Association Connecting Electronics Industries

IPC-2228
®

Sectional Design Standard

for High Frequency
(RF/Microwave)
Printed Boards

Developed by the High Speed/High Frequency Design Subcommittee

(D-21) of the High Speed/High Frequency Committee (D-20) of IPC

Users of this publication are encouraged to

participate in the development of future revisions.

Contact:

IPC

Tel 847 615.7100

Fax 847 615.7105
October 2022 IPC-2228

Table of Contents
1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.2.4.1 Electromagnetic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.2.4.1.1 Stackup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Document Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.2.4.1.2 Geometries and Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.2.4.1.3 Decoupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.2.5 Mechanical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.2.6 Preliminary Design Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.1 Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.2.7 Breadboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.2 Directional Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.2.8 Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.3 Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.2.9 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.4 Distributed Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.2.10 Final Design Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.5 Ground-to-Ground-Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.3 Performance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.6 Ground-to-Signal-Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.7 Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4.1 Dielectric Base Materials
1.5.8 Lumped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 (Including Cores and Bonding layers) . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.9 Open Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4.2 Microwave Printed Circuit Board Materials . . . . 5
1.5.10 Static Relative Permittivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4.2.1 Substrate Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.11 S-Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.2.1.1 Relative Permittivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.12 Semi-Rigid Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.2.1.2 Loss Tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.13 Short Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.2.1.3 Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.14 Smith Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.2.1.4 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.15 Soft Substrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.2.1.5 Cost Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.16 TEM Mode 4.3 Bonding Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
(Transverse Electromagnetic Mode) . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.3.1 Thermoplastic Bonding Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.17 VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) . . . . . . . . 2 4.3.2 Thermoset Bonding Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.18 Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.3.3 PTFE Bonding Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.19 As Agreed Between User and Supplier 4.4 Laminate Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
(AABUS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4.4.1 Laminate Material Code Designation . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Classification of Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4.5 Copper Foil and Other Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.1 Printed Board Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4.5.1 Thin Cladding Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4.5.2 Thick Cladding Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.5.3 Copper Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 IPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.6 Conductive Materials (Platings and Coatings) . . . 9
3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4.7 Electronic Component Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1 Information Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4.8 Organic Protective Coatings
3.1.1 Order of Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 (Solder Mask, Conformal Coating and OSP) . . . . 9

3.2 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4.9 Markings and Legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.2.1 Initial Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5 MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . 9

3.2.2 Design Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5.1 Fabrication Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.3 Transmission Line Type, Materials, 5.2 Product/Printed Board Configuration . . . . . . . . . 9
and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5.2.1 Printed Board Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.4 Electrical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5.2.1.1 Borders and Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

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IPC-2228 October 2022

5.2.1.2 Dimensional Aspect Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 10 GENERAL CIRCUIT FEATURE

REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2.1.3 Bow and Twist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
10.1 Conductor Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2.2 Mechanical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
10.1.1 Printed Board Edge Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3 Design Requirements for Printed
Board Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 10.1.2 Balanced Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3.1 Assembly Array (or Pallet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 10.1.3 Flush Conductors for Rotating or
Sliding Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4 Dimensioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
10.2 Land Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4.1 Profiles, Cutouts and Notches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
10.2.1 Offset Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4.1.1 Hole Location Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
10.3 Large Conductive Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 11 DOCUMENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.1 Via Spacing Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 11.1 Design Features Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.2 Ground Stitching Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 11.2 Master Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.3 Annular Ring Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 11.3 Master Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.4 Plated Edge Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 11.4 Protected Via Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

7 THERMAL MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 11.4.1 Protected Through Via Structures . . . . . . . . . . . 15

11.4.2 Protected Blind and Buried Structures . . . . . . . . 15
8 COMPONENT AND ASSEMBLY ISSUES . . . . . . . . 12
8.1 General Attachment Requirements . . . . . . . . . . 12 12 QUALITY ASSURANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

8.1.1 Attachment of Wires/Leads to Terminals . . . . . 12 12.1 Quality Conformance Evaluations . . . . . . . 16

8.2 Connector Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 12.2 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Appendix A HISTORICAL RF ENGINEERING
9 HOLE/INTERCONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
9.1 General Requirements for Lands with Holes . . . 13 A.1 Stripline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
9.1.1 Land Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 A.1.1 Characteristic Impedance of Stripline . . . . . . . . 18
9.1.2 Thermal Relief in Conductor Planes . . . . . . . . . 13 A.1.1.1 Narrow Signal Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
9.1.3 Clearance Area in Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 A.1.1.2 Wide Signal Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
9.1.3.1 Small Pitch Clearance Area in Planes . . . . . . . . 13 A.1.2 Attenuation in Stripline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
9.1.4 Nonfunctional Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 A.1.2.1 Narrow Signal Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
9.1.5 Conductive Pattern Feature Location A.1.2.2 Wide Signal Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
A.2 Asymmetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
9.2 Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
A.3 Microstrip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
9.2.1 Unsupported Holes (Non-plated Holes) . . . . . . . 13
A.3.1 Characteristic Impedance and Effective
9.2.2 Plated-Through Holes (PTHs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Permittivity of Microstrip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
9.2.2.1 Aspect Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 A.3.2 Attenuation in Microstrip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
9.2.2.2 Specifying Finished Hole Sizes for Soldered Appendix B DESIGN TUTORIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Component Leads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
B.1 Plated-Through Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
9.2.2.3 Specifying Hole Sizes for Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
B.2 Etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
9.2.3 Etchback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
B.3 Surface Roughness of Copper Foil . . . . . . . . . . . 38

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October 2022 IPC-2228

Figures Tables
Figure 5-1 Numerous Internal Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Table 4-1 Typical Characteristics of Thermoplastic
Figure 6-1 Common Nets Anchored to Printed Bonding Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Board Edge (Preferred) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Table 4-2 Characteristics of Typical Thermoset
Figure 6-2 Common Nets Not Anchored to Bonding Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Printed Board Edge (Not Preferred) . . . . . . 11 Table 4-3 Thick Metal Claddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 6-3 Non-functional Lands Added to Some Table 9-1 Minimum Standard Fabrication Allowance
Layers with Even Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . 12 for Interconnection Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 6-4 Non-functional Lands Added to Layers
Where Internal Layers are Not Common
to Edge Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 8-1 RF Connector Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 10-1 Conductor Etch Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 10-2 Overhang Resulting from Surface Finish
Metal Being Used as Etch Resist . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure A-1 Stripline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure A-2 Cutaway View of Stripline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure A-3 Cross Sectional View of Microstrip Line
without Metal Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figure A-4 Cross-Sectional View of Microstrip Line
with Metal Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

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October 2022 IPC-2228

Sectional Design Standard for High Frequency

(RF/Microwave) Printed Boards

1 SCOPE
This standard establishes the specific requirements for the design of rigid, flexible and rigid-flexible printed boards utilizing radio
frequency (RF) and/or Microwave circuity and/or high frequency laminates where RF transmission lines and related passive metal
layers are considered as distributed circuits, instead of conventional lumped circuit elements. This standard is used to support
product typically requiring materials meeting the requirements of IPC-4103 and fabricated to the requirements of IPC-6018.

1.1 Purpose The requirements contained herein are intended to establish specific design details that shall be used in conjunction
with IPC-2221 to produce designs intended to mount and attach components. The components may be through-hole, surface
mount, fine pitch, ultra-fine pitch, array mounting or unpackaged bare die.
The base organic materials used may be homogeneous, reinforced, or used in combination with inorganic materials; the
interconnections may be on single layers, double layers, or multilayered conductors. They may be any combination able to perform
the desired physical, thermal, environmental, and electronic functions.
It is incumbent upon the printed board design engineer to work with material suppliers and to initiate a dialogue with a fabricator
who has experience with specialty materials and fabrication processes required for manufacturing RF/Microwave designs. The
designer should solicit feedback regarding producibility of design attributes to ensure design intent is achievable.

1.2 Document Hierarchy Document hierarchy shall be in accordance with the generic standard IPC-2221.

1.3 Presentation Presentation shall be in accordance with the generic standard IPC-2221.

1.4 Interpretation Interpretation shall be in accordance with the generic standard IPC-2221.

1.5 Definition of Terms The definition of all terms used herein shall be in accordance with IPC-T-50 and as defined herein.

1.5.1 Anisotropy The condition for a substance having differing values for properties, such as permittivity, depending on the
direction within the material. Isotropy describes the case where a property is the same in all directions. Isotropy may exist in
non-crystalline homogeneous (single phase) substances. In a microwave laminate based on a polymer composite, anisotropy of the
dielectric layer exists.

1.5.2 Directional Coupler A device or structure which causes some of the energy propagating along one transmission line to be
transferred to a second transmission line so that most of the transferred energy propagates in a specific direction along the second
line. The other direction is considered isolated. At lower frequencies this function can be accomplished in a design with lumped
capacitive and inductive elements while at microwave frequencies two stripline or microstrip traces that run parallel to each other
for a certain distance can serve the purpose. One use for such devices is to sample amplitude or phase of a signal traveling in a
specific direction.

1.5.3 Directivity The difference between the isolation and the coupling values of a directional coupler.

1.5.4 Distributed Component An electrical component with dimensions greater than or on the order of the wavelength of the
propagating signal. The reactive and resistive electrical characteristics of such a component are said to be distributed.

1.5.5 Ground-to-Ground-Spacing Distance between ground planes in a stripline circuit.

1.5.6 Ground-to-Signal-Spacing Distance between ground and signal planes or conductors in a transmission line.

1.5.7 Impedance A measure of the opposition to the flow of alternating current in a circuit, equal to the ratio of the
RMS electromotive force in the circuit to the RMS current produced by it. Impedance is usually represented in complex notation
as Z = R + jX, where R is the ohmic resistance, X is the reactive, either inductive or capacitive, and j is .

1.5.8 Lumped Circuit elements that are not distributed.

1.5.9 Open Circuit A high impedance condition that ideally exhibits 0 dB return loss and a reflection coefficient of 1.0.

1.5.10 Static Relative Permittivity The ratio of the capacitance (CX) of a given configuration of electrodes with a specified dielectric,
filling all the region of electro potential field, to the capacitance (CV) of the same electrode configuration with a vacuum (or air)
as the dielectric.

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IPC-2228 October 2022

1.5.11 S-Parameters Parameters used to describe the operations of a microwave circuit: S11 is the input reflection coefficient,
S22 is the output reflection coefficient, S21 is the forward transmission, and S12 is the reverse transmission.

1.5.12 Semi-Rigid Cable A coaxial cable that has a solid outer conductor.

1.5.13 Short Circuit A low impedance that ideally exhibits 0 dB return loss and a reflection coefficient of -1.0.

1.5.14 Smith Chart A transmission line calculator used to evaluate and analyze microwave circuitry.

1.5.15 Soft Substrate For the purpose of this document the term soft substrate refers to the materials specified in IPC-4103.

1.5.16 TEM Mode (Transverse Electromagnetic Mode) A mode of electromagnetic wave propagation in which, at any point along
the line, the electrical and the magnetic fields both lie in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. This efficient mode
is characteristic of free space and is favored by coaxial and stripline transmission lines up to a frequency where other modes, with
propagation characteristics different from that of the TEM mode, can exist. The frequency at which these other modes can exist is
dependent on frequency and the dimensions of the line perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

1.5.17 VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) A measure of the degree of mismatch between a load and a transmission line.

1.5.18 Wavelength The distance an electromagnetic wave propagates during one full cycle. It is the ratio of the propagation
velocity in length units per unit time to the frequency in cycles per unit time.

1.5.19 As Agreed Between User and Supplier (AABUS) Indicates additional or alternate requirements to be decided between the
user and the supplier in the procurement documentation. Examples include contractual requirements, modifications to purchase
documentation and information on the drawing. Agreements can be used to define test methods, conditions, frequencies, categories
or acceptance criteria within a test, if not already established.

1.6 Classification of Products Classification of products shall be in accordance with the generic standard IPC-2221 and as defined
in 1.6.1.

1.6.1 Printed Board Type This standard provides design information for different printed board types. Printed board types are
classified as:
Type 1 – Single-Sided Printed Board
Type 2 – Double-Sided Printed Board
Type 3 – Multilayer Printed Board using homogeneous Dielectric Materials without blind or buried vias
Type 4 – Multilayer Printed Board using mixed Dielectric Materials without blind and/or buried vias
Type 5 – Multilayer Printed Board using homogeneous Dielectric Materials with blind and/or buried vias
Type 6 – Multilayer Printed Board using mixed Dielectric Materials with blind and/or buried vias
Type 7 – Single-sided or Double-sided Metal and or Composite Backed Printed Board
Type 8 – Multilayer Metal and or Composite Backed Printed Board with or without blind and/or buried vias

1.7 Applicability The contents of this standard may not apply to certain leading edge technologies. Refer to IPC-2221 for additional
information.

2 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS
The following specifications of the revision in effect at the time of order form a part of this document to the extent specified herein.
If a conflict of requirements exists between this specification and those listed below, this specification shall take precedence.
2.1 IPC1
IPC-A-600 Acceptability of Printed Boards
IPC-T-50 Terms and Definitions for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits
IPC-2152 Standard for Determining Current Carrying Capacity in Printed Board Design
IPC-2221 Generic Standard on Printed Board Design
IPC-2222 Sectional Design Standard for Rigid Organic Printed Boards
IPC-2223 Sectional Design Standard for Flexible and Rigid/Flexible Printed Boards

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