MODULE 3

Quantum Mechanical Oscillators and

Matter waves

Course Outcome (CO3)

After the completion of the course, the student will be able to
• Experiment, simulate and entrepreneurially engage with the seed ideas associated with
quantum mechanical oscillators and matter waves.

Contents
• Black body spectrum (theoretical vs experimental) –Quantum mechanical oscillator -
Planck’s quantum theory – Experimental evidence of Planck’s quantum theory
(Photoelectric effect on metals) – Photoelectric effect at PN junction.

• Matter waves (de Broglie hypothesis) – Time-dependent and independent Schrödinger

wave equations - Effect of confinement of a particle- Infinite potential (Particle in a
one-dimensional box: Derivation of normalized wave function and energy eigenvalues)
– Finite potential (Quantum mechanical tunnelling)- Emission of radiation and
emission spectrum. Mercury spectrum. Absorption of radiation and absorption
spectrum.

• Introduction to photonics - Photonic devices - Light Emitting Diode, Photodiode and

Solar cells; I-V Characteristics of a Solar Cell: Maximum Power Point (MPP).

Introduction

Classical Physics
Classical physics refers to the set of fundamental theories and principles in physics that
were developed before the advent of quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity in the
early 20th century. It encompasses the theories of motion, electromagnetism, thermodynamics,
and classical wave theory. Classical physics works well for describing macroscopic objects
moving at speeds much slower than the speed of light and under conditions that are not
extremely small or extreme in terms of energy.

Key Components of Classical Physics:

 • Newtonian Mechanics: Developed by Sir Isaac Newton. This branch of physics
describes the motion of objects based on the concepts of force, mass, and acceleration.
Newton's laws of motion are foundational principles in classical mechanics.
• Electromagnetism: Described by James Clerk Maxwell's equations. It explains the
behavior of electric and magnetic fields and their interactions. This theory provides a
comprehensive understanding of classical optics and electromagnetic waves.
• Thermodynamics: This branch deals with the principles governing the relationships
between heat, work, and energy transfer. It includes concepts such as the laws of
thermodynamics, heat engines, and entropy.
• Optics: Classical optics explains the behavior of light and its interactions with various
materials. The wave theory of light and geometric optics are integral parts of classical
physics.

While classical physics is highly effective in describing everyday phenomena and

macroscopic systems, it falls short in explaining the behavior of objects at very high speeds
(close to the speed of light) or at extremely small scales (atomic and subatomic levels). For
such scenarios, quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity are required.

Breakdown of classical physics

Classical physics is unable to explain the following physical phenomena.

1. Black body radiation spectrum

2. The Specific heat capacity
3. Model of the atom
4. Photoelectric effect
5. Compton scattering
6. Wave-particle duality

Black body radiation spectrum (Theoretical Vs Experimental)

The blackbody radiation spectrum is a classic problem in physics that was challenging
for classical physics to explain but found resolution with the advent of quantum mechanics.

Black body

A black body is an idealized physical object that absorbs all incident electromagnetic
radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. It emits radiation based solely on its
temperature, and it does so in a characteristic manner described by Planck's law. The term
"black body" is not meant to imply color but rather to signify its perfect absorption of all
radiation.

Some key characteristics of a black body are given below.

1. Perfect absorption: A black body absorbs all electromagnetic radiation incident upon it.
No radiation is reflected or transmitted; instead, all energy is absorbed.
2. Thermal Equilibrium: A black body is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings,
meaning that its temperature is constant. This is a crucial condition for the application of
Planck's law.
3. Emission of Radiation: A black body emits radiation due to its temperature. The
distribution of this radiation across different wavelengths is described by Planck's law,
which provides a theoretical formula for the spectral radiance of a black body.
4. Universal Emissivity: A black body is considered to have perfect emissivity, meaning it
emits the maximum possible radiation for a given temperature at every wavelength.

Blackbody radiation spectrum: Theoretical Vs. Experimental

Theoretical background

In classical physics, the Rayleigh-Jeans law attempted to describe the spectral radiance
of a blackbody, which is an idealized object that absorbs all incident radiation and emits
radiation at the maximum possible rate for any given temperature. However, the Rayleigh-
Jeans law predicted that the radiance diverged to infinity as the wavelength decreased, leading
to what is known as the "ultraviolet catastrophe." This catastrophic divergence at short
wavelengths was not consistent with experimental observations.

According to Rayleigh- Jeans law, the spectral radiance of blackbody radiation

is directly proportional to the temperature of the blackbody and inversely
proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.

𝑇
𝐵𝜆 (𝑇) ∝
𝜆4

Spectral radiance (𝐵𝜈 (𝑇)) is defined as the intensity of radiation emitted per unit area per unit
solid angle per unit wavelength.
 Figure 1: Spectral radiance of a black body (theoretical) given by Rayleigh – Jeans law (classical physics)

However, the Rayleigh-Jeans Law is not valid at shorter wavelengths, and it led to the
ultraviolet catastrophe problem, which was later resolved by quantum mechanics and Planck's
law.

The "ultraviolet catastrophe" refers to a problem that arose in the late 19 th century when
classical physics, particularly the Rayleigh-Jeans law, was applied to describe the spectral
distribution of blackbody radiation. The Rayleigh-Jeans law predicted that the intensity of
radiation would increase without bound as the wavelength decreased, particularly in the
ultraviolet region. This prediction was inconsistent with experimental observations. The
resolution to this problem came with the development of quantum theory and, specifically, Max
Planck's work in 1900. Planck introduced the concept that energy levels were quantized, and
he derived a new formula for the spectral distribution of blackbody radiation, now known as
Planck's law (Planck’s radiation formula). Planck's law successfully explained the observed
spectrum without predicting infinite energy in the ultraviolet region.

Blackbody radiation spectrum (Experimental)

The ultraviolet catastrophe highlighted a discrepancy between classical physics and

experimental observations regarding the behavior of blackbody radiation at short wavelengths.
The resolution to this problem played a crucial role in the development of quantum theory. In
the context of quantum mechanics, the idea of treating a blackbody as a quantum mechanical
oscillator played a crucial role in resolving the ultraviolet catastrophe and understanding the
spectral distribution of blackbody radiation. This approach was pioneered by Max Planck in
1900. The following figure shows the experimental black body radiation spectrum.

Figure 2: Spectral radiance of a black body (experimental)

Planck's law and Wien's displacement law are two key principles used to explain the
experimental blackbody radiation spectrum.

Planck’s Law

Planck's law provides a theoretical description of the spectral distribution of blackbody

radiation. It successfully explains the observed shape of the spectrum, addressing the
deficiencies of classical theories like the Rayleigh-Jeans law, by introducing the concept of
quantum mechanical oscillators for black body radiation.

Quantum Mechanical Oscillator

A quantum mechanical oscillator is a system that exhibits oscillatory behavior (vibration

or motion) and is described by the principles of quantum mechanics. Classical oscillators, such
as a pendulum or a vibrating string, have quantized counterparts in quantum mechanics. One
of the most well-known examples of a quantum mechanical oscillator is the quantum harmonic
oscillator. In classical physics, an oscillator can have any amount of energy, and the energy
levels are continuous. In quantum mechanics, the energy levels of an oscillator are quantized,
meaning they can only take on discrete values. The smallest unit of energy is a "quantum.“ The
quantum harmonic oscillator is a common model used to study quantum mechanical oscillators.
It consists of a particle (often representing an electron) moving in a potential energy well
created by a restoring force (analogous to a spring force in classical systems). The energy levels
of a quantum harmonic oscillator are given by En=ℏω(n+1/2), where En is the energy of the nth
level, ℏ is the reduced Planck's constant, ω is the angular frequency, and n is a non-negative
integer. Unlike classical oscillators, quantum mechanical oscillators have a minimum energy,
known as zero-point energy (ℏω/2), even at the lowest energy level (n=0).

Planck's Quantum Theory

Planck's Quantum Theory, proposed by the German physicist Max Planck in 1900,
marked a revolutionary shift in our understanding of the behavior of matter and radiation at the
atomic and subatomic levels. Planck introduced the concept of quantized energy to explain the
spectral distribution of blackbody radiation, addressing the deficiencies of classical physics
and laying the groundwork for the development of quantum mechanics.

Key principles and contributions of Planck's Quantum Theory

Key principles and contributions of Planck's Quantum Theory include:

• Quantization of Energy: Planck proposed that energy is quantized, meaning it can only
exist in discrete amounts or "quanta." This was a departure from classical physics,
which assumed that energy levels were continuous.

• Planck's Constant (h) : Planck introduced the constant ℎh, now known as Planck's
constant, to relate the energy of a quantum to its frequency. The equation is E=hν, where
E is the energy, h is Planck's constant, and ν is the frequency.

• Explanation of Blackbody Radiation: Planck applied the concept of quantized energy

to explain the spectral distribution of blackbody radiation. Classical theories, such as
the Rayleigh-Jeans law, predicted an infinite increase in intensity at short wavelengths,
leading to the ultraviolet catastrophe. Planck's quantization resolved this issue and
provided a more accurate description of blackbody radiation.

• Derivation of Planck's Law: Planck derived a new formula for the spectral distribution
of blackbody radiation, known as Planck's law. This law successfully described the
observed spectrum across a wide range of wavelengths and temperatures, reconciling
theory with experimental data. The Planck’s law is given below.

𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝟏
𝑩𝝀 (𝑻) =
𝝀𝟓 𝒉𝒄
𝒆𝝀𝒌𝑻 −𝟏

Or,
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄𝟑 𝟏
𝑩𝝂 (𝑻) =
𝝀𝟑 𝒉𝝂
𝒆𝒌𝑻 −𝟏

where,

Bλ(T) is the spectral radiance as a function of wavelength (λ) at temperature (T)

h is Planck's constant (6.62607015×10−34 J⋅s )

c is the speed of light (3.00×108 m/s)

λ is the wavelength of the radiation

k is the Boltzmann constant (1.380649×10−23 J/K)

T is the temperature of the blackbody

 • Birth of Quantum Mechanics: Planck's Quantum Theory laid the foundation for
quantum mechanics, a new branch of physics that emerged in the early 20th century.
Quantum mechanics introduced the wave-particle duality of particles, probabilistic
behavior, and the uncertainty principle.

• Einstein's Photoelectric Effect: Albert Einstein, building on Planck's work, used the
concept of quantized energy to explain the photoelectric effect, where light striking a
metal surface releases electrons. This work further supported the quantum theory.

• Quantum of Action: Planck introduced the concept of the "quantum of action,"

emphasizing the fundamental nature of ℎ and the idea that there is a fundamental limit
to our precision in measuring certain pairs of properties.

Wien’s Displacement Law

Wien's displacement law states that the wavelength at which the blackbody radiation
spectrum is most intense (λmax) is inversely proportional to the temperature (T).
Mathematically, this can be expressed as

𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑻 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

The law helps in visualizing how changes in temperature impact the peak wavelength.
Higher temperatures correspond to shorter peak wavelengths, shifting the spectrum toward the
blue end of the electromagnetic spectrum. Experimental measurements of blackbody radiation
spectra confirm that the peak wavelength is indeed inversely proportional to the temperature,
in accordance with Wien's law.

By combining Planck's law and Wien's displacement law, we can explain the entire
blackbody radiation spectrum consistently with experimental observations. Planck's law is
valid across a wide range of temperatures, providing a comprehensive description of blackbody
radiation. Wien's displacement law specifically addresses the location of the peak intensity. The
combination of these laws emphasizes the quantum nature of blackbody radiation, showing
how the quantization of energy and the temperature dependence of the spectrum work together
to produce the observed characteristics.

Experimental evidence of Planck’s quantum theory

Photoelectric Effect on metals

 The photoelectric effect is crucial experimental evidence supporting Planck's quantum
theory and the concept of quantized energy. The photoelectric effect refers to the phenomenon
where electrons are emitted from a metal when exposed to light. In otherwords, photoelectric
effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from a metal when it is exposed to light,
which occurs instantaneously and is influenced by the frequency (color) of the incident light
rather than its intensity. There is a threshold frequency (or energy) below which no
photoelectric effect occurs, regardless of the intensity of light incident on the metal. Albert
Einstein, building on the work of Max Planck, provided a theoretical explanation of the
photoelectric effect in 1905.

Mathematically, it can be represented as,

𝑬𝒌𝒊𝒏 = 𝒉𝝂 − 𝝓

where,

Ekin is the kinetic energy of the emitted electron

ℎ is Planck's constant

ν is the frequency of the incident light

ϕ is the work function of the material, representing the minimum energy required to release an
electron.
This equation reflects the quantization of energy, with electrons being ejected only if the energy
of the incident photons (ℎν) is greater than the work function. The kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons depends on the difference between the photon energy and the work function.

Photoelectric Effect at PN junction (or Photovoltaic effect)

The photovoltaic effect refers to the generation of an electromotive force (EMF) or

voltage in a PN junction or device when exposed to light. This phenomenon is the fundamental
principle behind solar cells and photovoltaic devices, which convert light energy into electrical
energy. The photoelectric effect in a PN junction (photovoltaic effect) involves the generation
and separation of electron-hole pairs by absorbed photons, leading to the creation of a built-in
potential and the generation of electrical voltage and current in an external circuit. The
following processes are involved in photovoltaic effect.

• Energy absorption: When photons of light strike a material, they can be absorbed by
electrons in the material. The energy from the absorbed photons can then excite electrons,
allowing them to move within the material.
• Generation of Electron-Hole Pairs: The absorption of photons can create electron-hole
pairs. When an electron is excited to a higher energy level, it leaves behind a positively
charged hole in its original position.
 • Separate Extraction of Charge Carriers: Due to the electric field within the material
or device, the generated electron-hole pairs can be separated, causing the electrons and
holes to move in opposite directions. The movement of charge carriers in opposite
directions creates a potential difference or voltage across the material or device. This
voltage can be harnessed for electrical power.

Photovoltaic cells, commonly known as solar cells, are devices designed to efficiently
capture and convert sunlight into electricity. These cells are typically made of semiconductor
materials, such as silicon.