/) in Unix-based systems or a drive letter (such as C:\) in Windows
systems.
 All other directories and files are organized beneath the root directory.
 This hierarchical arrangement allows for easy navigation and
organization of files and directories on a computer system.
 Users and operating systems can traverse the file hierarchy by specifying
the appropriate directory paths to locate and access files.

b) Difference between directory files & ordinary files .

ans:
The main difference between directory files and ordinary files lies in their
purpose and functionality within a file system:
1. Directory Files (Folders):
- Purpose: Directory files, commonly known as folders, are used to organize
and group related files and directories together.
- Functionality: Directory files contain references or pointers to other files
and subdirectories within the file system. They serve as containers for
organizing and structuring the file hierarchy.
 - Properties: Directory files typically have special attributes that distinguish
them from ordinary files. They can be identified by their icons or visual
representations in file explorers or operating systems.
2. Ordinary Files:
- Purpose: Ordinary files are used to store data or information. They can
contain text, images, videos, programs, documents, or any other type of data.
- Functionality: Ordinary files store the actual content or data created by
users or generated by applications. They can be opened, read, modified, and
saved by various software programs.
- Properties: Ordinary files may have different file formats and extensions,
depending on the type of data they store. For example, a text file may have
a .txt extension, an image file may have a .jpg or .png extension, and so on.

2) a) What is the path name differentiate between absolute &

relative path name.
Ans:
 Path names are used to specify the location of a file or directory within a
file system.
 The main difference between absolute and relative path names lies in
how they define the location of a file or directory:

1. Absolute Path Name:

- Definition: An absolute path name provides the complete and exact location
of a file or directory starting from the root directory of the file system.
- Format: In Unix-based systems, an absolute path name starts with a forward
slash (/), while in Windows systems, it starts with a drive letter (such as C:\).
- Example:
- Unix-based system: `/home/user/Documents/file1.txt`
- Windows system: `C:\Users\User\Documents\file1.txt`
 - Characteristics: Absolute path names are independent of the current
working directory and provide an unambiguous reference to the location of a
file or directory.

2. Relative Path Name:

- Definition: A relative path name specifies the location of a file or directory
relative to the current working directory.
- Format: A relative path name does not start with a root directory indicator
(such as `/` or a drive letter). Instead, it uses the directory hierarchy relative to
the current working directory.
- Example:
- Suppose the current working directory is `/home/user/`, and the file we
want to reference is `Documents/file1.txt`.
- Unix-based system: `Documents/file1.txt`
- Windows system: `Documents\file1.txt`
- Characteristics: Relative path names depend on the current working
directory and provide a concise way to specify the location of a file or directory
relative to the context.

b) Differentiate between hard links and soft links.

Ans:
Hard links and soft links (symbolic links) are two different types of links used in
file systems to create references to files. Here's how they differ:
1. Hard links:
- Definition: A hard link is a direct link to a specific file in a file system. It
creates a new reference (link) to the same underlying data or inode of a file.
- File System Dependency: Hardlinks are dependent on the file system. They
must reside in the same file system as the original file.
 - Directory Entry: Hardlinks appear as separate directory entries with the
same inode number as the original file. From the perspective of the file system,
there is no distinction between the original file and its hardlinks.
- Changes and Modifications: Any changes made to the original file are
reflected in all hardlinks, and vice versa. They all refer to the same file content.
- Removal: Removing a hardlink does not affect the original file or other
hardlinks. The file content is only deleted when all hardlinks are removed.
- Restrictions: Hardlinks cannot be created for directories or across different
file systems.

2. Softlinks (Symbolic Links):

- Definition: A softlink, also known as a symbolic link or symlink, is a special
type of file that contains a reference or path to another file or directory.
- File System Independence: Softlinks can span across different file systems
and even refer to files or directories on different physical devices.
- File Entry: Softlinks are separate files that contain the path or reference to
the target file or directory.
- Changes and Modifications: If the original file or directory is moved or
renamed, the softlink may become broken and no longer point to the intended
target. Softlinks are transparent to changes made to the target file.
- Removal: Deleting a softlink does not affect the target file or other softlinks.
The target file remains intact.
- Permissions: Softlinks have their own permissions, and the user must have
appropriate permissions to access the target file or directory.
- Support for Directories: Softlinks can be created for directories, allowing for
symbolic references to entire directories.

3) Define the concept of access control lists.

Ans:
 Access Control Lists (ACLs) are a mechanism used in computer systems
and networks to define and manage permissions and access rights to
resources, such as files, directories, or network resources.
  An ACL is a list of access control entries (ACEs) associated with an object,
specifying who is allowed or denied access and what operations they can
perform on that object.
 The concept of ACLs allows for more fine-grained control over access
permissions compared to traditional Unix-style permissions (read, write,
execute) that are based on user, group, and others.
 ACLs enable the definition of permissions for multiple users and groups,
and they can be applied to a broader range of objects beyond just files.

Here are some key aspects of ACLs:

1. Access Control Entries (ACEs): Each entry in an ACL is called an ACE. An ACE
contains information about a specific user, group, or system, along with the
permissions or access rights granted or denied to that entity.
2. Permissions: ACLs allow the specification of various permissions or access
rights, such as read, write, execute, delete, modify, or any custom-defined
permissions. Each ACE can have different combinations of permissions.
3. Users, Groups, and Other Entities: ACLs can assign permissions to individual
users, specific groups, or other entities like system processes or services. This
enables more precise control over who can access an object and what actions
they can perform.

4. Inheritance and Propagation: ACLs often support inheritance and

propagation of permissions. Inheritance means that permissions assigned to a
parent object (e.g., a directory) are automatically inherited by its child objects
(e.g., files within that directory). Propagation ensures that changes to
permissions on a parent object are propagated down to its child objects.
5. Access Levels: ACLs can define different levels of access, such as read-only,
read-write, or full control. This allows for more nuanced access rights
management.
6. Administration: ACLs typically require administrative privileges or special
permissions to be modified or managed. This helps ensure that access control
settings are properly controlled and maintained.
  Overall, ACLs provide a more flexible and granular approach to access
control, allowing for detailed management of permissions and access
rights on a per-user or per-group basis.
 They are commonly used in multi-user systems, network file systems,
and other environments where fine-grained access control is required.

4) How to assign the permissions of files using chmod command.

Ans:
 The `chmod` command is used to assign or modify permissions for files
and directories in Unix-based systems.
 It allows you to specify permissions for three categories: owner, group,
and others.
 The permissions can be set using numeric or symbolic notation.
Here's how you can use the `chmod` command:
1. Numeric Notation:
- Each permission is represented by a numeric value:
- Read (r): 4
- Write (w): 2
- Execute (x): 1
- To set permissions, add the numeric values of the desired permissions and
assign the resulting value to the respective category.
- The syntax for numeric notation is:
```
chmod XYZ file
```
- X represents the permission for the owner.
- Y represents the permission for the group.
- Z represents the permission for others.
- Example:
```
 chmod 764 myfile.txt
```
- The owner has read, write, and execute (4+2+1 = 7).
- The group has read and write (4+2 = 6).
- Others have read permission (4).

2. Symbolic Notation:
- Each permission is represented by a symbol:
- Read (r)
- Write (w)
- Execute (x)
- The syntax for symbolic notation is:
```
chmod [who][operator][permissions] file
```
- Who can be one of the following:
- u: Owner
- g: Group
- o: Others
- a: All (u+g+o)
- Operator can be one of the following:
- +: Add permissions
- -: Remove permissions
- =: Set permissions explicitly
- Permissions are represented by the symbols (r, w, x).
- Example:
```
 chmod u=rw,g=rx,o=r myfile.txt
```
- The owner has read and write permissions.
- The group has read and execute permissions.
- Others have read permission.

 Remember to execute the `chmod` command with appropriate

permissions, typically by using the `sudo` command if needed.
 The specific options and syntax may vary slightly across different Unix-
based systems, so it's always good to refer to the system's
documentation or `man` pages for precise details.

5) Explain about the various types of file systems that are used for
various operating systems.
Ans:
Different operating systems use various file systems to manage and organize
data on storage devices. Here's an overview of some commonly used file
systems for different operating systems:

1. Windows:
- NTFS (New Technology File System): NTFS is the primary file system used by
modern versions of Windows, including Windows 10. It provides advanced
features such as file and folder permissions, encryption, compression, and
support for large file sizes and volumes.
- FAT/FAT32 (File Allocation Table): FAT and FAT32 are older file systems that
are still used for compatibility reasons. They have limited features compared to
NTFS but are supported by various operating systems and devices.
2. macOS:
- APFS (Apple File System): APFS is the default file system introduced in
macOS High Sierra. It is optimized for solid-state drives (SSDs) and provides
features like encryption, snapshotting, and efficient storage management.
 - HFS+ (Hierarchical File System Plus): HFS+ was the primary file system used
by macOS before the introduction of APFS. It supports features like journaling,
file and folder permissions, and case-insensitive and case-sensitive file names.
3. Linux:
- ext4 (Fourth Extended File System): ext4 is the most widely used file system
in Linux. It is an improvement over its predecessor, ext3, and provides features
such as journaling, large file and volume support, and backward compatibility
with ext2.
- Btrfs (B-Tree File System): Btrfs is a modern copy-on-write file system
designed for Linux. It offers features like scalability, snapshots, checksums, and
RAID-like functionality.
- XFS (XFS File System): XFS is a high-performance file system known for its
scalability and reliability. It supports large file sizes, extensive parallelism, and
features like journaling and online defragmentation.
4. Unix and Unix-like Systems:
- UFS (Unix File System): UFS is the traditional file system used by many Unix-
based operating systems. It provides features like file and directory
permissions, journaling, and support for symbolic links.
- ZFS (Zettabyte File System): ZFS is a robust and scalable file system used in
Unix-like systems. It offers advanced features such as data integrity, data
compression, snapshotting, and storage pool management.
 These are just a few examples of file systems used in different operating
systems. Each file system has its own advantages and may be optimized
for specific requirements like performance, reliability, scalability, or
compatibility. The choice of file system depends on the specific needs of
the operating system, storage device, and intended use cases.

MODULE 4(8M)

1. Explain the features of vim

Vim is a text editor that is commonly used in Unix and Linux operating
systems. It is a powerful and highly configurable editor that can be used for a
wide range of text editing tasks, including code editing, document creation, and
system administration tasks.

Vim stands for "Vi Improved", and it is an enhanced version of the Vi editor
that was developed in the 1970s as part of the Unix operating system. Vim is
designed to be a modal editor, which means that it has different modes for
navigating and editing text.

In Vim, you can navigate and edit text using the keyboard, without needing to
use a mouse or other pointing device. Vim has a wide range of features and
commands, and it can be customized extensively to suit the needs of individual
users.

Features of Vim

1. Modal Editing: Vim follows a modal editing paradigm, which means it

has different modes for different tasks. The primary modes are:
 Normal mode: Used for navigation, text manipulation, and issuing
commands.
 Insert mode: Used for inserting and editing text.
 Visual mode: Used for selecting blocks of text for manipulation.
 Command-line mode: Used for entering commands and searching.
2. Extensibility: Vim supports a vast array of plugins and extensions,
allowing users to customize and enhance their editing experience. There
is a rich ecosystem of plugins available for various programming
languages, file formats, and additional functionality.
3. Efficient Navigation: Vim provides numerous shortcuts and commands
for efficient text navigation. Users can move the cursor using the
 keyboard, jump to specific lines or characters, and scroll through files
quickly. Additionally, Vim supports split windows and tabs for working
with multiple files simultaneously.
4. Powerful Editing Commands: Vim offers a comprehensive set of
editing commands for manipulating text. These commands include copy,
cut, paste, undo/redo, find and replace, indentation, formatting, and much
more. The commands can be combined and repeated to perform complex
editing tasks efficiently.
5. Regular Expressions: Vim has robust support for regular expressions,
which are useful for searching, pattern matching, and text manipulation.
Regular expressions allow for sophisticated search and replace
operations, making Vim a powerful tool for editing and refactoring code.
6. Built-in Terminal Emulation: Vim includes a terminal emulator,
allowing users to execute shell commands and interact with the command
line without leaving the editor. This feature enables seamless integration
of editing and shell-based workflows.
7. Scripting and Automation: Vim has its own scripting language called
Vimscript. It allows users to create custom functions, automate repetitive
tasks, and extend Vim's functionality. Vimscript is a powerful tool for
creating personalized workflows and automating complex editing
operations.
8. Cross-Platform Support: Vim is available on multiple platforms,
including Windows, macOS, Linux, and various Unix-like systems. This
cross-platform compatibility ensures that Vim users can work
consistently across different operating systems.
9. Lightweight and Fast: Vim is designed to be lightweight and efficient,
making it suitable for use on older or resource-constrained systems. It
loads quickly and has a small memory footprint, allowing for a smooth
editing experience even on slower machines.
 10.Documentation and Community: Vim has extensive documentation
built into the editor, accessible through the ":help" command. The Vim
community is vibrant and supportive, offering resources, tutorials, and
forums for users to share knowledge and get help with any questions or
issues they may have.
2. Create one vim file and perform searching (FIND) & substituting on
a particular part of the text

To create a Vim file and perform searching and substituting on a particular part
of the text, you can follow these steps:

1. Open the Vim editor by running the command vim in your terminal.
2. To create a new file, press the i key to enter the Insert mode. Now you
can start typing your text.
3. Enter the desired text, including the part where you want to perform the
search and substitution.
4. To save the file, press the Esc key to exit Insert mode. Then type :wq
and press Enter. This command writes the changes to the file and quits
Vim.
5. Now let's perform searching and substituting on the specific part of the
text. Open the file again by running vim <filename> in the terminal,
replacing <filename> with the name of the file you created.
6. Once the file is open in Vim, press the Esc key to ensure you are in the
Normal mode.
7. Move the cursor to the part of the text where you want to perform the
search and substitution.
8. Press the : key to enter Command-line mode.
 9. To search for a specific pattern, type / followed by the pattern you want
to search for. For example, if you want to search for the word "example",
you would type /example.
10.Press Enter to perform the search. Vim will highlight the first occurrence
of the pattern in the text.
11.To substitute the searched pattern with a different text, type
:s/old_text/new_text/, replacing old_text with the pattern
you searched for and new_text with the replacement text. For example,
if you want to replace "example" with "replacement", you would type
:s/example/replacement/.
12.To perform the substitution on the current line, press Enter. If you want to
perform the substitution globally (on all occurrences of the pattern in the
file), add the g flag at the end of the command. For example,
:s/example/replacement/g.
13.Vim will perform the substitution and provide feedback on the number of
substitutions made.
14.You can use the n key to move to the next occurrence of the pattern and
perform the substitution again if needed.
15.Once you are done with the search and substitution, you can save the
changes and quit Vim by pressing the Esc key, then typing :wq and
pressing Enter.

3. Explain and perform operations of moving & deleting the text in Vi

editor

Moving the text in vi editor:

In Vi editor, there are several commands that allow you to move the cursor
around the file while you're in command mode. Here are some of the most
common cursor movements:

- `h`: Move the cursor one character to the left.

- `j`: Move the cursor one line down.

- `k`: Move the cursor one line up.

- `l`: Move the cursor one character to the right.

- `0` (zero): Move the cursor to the beginning of the current line.

- `$`: Move the cursor to the end of the current line.

- `W`: Move the cursor to the beginning of the next word.

- `b`: Move the cursor to the beginning of the previous word.

- `gg`: Move the cursor to the beginning of the file.

- `G`: Move the cursor to the end of the file.

- `{`: Move the cursor to the beginning of the current paragraph.

- `}`: Move the cursor to the beginning of the next paragraph.

H, M, L - These keys are used to move the cursor to the top, middle, and
bottom of the screen, respectively. The H key moves the cursor to the top of the
screen, the M key moves the cursor to the middle of the screen, and the L key
moves the cursor to the bottom of the screen.
Ctrl+f, Ctrl+b - These keys are used to move the cursor forward and backward
by a full screen, respectively. The Ctrl+f key moves the cursor forward by a full
screen, while the Ctrl+b key moves the cursor backward by a full screen.

Deleting the text in vi editor:

In Vi editor, you can delete and change text using a variety of commands. Here
are some of the most common ones:

Deletion Commands:

- `x`: Deletes the character under the cursor.

- `dd`: Deletes the entire line under the cursor.

- `d0`: Deletes from the cursor to the beginning of the line.

- `d$`: Deletes from the cursor to the end of the line.

- `dw`: Deletes from the cursor to the end of the current word.

- `dgg`: Deletes from the cursor to the beginning of the file.

- `dG`: Deletes from the cursor to the end of the file.

4. Explain the concepts of buffers in vim

In Vim, buffers are an essential concept for managing multiple files or text
sources within the editor. A buffer represents the content of a file or a text
source that is currently open in Vim. Understanding buffers allows you to work
with multiple files simultaneously and switch between them efficiently. Here
are the key concepts related to buffers in Vim:

1. Buffer: A buffer is the in-memory representation of a file or text source

opened in Vim. Each buffer holds the content of a specific file or text
input. When you open a file, Vim creates a buffer to store its content,
allowing you to edit and manipulate the text.
2. Buffer List: Vim maintains a list of buffers that are currently open. This
list shows the names of the files or text sources that are loaded in Vim's
memory. You can view the buffer list by running the command :ls or
:buffers.
3. Current Buffer: The current buffer refers to the buffer that is currently
being displayed in the Vim window. When you open a file or switch
buffers, the contents of the current buffer are displayed in the editing
window.
4. Switching Buffers: You can switch between buffers to work on different
files or text sources. Here are some commands to switch buffers:
 :bnext or :bn: Move to the next buffer in the buffer list.
 :bprevious or :bp: Move to the previous buffer in the buffer list.
 :bfirst or :bf: Move to the first buffer in the buffer list.
 :blast or :bl: Move to the last buffer in the buffer list.
 :buffer <name> or :b <name>: Move to a specific buffer by
name.
5. Opening Files in New Buffers: When you open a file in Vim, it is
loaded into a new buffer. You can open a file in a new buffer using the
:edit <filename> or :e <filename> command. For example, :e file.txt
opens "file.txt" in a new buffer.
6. Buffer Navigation: While in Normal mode, you can navigate through the
buffers using the commands:
 :bnext or :bn to move to the next buffer.
 :bprevious or :bp to move to the previous buffer.
 :buffer <name> or :b <name> to move to a specific buffer by
name.
7. Closing Buffers: You can close a buffer when you no longer need it.
Closing a buffer removes it from the buffer list. To close a buffer, you
can use the :bdelete or :bd command followed by the buffer number or
name. For example, :bd 2 or :bd file.txt closes the buffer with buffer
number 2 or the buffer associated with the "file.txt" file.
 8. Buffer-related Commands: Vim provides additional commands and
functionalities related to buffers, such as splitting the window to display
multiple buffers simultaneously, saving buffers to files, and more. Some
useful commands include :split, :vsplit, :write, :buffer, :edit, and
:tabedit.

Main Buffer Commands

:buffers or :ls : Show open buffers

:b {bufname} : Use buffer name, supports partial and tab completion

:bd : Close current buffer

:bn : Switch to Next buffer

:bp : Switch to Previous buffer in list

:b# : Last buffer visited, actual # sign

:b1 : Switch to buffer #1

:bm : Switch to next modified buffer

1. What is a shell, shell script, what are the different types of shells ?
In computing, a shell is a program that provides an interface between the
user and the operating system. It allows users to interact with the
computer by typing commands and executing them. The shell interprets
the commands entered by the user and communicates with the operating
system to carry out the requested tasks.
 A shell script is a script or program written in a shell language, which is
interpreted and executed by a shell. Shell scripts can automate repetitive
tasks, execute a series of commands, manipulate files and directories,
and perform various other tasks. They are commonly used for system
administration, batch processing, and automation.

There are several different types of shells available, with some of the most
popular ones being:

1. Bash (Bourne Again SHell): Bash is the default shell for most Linux
distributions and is widely used on Unix-based systems. It is a powerful
and feature-rich shell, compatible with the original Bourne shell (sh) and
includes additional functionality.
2. sh (Bourne Shell): The Bourne shell was one of the first Unix shells and is
still available on many Unix-like systems. It is a relatively simple shell and
lacks some of the advanced features found in newer shells.
3. csh (C Shell): The C shell provides a C-like syntax and includes features
like command-line history and job control. It was popular in the early days
of Unix but has been largely replaced by more modern shells.
4. tcsh (TENEX C Shell): The tcsh is an enhanced version of the C shell,
adding additional features such as command completion and improved
command-line editing capabilities.
5. Korn Shell (ksh): The Korn shell is an advanced shell that combines
features from the Bourne shell (sh) and the C shell (csh). It offers a rich
set of features, including advanced scripting capabilities.
6. PowerShell: While not a traditional Unix shell, PowerShell is a powerful
shell and scripting language developed by Microsoft for Windows. It
provides access to system administration tasks and automation on
Windows-based systems.

These are just a few examples of the many shells available. Different
operating systems may have their own default shells, and users can often
choose which shell they prefer to use based on their needs and
preferences.

2. Explain the concept of functions in shell scripting with an example

In shell scripting, functions are reusable blocks of code that perform specific
tasks. They allow you to organize your script into logical units and make
your code more modular and maintainable. Functions in shell scripts work
similarly to functions in other programming languages.
Here's an example to demonstrate the concept of functions in shell
scripting:
 #!/bin/bash
# Define a function
greet() {
echo "Hello, $1!"
}

# Call the function

greet "Alice"
greet "Bob"

In this example, we have defined a function called greet(). It takes one

argument, which represents the name of the person to greet. Inside the
function, we use the echo command to display a greeting message.

To call the function, we simply write its name followed by the argument(s)
we want to pass. In this case, we call greet twice, passing "Alice" and "Bob"
as arguments. When the function is called, it executes the code inside its
block, which results in the greeting message being displayed for each name.

When you run this script, the output will be:

Hello, Alice!
Hello, Bob!

Functions can also have return values. Here's an example that

demonstrates returning a value from a function:

#!/bin/bash

# Define a function that returns the sum of two numbers

add() {
 local result=$(( $1 + $2 ))
echo $result
}
# Call the function and store the return value in a variable
sum=$(add 5 3)
# Display the result
echo "The sum is: $sum"

In this example, the add function takes two arguments and calculates their
sum. The local keyword is used to declare a local variable called result,
which stores the sum. Then, the function echoes the value of result,
effectively returning it.

When we call the add function with the arguments 5 and 3, the return value
is assigned to the variable sum. Finally, we display the result using the echo
command.
The sum is: 8
This is a basic example of how functions work in shell scripting. You can
create more complex functions with multiple arguments, use control
structures inside functions, and even call other functions from within a
function. Functions provide a way to structure and organize your code,
making it more readable and maintainable.

3. Explain the concept of decision making in shell scripting with an

example
A Shell script is a plain text file. This file contains different commands for
step-by-step execution. These commands can be written directly into the
command line but from a re-usability perceptive it is useful to store all of
the inter-related commands for a specific task in a single file. We can use
that file for executing the set of commands one or more times as per our
requirements.
In programming, Decision making is one of the important concepts. The
programmer provides one or more conditions for the execution of a
block of code. If the conditions are satisfied then those block of codes
only gets executed. Two types of decision-making statements are used
within shell scripting. They are –

If-else statement
case-sac statement

1. If-else statement
If else statement is a conditional statement. It can be used to execute
two different codes based on whether the given condition is satisfied or
not. There are a couple of varieties present within the if-else statement.
They are –

a) if-fi
b) if-else-fi
c) if-elif-else-fi
d) nested if-else

a. if [ expression ]; then

statements

fi

b. if [ expression ]
then
statement1
else
statement2
fi

c. if [ expression1 ]
then
statement1
statement2
 .
.
elif [ expression2 ]
then
statement3
statement4
.
.
else
statement5
fi

2. The case-sac statement

case-sac is basically working the same as switch statement in
programming. Sometimes if we have to check multiple conditions, then it
may get complicated using if statements. At those moments we can use
a case-sac statement
The syntax will be –

case $var in
Pattern 1) Statement 1;;
Pattern n) Statement n;;
Esac

Example of case-sac statement

Name="Satyajit"
case "$Name" in
#case 1
"Rajib") echo "Profession : Software Engineer" ;;

#case 2
"Vikas") echo "Profession : Web Developer" ;;

#case 3
"Satyajit") echo "Profession : Technical Content Writer" ;;
Esac
 Output:
Profession : Technical Content Writer

4. Explain the concept of loop controls in shell scripting with an example

In shell scripting, loop controls allow you to repeat a block of code

multiple times until a certain condition is met or until a specific number
of iterations are completed. The most commonly used loop controls in
shell scripting are the for loop and the while loop. Here's an example of
each:
1. for loop:
#!/bin/bash

# Iterate over a range of numbers using a for loop

for i in {1..5}; do
echo "Number: $i"
done

In this example, the for loop iterates over a range of numbers from 1
to 5. In each iteration, the value of i is assigned to the current number
in the range, and the code block within the loop is executed. The echo
command displays the message "Number: " followed by the value of
i. When you run this script, the output will be:

Output:
Number: 1
Number: 2
Number: 3
Number: 4
Number: 5

2. While loop:
#!/bin/bash

# Iterate using a while loop until a condition is met

counter=1
 while [ $counter -le 5 ]; do
echo "Count: $counter"
counter=$((counter + 1))
done

In this example, the while loop iterates until the value of the counter
variable is less than or equal to 5. In each iteration, the code block
within the loop is executed. The echo command displays the message
"Count: " followed by the value of counter. After each iteration, the
counter variable is incremented by 1 using the $(( )) syntax. When the
value of counter becomes 6, the condition becomes false, and the
loop terminates. When you run this script, the output will be:

Output:
Count: 1
Count: 2
Count: 3
Count: 4
Count: 5

Loop controls in shell scripting allow you to automate repetitive tasks

and process data in a structured manner. You can combine loop
controls with conditional statements to create more complex logic
and control the flow of your script based on specific conditions.

5. What are the different types of IO redirections in shell scripting. Explain

each of them with their importance and example
In shell scripting, IO redirections allow you to control where input comes
from and where output goes. They are essential for manipulating standard
input, standard output, and standard error streams. The main types of IO
redirections in shell scripting are:
A. Standard Input Redirection (<):
This redirection allows you to change the source of input for a command.
You can redirect input from a file or another command.
Example:
# Read input from a file
 while read line; do
echo "Line: $line"
done < input.txt
In this example, the while loop reads input from the file input.txt using
the standard input redirection (<). Each line of the file is assigned to the
variable line, and the code block within the loop echoes the line.

B. Standard Output Redirection (> and >>):

These redirections control where the standard output of a command is
written. The > operator overwrites the contents of a file with the
command's output, while the >> operator appends the output to the end
of a file.
Example:
# Redirect output to a file
echo "Hello, world!" > output.txt

# Append output to a file

echo "More text" >> output.txt
In this example, the echo command writes the text "Hello, world!" to the
file output.txt using the > operator. The next echo command appends
the text "More text" to the same file using the >> operator.

C. Standard Error Redirection (2> and 2>>):

These redirections control where the standard error output of a
command is written. The 2> operator overwrites the contents of a file
with the command's error output, while the 2>> operator appends the
error output to the end of a file.
Example:
# Redirect error output to a file
command_that_may_fail 2> error.txt

# Append error output to a file

command_that_may_fail 2>> error.txt

In this example, the first command executes a command that may

produce an error. The standard error output of that command is
redirected to the file error.txt using the 2> operator. The second
 command appends any error output to the same file using the 2>>
operator.

IO redirections in shell scripting are important for managing input and

output streams. They allow you to read input from files, capture
command output in files, and separate standard output and standard
error output. By leveraging IO redirections, you can process data, log
errors, and create more flexible and powerful shell scripts.
1.Define process, thread and explain about PCB...?

PROCESS:

A process is an active program i.e a program that is under execution. It is more than the program
code as it includes the program counter, process stack, registers, program code etc. Compared to
this, the program code is only the text section.

A program is not a process by itself as the program is a passive entity, such as file contents, while the
process is an active entity containing program counter, resources etc.

New - The process is in the new state when it has just been created.

Ready - The process is waiting to be assigned the processor by the short-term scheduler.

Running - The process instructions are being executed by the processor.

Waiting - The process is waiting for some event such as I/O to occur.

Terminated - The process has completed its execution.

THREAD:

Within a program, a Thread is a separate execution path. It is a lightweight process that the operating
system can schedule and run concurrently with other threads. The operating system creates and
manages threads, and they share the same memory and resources as the program that created
them. This enables multiple threads to collaborate and work efficiently within a single program.

TYPES OF THREADS:

User Level Thread

Kernel Level Thread

Process Control Block

A process control block is associated with each of the processes. It contains important information

about the process it is associated with. Some of this information is as follows

Process State - This specifies the process state i.e. new, ready, running, waiting or terminated.

Process Number - This shows the number of the particular process.

Program Counter - This contains the address of the next instruction that needs to be executed in the
process.

Registers - This specifies the registers that are used by the process. They may include accumulators,
index registers, stack pointers, general purpose registers etc.

List of open files - These are the different files that are associated with the process.

2.Give a brief note on scheduling queues with a neat diagram.

Scheduling queues, also known as process queues or job queues, are data
structures used in operating systems to manage the execution of multiple
processes. These queues help in organizing and prioritizing processes for
the CPU to execute. Here is a brief explanation along with a simple
diagram:

Scheduling queues are typically represented as linked lists or arrays,

where each element represents a process. The queues are usually
categorized based on the priority of the processes. The common types of
scheduling queues are:

1. Ready Queue: This queue holds all the processes that are ready to
be executed by the CPU. Processes in the ready queue are waiting
for their turn to run and are typically organized based on their
priority. Higher priority processes usually get scheduled first.
2. Waiting Queue: This queue holds processes that are waiting for
certain resources or events to occur. For example, a process waiting
for user input or for a file to be loaded will be placed in the waiting
queue until the required resource becomes available.
 3. Blocked Queue: This queue holds processes that are blocked or
suspended due to some external conditions. Processes in this queue
cannot proceed until the condition is satisfied. For instance, a
process waiting for I/O operations to complete or waiting for a
semaphore signal will be placed in the blocked queue.
4. Job Queue: This queue contains all the processes residing in the
system, including those that are waiting to be executed, running, or
suspended. It represents the total set of processes in the system.

Here's a simplified diagram to illustrate the concept:

n this diagram, the job queue encompasses all processes in the system.
The ready queue represents processes that are ready for execution, with
higher priority processes closer to the CPU. The waiting queue holds
processes waiting for resources, and the blocked queue holds processes
that are temporarily unable to proceed.

Overall, scheduling queues play a crucial role in managing and prioritizing

processes, ensuring efficient utilization of system resources and
maintaining system responsiveness.

3. Define IPC and explain about the two models of IPC (Shared memory and
Message passing)

IPC stands for Interprocess Communication, which refers to the

mechanisms and techniques used by processes in an operating system to
exchange information, synchronize their actions, and cooperate with each
other.

There are two main models of IPC:

1. Shared Memory Model: In the shared memory model, processes

communicate by accessing shared memory regions. A shared
 memory region is a portion of memory that is accessible by multiple
processes. These processes can read from and write to the shared
memory, allowing them to exchange data efficiently.

Here's a brief explanation of how the shared memory model works:

 A shared memory region is created by one process and is typically

associated with a specific identifier or name.
 Other processes that need to communicate with the creating
process can attach themselves to the shared memory region using
the same identifier.
 Once attached, processes can read from and write to the shared
memory as if it were their own private memory space.
 To ensure synchronization and prevent race conditions,
synchronization mechanisms like locks, semaphores, or mutexes are
often used.

Advantages of the shared memory model include high performance due to

direct memory access and the ability to share large amounts of data
between processes. However, it requires careful synchronization to
prevent conflicts and ensure data integrity.

2. Message Passing Model: In the message passing model, processes

communicate by sending and receiving messages. A message is a
packet of data containing information that is exchanged between
processes. The message passing model can be implemented using
either a direct or indirect communication mechanism.

Here's a brief explanation of how the message passing model works:

 In direct communication, processes have explicit knowledge of each

other and communicate directly by sending messages. The sender
process explicitly specifies the recipient process for each message.
 In indirect communication, processes do not have explicit
knowledge of each other. They communicate through a shared
mailbox or message queue, and messages are sent to and received
from the mailbox or queue.

Advantages of the message passing model include simplicity and ease of

implementation. It provides a clear communication mechanism between
processes and avoids many of the synchronization issues associated with
shared memory. However, message passing can be less efficient than
shared memory for exchanging large amounts of data.

Both models have their advantages and are used in different scenarios.
The choice between shared memory and message passing depends on
factors such as the nature of the problem, the amount of data to be
exchanged, the level of synchronization required, and the programming
paradigm being used.

4.Differentiate between cooperative and independent processes

Cooperative Processes: Cooperative processes, also known as cooperative

multitasking or cooperative scheduling, refer to a type of process
management where processes voluntarily relinquish control of the CPU to
allow other processes to execute. In cooperative multitasking, processes
are expected to yield the CPU explicitly by invoking a specific system call
or by cooperating with other processes through synchronization
mechanisms. Cooperative processes rely on mutual cooperation and
responsible behavior from each process to ensure fairness and prevent
monopolization of system resources.

Key characteristics of cooperative processes include:

1. Process Control: Each process determines when to yield the CPU

voluntarily, typically by explicitly invoking a yield or relinquish
system call.
2. Collaboration: Processes may communicate and synchronize with
each other to coordinate their execution and resource usage.
3. Responsiveness: Cooperative processes rely on the responsible
behavior of each process to yield the CPU in a timely manner to
ensure system responsiveness.

Independent Processes: Independent processes, also known as

independent execution or independent multitasking, refer to a type of
process management where processes are unaware of other processes
and operate in isolation. Independent processes execute concurrently and
do not rely on cooperation or coordination with other processes for CPU
time or resource sharing.

Key characteristics of independent processes include:

1. Process Isolation: Each process operates independently of other

processes, and their execution does not affect each other.
2. No Explicit Yielding: Independent processes do not yield the CPU
explicitly or rely on cooperation with other processes.
3. Resource Allocation: Each process manages its own resources and
does not depend on other processes for resource sharing.

Differences:
 1. Control Flow: Cooperative processes yield the CPU explicitly, while
independent processes execute without explicit coordination or
yielding.
2. Mutual Dependency: Cooperative processes often depend on each
other for resource sharing or synchronization, whereas independent
processes operate in isolation and do not rely on other processes.
3. Responsiveness vs. Isolation: Cooperative processes prioritize
system responsiveness and require responsible behavior from each
process, while independent processes prioritize process isolation
and allow processes to execute independently without coordination.

It's important to note that the distinction between cooperative and

independent processes is not always clear-cut and can vary depending on
the specific context and implementation. Cooperative and independent
process management approaches are used in different operating systems
and programming paradigms to suit different requirements and trade-offs

5.Explain producer consumer problem

The producer-consumer problem is a classic synchronization problem in

computer science that involves coordinating the communication and
interaction between two processes: the producer and the consumer. The
problem arises when the producer produces data or items that the
consumer consumes, and there needs to be a mechanism to ensure that
the producer and consumer work in a coordinated and synchronized
manner to avoid issues like race conditions, data corruption, or deadlocks.

Here's a simplified explanation of the producer-consumer problem:

1. Producer: The producer is responsible for producing data or items

and placing them into a shared buffer or queue. It generates or
generates the items at its own pace and can produce more items
than the consumer can consume. However, it needs to ensure that it
doesn't overflow the buffer and that the consumer has enough
space to consume the items.
2. Consumer: The consumer is responsible for consuming the items
from the shared buffer or queue. It processes or uses the items at
its own pace and can consume them faster or slower than the
producer produces them. The consumer needs to ensure that it
doesn't attempt to consume items from an empty buffer, which
could lead to errors or inconsistencies.

The challenge in the producer-consumer problem is to establish

synchronization and coordination between the producer and consumer to
avoid issues such as race conditions or data inconsistencies. Here are
some key aspects of the problem:
 1. Shared Buffer: The producer and consumer use a shared buffer or
queue to exchange the items. The buffer acts as a temporary
storage where the producer places items and the consumer
removes items.
2. Synchronization: Synchronization mechanisms like semaphores,
mutexes, or condition variables are used to control the access to the
shared buffer. These mechanisms ensure that the producer and
consumer do not access the buffer simultaneously or when it's in an
inconsistent state.
3. Empty and Full Conditions: To prevent the consumer from
attempting to consume from an empty buffer or the producer from
attempting to produce into a full buffer, empty and full conditions
are used. These conditions are checked by the producer and
consumer before performing their respective operations, and
appropriate actions are taken based on the condition.

Typically, a solution to the producer-consumer problem involves carefully

designing the synchronization and coordination mechanisms, ensuring
that the producer and consumer operate correctly and efficiently without
data corruption or deadlocks. Various algorithms and patterns, such as
using bounded buffers or circular queues, can be employed to address the
producer-consumer problem in different scenarios.

5. Differentiate between single threaded process and multi threaded

process

Single-Threaded Process Multi-Threaded Process

Execution Only one thread of execution Multiple threads of execution

Concurrency No concurrency Achieves concurrency

 Single-Threaded Process Multi-Threaded Process

CPU Utilization Utilizes only a single CPU core Can utilize multiple CPU cores

Resource No sharing of resources between Threads can share resources

Sharing threads (memory, file handles, etc.)

May be less responsive due to Can remain responsive during long-

Responsiveness sequential execution running operations

Programming Follows a sequential programming Can follow parallel or concurrent

Model model programming models

Complexity Simpler to design and debug More complex to design and debug

Limited scalability due to single Can scale better with increased

Scalability thread number of threads

Potential No possibility of thread-related Possible occurrence of thread-related

Deadlocks deadlocks deadlocks

6. Define process synchronization and how it can be applied for data

consistency
Process synchronization refers to the coordination and ordering of
activities or operations executed by multiple concurrent processes or
threads to ensure their proper execution and prevent conflicts or
inconsistencies. It involves using synchronization mechanisms to control
access to shared resources and coordinate the execution of critical
sections.

One of the key goals of process synchronization is to ensure data

consistency, which means that shared data accessed by multiple
processes or threads remains in a valid and expected state throughout
their execution. Without proper synchronization, concurrent access to
shared data can lead to race conditions, where the final outcome depends
on the timing and interleaving of operations, resulting in inconsistent or
incorrect results.

To achieve data consistency through process synchronization, various

techniques can be applied:

1. Mutual Exclusion: Synchronization mechanisms like locks,

semaphores, or mutexes can be used to enforce mutual exclusion.
By acquiring and releasing these synchronization primitives,
processes or threads can ensure that only one of them accesses a
shared resource or critical section at a time. This prevents
simultaneous access and maintains data consistency.
2. Atomic Operations: Atomic operations guarantee that a sequence of
operations is executed as a single indivisible unit. These operations
are designed to be executed atomically without interruption,
ensuring that no other process or thread can observe an
intermediate or inconsistent state. Atomic operations can be used to
update shared data in a consistent manner.
3. Semaphores and Condition Variables: Semaphores and condition
variables provide higher-level synchronization mechanisms.
Semaphores can be used to control access to a limited number of
resources, while condition variables allow threads to wait until a
certain condition is satisfied before proceeding. These mechanisms
help coordinate the execution of processes or threads and ensure
proper synchronization and data consistency.
4. Read-Write Locks: Read-write locks allow concurrent read access to
shared data while providing exclusive write access. This mechanism
is useful when multiple processes or threads need to read data
concurrently, but only one should be allowed to write at a time. By
allowing concurrent reads, data consistency can be maintained
while improving performance.

By applying these synchronization techniques, processes or threads can

coordinate their access to shared resources and critical sections, ensuring
proper ordering and preventing conflicts. This helps maintain data
consistency by avoiding race conditions and ensuring that the shared data
remains in a valid and consistent state throughout the execution of
concurrent processes or threads.

6. Explain about the critical section problem and what are the three
requirements to build a solution for critical section problem

The critical section problem is a fundamental challenge in concurrent

programming. It refers to the situation where multiple processes or
threads share a common resource or data, and each process has a section
of code called the "critical section" that accesses or modifies the shared
resource. The critical section problem arises when processes or threads
need to coordinate their access to the critical section to prevent conflicts
and ensure proper execution.

The primary objective of solving the critical section problem is to find a

solution that satisfies the following three requirements:

1. Mutual Exclusion: Mutual exclusion ensures that only one process or

thread can be executing in its critical section at any given time. In
other words, if one process is executing its critical section, all other
processes or threads must be prevented from entering their critical
sections. This requirement guarantees that the shared resource is
not accessed simultaneously by multiple processes, which could
result in race conditions or data inconsistencies.
2. Progress: The progress requirement ensures that processes or
threads should not be indefinitely blocked or starved while
attempting to enter their critical sections. It guarantees that if no
process is currently executing in its critical section and some
processes are waiting to enter their critical sections, then the
selection of the process that will enter its critical section next should
be made in a fair and timely manner.
3. Bounded Waiting: The bounded waiting requirement places an
upper bound on the number of times other processes or threads can
enter their critical sections after a process or thread has made a
request to enter its critical section. This prevents a process or
thread from being indefinitely delayed by continually allowing new
processes or threads to enter their critical sections, ensuring
fairness and preventing starvation.
To solve the critical section problem, a synchronization mechanism or
solution needs to be implemented that satisfies these three requirements.
Common solutions include using locks, semaphores, or other
synchronization primitives to enforce mutual exclusion and ensure that
only one process or thread can access the critical section at a time.
Additional mechanisms like turn-taking algorithms, scheduling policies, or
fairness criteria can be employed to meet the progress and bounded
waiting requirements.

The specific solution chosen may depend on the programming language,

platform, or requirements of the system being developed. Various
synchronization algorithms and constructs, such as Peterson's algorithm,
Dekker's algorithm, locks, semaphores, or monitors, can be used to
provide solutions for the critical section problem while ensuring mutual
exclusion, progress, and bounded waiting

8. Differentiate between preemptive and non- preemptive scheduling and what

are the cases that come under these

Preemptive Scheduling Non-Preemptive Scheduling

The scheduler can interrupt a

running process before its The scheduler allows a process to run
completion and allocate the CPU until it completes or voluntarily releases
Definition to another process. the CPU.

Context switching occurs only when a

Context Frequent context switching process voluntarily releases the CPU or
Switching between processes can occur. completes.

Response time may be longer for high-

Shorter response time for high- priority processes if a lower-priority
Response Time priority processes. process is running.
 Preemptive Scheduling Non-Preemptive Scheduling

Priority Allows dynamic adjustment of Priorities are fixed and cannot be

Handling process priorities. changed during process execution.

Utilization of Higher CPU utilization due to more Lower CPU utilization as processes may
CPU efficient allocation of CPU time. hold the CPU for longer durations.

Better support for real-time May not provide robust support for real-
Real-Time applications as higher-priority time applications as higher-priority tasks
Applications tasks can interrupt lower-priority may have to wait for lower-priority tasks
Support tasks. to complete.

- Round-robin scheduling with - First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)

Examples time slices. scheduling.

- Priority-based scheduling. - Shortest Job Next (SJN) scheduling.

- Shortest Remaining Time (SRT)

- Multilevel Queue scheduling. scheduling.

MODULE – 7
8marks
1) Explain the characteristics of deadlock? Explain its prevention
and avoidance measures?
Ans:
  Deadlock is a situation in concurrent computing where two or more
processes or threads are unable to proceed because each is waiting for a
resource that is held by another process or thread in the same set.
 Deadlock arises when there is a circular dependency among processes,
each holding resources and waiting for resources held by others,
resulting in a standstill.
Characteristics of Deadlock:
1. Mutual Exclusion: At least one resource must be held in a non-sharable
mode, meaning only one process can access it at a time.
2. Hold and Wait: Processes holding resources may request additional
resources while still retaining the resources they currently hold.
3. No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken away from a process;
they can only be released voluntarily by the process.
4. Circular Wait: There exists a circular chain of two or more processes, where
each process is waiting for a resource held by another process in the chain.
Prevention of Deadlock:
1. Mutual Exclusion Prevention: Deadlock can be prevented by eliminating the
mutual exclusion requirement. However, this is not always feasible since
certain resources, such as printers or disks, are inherently non-sharable.
2. Hold and Wait Prevention: One approach is to enforce a rule where a
process must request and acquire all required resources before execution
begins, eliminating the hold and wait condition. However, this can lead to low
resource utilization and potential delays.

3. No Preemption Prevention: Preemption can be a solution by forcibly

preempting resources from processes when needed. However, this approach
can be complex to implement and can lead to data inconsistency if resources
are forcibly taken away.
4. Circular Wait Prevention: To prevent circular wait, a strict ordering of
resource acquisition can be enforced, where resources must be acquired in a
predefined order to avoid circular dependencies. This can be challenging to
achieve in practice.
Avoidance of Deadlock:
1. Resource Allocation Graph: Use a resource allocation graph to detect and
avoid circular wait situations. By analyzing the graph, potential deadlocks can
be identified, and resource allocation can be managed accordingly to prevent
deadlock.
2. Banker's Algorithm: The Banker's algorithm is a resource allocation
algorithm that dynamically determines if a resource allocation request can be
granted without leading to deadlock. It ensures that the system is always in a
safe state and avoids granting resources that could result in deadlock.
 It's important to note that prevention and avoidance measures for
deadlocks have their own limitations and trade-offs.
 Some methods may impose restrictions on resource allocation or
introduce complexities in system management.
 Thus, a careful analysis of the system's requirements, resources, and
concurrency patterns is crucial to determine the most appropriate
deadlock handling approach.

2) How do we detect deadlocks? What is resource allocation graph?

How does it help to detect deadlocks? What is the concept of
starvation and live lock with examples.
Ans:
There are several approaches to detect deadlocks in a system:
1. Resource Allocation Graph (RAG) Algorithm
2. Deadlock Detection Algorithm
3. Resource Allocation Table
4. Banker's Algorithm
 The resource allocation graph (RAG) is a graphical representation that
helps in detecting potential deadlocks by analyzing the resource
allocation and resource dependency among processes.
 It provides a visual representation of the state of the system, allowing for
the identification of potential deadlock conditions.
Here's how the resource allocation graph helps in detecting deadlocks:
1. Identifying Resource Allocation:
 - The RAG shows which processes are currently allocated which resources.
- The allocation edges in the graph indicate the resources held by the
processes.
2. Identifying Resource Requests:
- The RAG also shows which processes are currently requesting which
resources.
- The request edges in the graph indicate the resources requested by the
processes.
3. Analyzing for Cycles:
- Deadlocks occur when there is a circular dependency among processes,
where each process is waiting for a resource held by another process in the
cycle.
- The resource allocation graph is analyzed to detect the presence of cycles.
- If a cycle exists in the graph, it indicates the potential occurrence of a
deadlock.
4. Deadlock Detection:
- By examining the cycles in the resource allocation graph, potential
deadlocks can be identified.
- If a cycle is present in the graph, it signifies that each process in the cycle is
holding at least one resource and waiting for another resource held by another
process in the cycle.
- This circular dependency indicates that a deadlock may occur if the
processes do not release the resources they are holding.
1. Starvation:
 Starvation refers to a scenario where a process is unable to make
progress or access resources despite being eligible to do so.
 It occurs when a process is continuously denied the resources it needs
due to resource allocation policies or scheduling issues.
Example: Consider a shared resource, such as a printer, in an office
environment. If there is a scheduling algorithm that consistently prioritizes
certain processes or users, other processes or users may experience starvation.
For instance, if a low-priority user is consistently deprioritized, they might have
to wait an excessively long time to access the printer, causing their tasks to be
delayed or even rendered ineffective.
2. Livelock:
 Livelock occurs when processes or threads are continuously active and
trying to make progress, but their actions result in no forward progress
being made.
 In a livelock situation, processes or threads are not blocked or waiting,
but their actions are repeatedly reacting to each other without achieving
the desired outcome.
 Essentially, they are caught in an infinite loop of unproductive
interactions.
Example: The "Dining Philosophers" problem is often used to illustrate livelock.
In this scenario, a group of philosophers is seated around a circular table, and
each philosopher alternates between thinking and eating. The philosophers
share a limited number of forks placed between them. If all philosophers
simultaneously pick up their left fork, realize they need the right one as well,
release their left fork, and repeat this action indefinitely, a livelock occurs.
None of the philosophers can ever progress to eating, despite continuous
activity.

3) Give a brief note on scheduling queues with a neat diagram.

Ans:
 Scheduling queues are data structures used by the operating system to
manage and prioritize the execution of processes or threads.
 These queues help in organizing and categorizing processes based on
their characteristics and scheduling algorithms.
Here's a brief note on the commonly used scheduling queues along with a
diagram:
1. Job Queue (or Long-Term Scheduler):
- The Job Queue contains all processes residing in main memory, including
both active and inactive processes.
 - This queue represents the pool of processes waiting to be brought into the
main memory for execution.
- The Long-Term Scheduler (also known as the Admission Scheduler) selects
processes from the Job Queue and brings them into memory, creating PCBs
(Process Control Blocks) for the processes.
2. Ready Queue (or Short-Term Scheduler):
- The Ready Queue contains all the processes that are ready and waiting to be
executed by the CPU.
- Processes in the Ready Queue have been loaded into main memory and are
waiting for their turn to use the CPU.
- The Short-Term Scheduler selects processes from the Ready Queue and
allocates CPU time to them based on the scheduling algorithm.
3. Device Queue (or I/O Queue):
- Device Queues are specific queues associated with each I/O device in the
system.
- These queues hold the processes that are waiting to use a particular I/O
device.
- When a process requires I/O operations, it enters the Device Queue specific
to the requested device.
- The device controller services the requests in the order they arrived in the
Device Queue.
4. Terminated Queue:
- The Terminated Queue holds the processes that have completed their
execution or have been terminated.
- Processes in this queue are awaiting their final status and resource
deallocation before being removed from memory.

Here is a simplified diagram illustrating the relationship between the different

scheduling queues:
4) What is Banker’s Algorithm and its applications with example.
Ans:
 The Banker's Algorithm is a deadlock avoidance algorithm used in
operating systems to manage the allocation of resources to processes.
 It is designed to ensure that the system will not enter into a deadlock
state by dynamically allocating resources based on the current and
future resource requests of processes.
 The Banker's Algorithm works by considering the available resources, the
maximum resource requirements of each process, and the currently
allocated resources.
 It performs a safety check before allocating resources to ensure that the
system will not reach a deadlock state.
 The algorithm is named after its analogy to a banker who strategically
allocates money to customers.
Here's a high-level overview of the Banker's Algorithm:
1. Initialization:
- Gather information about the maximum resource requirements of each
process and the currently allocated resources.
 - Calculate the available resources by subtracting the allocated resources
from the total resources.
2. Request Phase:
- When a process requests additional resources, the Banker's Algorithm
evaluates whether the allocation can be granted without entering a deadlock
state.
- It checks if the requested resources are available and if allocating those
resources will result in a safe state (i.e., no deadlock will occur).
- If the requested resources can be safely allocated, the allocation is granted;
otherwise, the process is made to wait until the resources become available.
3. Release Phase:
- When a process completes its execution or voluntarily releases resources,
the allocated resources are returned to the system.
- The Banker's Algorithm updates the available resources accordingly.
The Banker's Algorithm has several applications in various domains. Some of
the key applications include:
1. Operating Systems
2. Distributed Systems
3. Real-Time Systems
4. Resource Management Systems
5. Database Management Systems

Let's consider an example scenario to illustrate the Banker's Algorithm.

Assume we have a system with three resource types: A, B, and C. The system
has a total of 10 instances of resource A, 5 instances of resource B, and 7
instances of resource C. There are three processes: P1, P2, and P3.
The maximum resource requirements and currently allocated resources for
each process are as follows:
- P1: Maximum resource requirements - 4 instances of A, 2 instances of B, 3
instances of C; Currently allocated resources - 1 instance of A, 1 instance of B, 1
instance of C.
- P2: Maximum resource requirements - 2 instances of A, 1 instance of B, 2
instances of C; Currently allocated resources - 2 instances of A, 0 instances of B,
1 instance of C.
- P3: Maximum resource requirements - 3 instances of A, 2 instances of B, 2
instances of C; Currently allocated resources - 1 instance of A, 1 instance of B, 1
instance of C.
Now, let's assume P1 requests 3 additional instances of resource A, 1 additional
instance of resource B, and 2 additional instances of resource C.
In our example, assuming that granting the request to P1 results in a safe state,
the Banker's Algorithm would allocate the requested resources to P1.
Otherwise, it would make P1 wait until the required resources become
available.

5) Process Need
A B C
P1 7 4 3
P2 1 2 2
P3 6 0 0
P4 0 1 1
P5 4 3 1
Apply Bankers Algorithm and Determine if the system is safe or not.
Also find safe state and safe sequence .
Ans:
6) Explain the concept of paging and segmentation and compare
them.
Ans:
Paging and segmentation are two memory management techniques used in
computer operating systems to manage the allocation of memory to processes.
1. Paging:
Paging divides the physical memory into fixed-size blocks called "pages,"
typically 4KB or 8KB in size. The logical memory is also divided into fixed-size
blocks called "page frames," which are the same size as the physical pages. The
main idea behind paging is to map these logical page frames to physical
memory frames.
Key features of paging:
- Each process's logical address space is divided into fixed-size pages.
- The physical memory is divided into fixed-size frames.
- The page table maintains the mapping between logical pages and physical
frames.
- Page tables are used to translate logical addresses to physical addresses
during memory access.
2. Segmentation:
Segmentation divides the logical memory into variable-sized segments, where
each segment represents a logical unit of the program, such as code, data,
stack, etc. Segments can vary in size, depending on the needs of the program.
Key features of segmentation:
- Logical memory is divided into variable-sized segments.
- Each segment represents a logical unit (e.g., code, data).
- Segments can have different sizes, reflecting the varying memory
requirements.
- Segmentation requires a segment table to map logical addresses to physical
addresses.
Comparison between paging and segmentation:
1. Memory Division:
- Paging: Physical memory and logical memory are divided into fixed-size pages
and page frames, respectively.
- Segmentation: Logical memory is divided into variable-sized segments.
2. Unit of Allocation:
- Paging: Memory allocation is done in fixed-size pages.
- Segmentation: Memory allocation is done in variable-sized segments.
3. Address Translation:
- Paging: Translation of logical addresses to physical addresses is done through
the page table.
- Segmentation: Translation of logical addresses to physical addresses is done
through the segment table.
4. Fragmentation:
- Paging: Internal fragmentation may occur due to fixed-size pages.
- Segmentation: External fragmentation may occur due to variable-sized
segments.
5. Memory Allocation Flexibility:
- Paging: Less flexible, as memory is allocated in fixed-size pages.
- Segmentation: More flexible, as memory is allocated in variable-sized
segments.
6. Address Space Sharing:
- Paging: Limited or no sharing of memory between processes.
- Segmentation: Facilitates sharing of segments between multiple processes.

7) What do you mean by page replacement algorithms and explain

any two page replacement algorithms with example.
Ans:
 Page replacement algorithms are used in operating systems to decide
which pages to remove from the main memory (RAM) when a new page
needs to be loaded, and the memory is already full.
 These algorithms aim to optimize memory utilization and minimize the
number of page faults (when a requested page is not present in
memory).
Here are two commonly used page replacement algorithms:
1. First-In, First-Out (FIFO):
The FIFO algorithm replaces the page that has been in the memory the longest.
It follows a queue-like structure where the oldest page is chosen for
replacement.
Example:
Suppose we have a page reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. We
have a memory of size 3.
Initially, the memory is empty:
|-|-|-|
We start loading pages into memory:
| 1 | - | - | // Page fault
| 1 | 2 | - | // Page fault
| 1 | 2 | 3 | // Page fault
Now, when the 4th page (4) is requested, we need to replace a page. As per the
FIFO algorithm, the oldest page (1) is chosen for replacement:
| 4 | 2 | 3 | // Page fault
The page reference continues, and when the 5th page (1) is requested again,
another page fault occurs. The oldest page (2) is replaced:
| 4 | 1 | 3 | // Page fault
This process continues, and the final state of memory after all the page
references are processed will be:
|3|4|5|
2. Least Recently Used (LRU):
The LRU algorithm replaces the page that has not been used for the longest
period. It assumes that the page that has not been referenced recently is less
likely to be used in the near future.
Example:
Using the same page reference string and memory size as in the FIFO example
(page reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; memory size: 3).
Initially, the memory is empty:
|-|-|-|
Page references start coming in:
| 1 | - | - | // Page fault
| 1 | 2 | - | // Page fault
| 1 | 2 | 3 | // Page fault
When the 4th page (4) is requested, we need to replace a page. According to
the LRU algorithm, the least recently used page is chosen for replacement. In
this case, it is page 1, as it was referenced before page 3:
| 4 | 2 | 3 | // Page fault
The page references continue, and when the 5th page (1) is requested again,
another page fault occurs. Page 2 is replaced as it was the least recently used:
| 4 | 1 | 3 | // Page fault
The process continues, and the final state of memory after all the page
references are processed will be:
|1|3|5|