Institute of

Space Technology

HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LAB

LAB REPORT # 5
SUBMITTED BY:
Student Name Registration Number
Laiba Shehzadi 220101083
Shamma Shehzadi 220101081
Muhammad Hannan 220101021

SUBMITTED TO:
Mr. Syed Amber Ali Shah Zaman
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Institute of Space Technology, Islamabad

2024
 Institute of
Space Technology

Copyright © 2024

This document is jointly copyrighted by the authors and the Institute of Space Technology (IST).
The author and IST can use, publish, or reproduce this document in any form. Under the
copyright law no part of this document can be reproduced by anyone, except copyright holders,
without the permission of the author
 Institute of
Space Technology

COURSE NAME:
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LAB
COURSE CODE:
314306

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
Analysis of steady and transient thermal systems, involving heat transfer by conduction,
convection and radiation and analysis of mass transfer by molecular diffusion and convection.

PRE-REQUISISTE:
NIL

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
Follow the instructions to perform a series of experiments on the prescribed equipment and
complete lab reports in time.

Lab Report 5:
Cross Flow Heat Exchanger with 9 Cylinders
 Institute of
Space Technology

Safety Rules

Safe Heating Practices: Use appropriate heating devices, and never leave heating
equipment unattended.

Emergency Contacts: Keep a list of emergency contacts readily available, including lab
supervisors and local emergency services.

Training: Ensure you are trained and familiar with all equipment and procedures before
starting any experiments.

Equipment Handling: Follow proper procedures for operating equipment. Be cautious with
hot surfaces, moving parts, and pressurized systems.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Always wear appropriate PPE, including lab
coats, safety goggles, and gloves.

Avoid Distractions: Stay focused on your work, and avoid eating, drinking, or using your
phone in the lab.

Temperature Awareness: Be mindful of temperature changes and handle hot equipment

with care, using appropriate tools like tongs or heat-resistant gloves.

Monitoring Equipment: Regularly check and calibrate instruments. Report any

malfunctioning equipment to a supervisor immediately.

Fire Safety: Know the location of fire extinguishers, fire blankets, and emergency exits. Never
block access to fire safety equipment.

Dealing with Pressure Systems: Always check that pressure gauges are functioning
correctly before operating. Do not exceed recommended pressure levels for equipment.

Safe Operation of Heat Sources: Follow proper procedures for turning on and off heating
devices like furnaces, hot plates, or boilers. Keep flammable materials away from heat sources.
 Institute of
Space Technology

Proper Handling of Equipment: Always inspect equipment for damage or malfunction

before use. Ensure all valves, seals, and connections are secure and tight before starting any
experiment involving heat or pressure.

CLO’S And PLOS’s

Module No CLO Teaching Assessment Learning PLOs to

No Methodology Methodology Domain Target
with
Level
I-II-III - Lecture/Theoretical Quizzes/ - -
demonstration Midterm/Final
I-III 1 Practical Performance Lab P-3 PLO-9
demonstration
/Performance
I-III 2 Theoretical Lab Reports A-4 PLO-10
Demonstration
regarding lab reports
I-III 3 Discussion Viva Voce A-2 PLO-10
 Institute of
Space Technology

Contents
Objective:......................................................................................................10
Introduction:..................................................................................................10
Uses of Cross Flow Heat Exchanger:..........................................................10
Description:................................................................................................10
Reynold’s Number:........................................................................................11
Application of Reynolds Number in Crossflow Heat Exchangers:...............11
 Flow Characterization:.......................................................................11
 Design Considerations:.....................................................................11
 Heat Transfer Coefficient (h):............................................................11
 Pressure Drop and Energy Efficiency:...............................................12
Nusselt number (Nu):.....................................................................................12
Interpretation of the Nusselt Number.........................................................12
 Applications in Crossflow Heat Exchangers.......................................12
 Importance of the Nusselt Number...................................................12
Apparatus......................................................................................................13
Experiment Capabilities:................................................................................15
Theoretical Background.................................................................................16
 Single Cylinder in Cross Flow...............................................................16
 Tube Bundle in Cross Flow:..................................................................16
 Calculation of ho and Nu:.....................................................................17
Procedure:.....................................................................................................17
Calculations:..................................................................................................18
Sensor at 2 column 1st rows...........................................................................19
For Power = 40W:.......................................................................................19
 Readings:..........................................................................................19
 Table of readings:.............................................................................20
 Reynold Number:..............................................................................20
 Institute of
Space Technology

 Nusselt’s number:.............................................................................21
 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:..................................................21
 Graph:...............................................................................................22
 For Power = 80W:................................................................................23
 Readings:..........................................................................................23
 Table of Readings:............................................................................24
 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:..................................................24
 Graph:...............................................................................................24
Sensor at Second Column Second Row:........................................................25
 For Power = 40W:................................................................................25
 Readings:..........................................................................................25
 Table of Readings:............................................................................26
 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:..................................................26
 Graph:...............................................................................................27
 For Power = 80W:................................................................................27
 Readings:..........................................................................................27
 Table of Readings:............................................................................28
 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:..................................................28
 Graph:...............................................................................................29
Sensor at Second Column Third Row:............................................................29
For Power = 40W........................................................................................29
 Readings:..........................................................................................29
 Table of Readings:............................................................................30
 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:..................................................30
 Graph:...............................................................................................31
 For Power = 80W:................................................................................31
 Readings:..........................................................................................31
 Table of Readings:............................................................................32
 Institute of
Space Technology

 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:..................................................32

 Graph:...............................................................................................33
Conclusion:....................................................................................................33
 Institute of
Space Technology

List of Figures:
Figure 1 Unit Assembly.................................................................................14
Figure 2 sensors............................................................................................15
Figure 3 The C and n values for a single tube in transverse air stream........16
Figure 4 Tube arrangement for inline and staggered configuration..............16
Figure 5 Power 40 at 0,45 90 positions.........................................................20
Figure 6 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re.........................................................22
Figure 7 Readings..........................................................................................24
Figure 8 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re.........................................................25
Figure 9 Readings..........................................................................................26
Figure 10 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re.......................................................27
Figure 11 Readings........................................................................................28
Figure 12 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re.......................................................29
Figure 13 Readings........................................................................................30
Figure 14 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re.......................................................31
Figure 15 Readings........................................................................................32
Figure 16 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re.......................................................33
 Institute of
Space Technology

Cross Flow Heat Exchanger with 9 Cylinders:

Objective:
The objective of the crossflow heat exchanger experiment is:

 Determine the mean surface heat transfer coefficient for tubes in the first through sixth rows
in a crossflow setup under steady-state conditions.
 Analyze heat transfer behavior for single and finned tubes to see the impact of fins on thermal
efficiency.
 Observe flow patterns and temperature gradients across the heat exchanger, focusing on the
influence of tube arrangements (inline vs. staggered) on performance.
 Calculate key thermal parameters like the Nusselt number and local heat transfer coefficients
to assess heat transfer characteristics in crossflow conditions.

Introduction:
A crossflow heat exchanger is a device that facilitates heat transfer between two fluid streams flowing
perpendicular to each other. Commonly used in HVAC, automotive, and industrial applications,
crossflow heat exchangers offer a compact and efficient way to manage thermal energy. The design
allows one fluid to flow across tubes containing another fluid, optimizing space and increasing surface
area for efficient heat exchange. This report explores the function, setup, and performance analysis of a
crossflow heat exchanger

Crossflow heat exchangers are widely used in applications such as internal combustion (I.C.) engine
radiators, air heaters, refrigeration systems, boiler super-heaters, and economizers.

Uses of Cross Flow Heat Exchanger:

The Crossflow Heat Exchanger setup used here includes advanced instrumentation, such as transducers
and a custom electronic interface, to monitor and control key variables. This type of unit is particularly
relevant in fields such as:

 Building Services
 Chemical Engineering
 Control and Instrumentation
 Food Engineering
 Marine and Mechanical Engineering
 Plant and Process Engineering
 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Description:
The system consists of a vertically mounted duct with air drawn in by a fan at the duct's base. Different
heat exchanger plates can be inserted into the duct, where an electrically heated plate serves as the
 Institute of
Space Technology

primary heating element. Thermocouples on the heater monitor the surface temperature and provide
thermal protection. The airflow rate is adjustable via an iris at the fan outlet, and the system features
protective measures like circuit breakers and overload cutouts for safety.

Reynold’s Number:
The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics to predict flow patterns
in different fluid flow situations. It describes the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces within a fluid
and is defined by the formula:

where:

 ρ is the fluid density,

 v is the fluid velocity,

 L is a characteristic length (such as the diameter of a pipe),

 μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid,

 ν is the kinematic viscosity (ν = μ /ρ).

Application of Reynolds Number in Crossflow Heat Exchangers:

 Flow Characterization:
In a crossflow heat exchanger, the Reynolds number helps classify whether the flow across the tubes or
plates is laminar or turbulent. Typically, laminar flow (Re < 2300) occurs at lower velocities and leads to
lower heat transfer coefficients, which is less efficient. Turbulent flow (Re > 4000), on the other hand,
enhances heat transfer due to increased mixing, leading to more effective temperature gradients across the
fluid layers.

 Design Considerations:
For enhanced heat transfer, designers aim to achieve turbulent flow within the crossflow heat exchanger.
The Reynolds number is manipulated by adjusting the velocity, fluid properties, and characteristic
dimensions (such as tube diameter or spacing) to achieve desirable flow conditions. This affects the size,
shape, and layout of the heat exchanger components.

 Heat Transfer Coefficient (h):

In crossflow heat exchangers, the local and overall heat transfer coefficients depend heavily on the
Reynolds number. The heat transfer coefficient increases with higher Reynolds numbers due to improved
convective heat transfer in turbulent flow regions. Empirical correlations often relate the Nusselt number
 Institute of
Space Technology

(Nu) to the Reynolds number and Prandtl number (Pr) for calculating the heat transfer coefficient across
tube bundles.

 Pressure Drop and Energy Efficiency:

The Reynolds number also affects pressure drop across the heat exchanger. High Reynolds numbers,
while enhancing heat transfer, increase resistance to flow, leading to greater pressure drop and higher
energy consumption for pumping. Engineers balance the Reynolds number to optimize heat transfer while
minimizing pressure drop for efficient operation.

Nusselt number (Nu):

The Nusselt number (Nu) is a dimensionless quantity used in heat transfer calculations to characterize
the efficiency of heat transfer by convection relative to conduction across a boundary layer. It is
essentially a measure of the convective heat transfer enhancement over conductive heat transfer alone.
Named after Wilhelm Nusselt, this number helps determine the rate of heat transfer in fluids and is
defined as:

where:

 h is the convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m²·K),

 L is the characteristic length (typically the diameter for pipe flows),

 k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid (W/m·K).

Interpretation of the Nusselt Number

1. Nu = 1: Conduction dominates, with no significant convective contribution.

2. Nu > 1: Convection is enhancing the heat transfer beyond pure conduction. The higher the
Nusselt number, the greater the contribution of convection relative to conduction.

 Applications in Crossflow Heat Exchangers

In a crossflow heat exchanger, the Nusselt number helps determine the heat transfer efficiency for fluids
passing over or through tubes. Empirical correlations for the Nusselt number as a function of Reynolds
(Re) and Prandtl (Pr) numbers help calculate the convection heat transfer coefficient. These correlations
vary with flow conditions, such as whether the flow is laminar, transitional, or turbulent.

 Importance of the Nusselt Number

The Nusselt number is vital for designing heat exchanger configurations and optimizing heat transfer
performance in engineering applications such as HVAC systems, automotive radiators, and power plants.
 Institute of
Space Technology

By calculating the Nusselt number, engineers can determine the appropriate dimensions, materials, and
fluid velocities to maximize efficiency.

Difference between Reynold’s number and Nusselt Number:

Aspect Reynolds Number (Re) Nusselt Number (Nu)

Definition Ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in a Ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer
fluid flow across a boundary layer

Formula
ρVL VL hL
ℜ= = ​ Nu=
μ v k

Key Variables Depends on fluid density (ρ), velocity (V), Depends on convective heat transfer
length scale (L), viscosity (μ) or kinematic coefficient (h), length scale (L), and thermal
viscosity (ν) conductivity (k)
Dimensionless? Yes Yes

Physical Indicates whether flow is laminar or turbulent Indicates the effectiveness of convective heat
Meaning transfer relative to conduction

Common Re < 2000 (Laminar); Re > 4000 (Turbulent); Nu = 1 for pure conduction; Nu > 1 for
Values transitional in between convection, with larger values indicating
stronger convective effects

Application in Used to determine flow type and influence of Used to calculate heat transfer coefficients and
Heat flow regime on heat transfer assess heat exchanger performance
Exchangers

Primary Role Helps classify flow and predict patterns Helps determine the convective heat
such as laminar or turbulent transfer rate for various geometries

Calculation Based on fluid flow characteristics Based on heat transfer characteristics

Basis
Engineering Essential for predicting fluid behavior and Essential for evaluating and improving
Relevance optimizing flow conditions heat transfer efficiency

Apparatus
The experiment requires the following apparatus:

 Crossflow heat exchanger unit: Contains tube bundles or finned tubes to facilitate perpendicular
fluid flow.
 Institute of
Space Technology

 Temperature sensors: Measure inlet and outlet temperatures of both fluids.

 Flow Meters: Measure the volumetric or mass flow rate of each fluid.

 Pump and Blower: Control the fluid flow through the heat exchanger.

 Data Acquisition System: Record temperatures and flow rates for precise calculation

Figure 1 Unit Assembly

 Institute of
Space Technology

Figure 2 sensors

Cross flow heat exchanger unit is a floor standing unit consisting of an air duct and a fan with motor. This
unit comes with acrylic panels for single tube, tube bundle, and finned tube bundle. Wing nuts are used to
mount acrylic panels for cross flow heat exchanger experiments.

Experiment Capabilities:
 Steady state determination of heat transfer, temperature difference and surface heat

transfer coefficient for a single tube in a transverse air stream.

 Steady state determination of the mean surface heat transfer coefficient for tubes in

the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th rows of a crossflow heat exchanger.

 Steady state determination of the mean surface heat transfer coefficient for finned

tubes in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th rows of a finned cross flow heat exchanger.
 Institute of
Space Technology

Theoretical Background
 Single Cylinder in Cross Flow
Local heat transfer coefficient, Nu (Nusselt’s number) for a single cylinder subjected to the cross flow of
air is given by:

The parameters are evaluated at the film temperature, T f =¿(T∞+Ts)/2

Figure 3 The C and n values for a single tube in transverse air stream

 Tube Bundle in Cross Flow:

Closely spaced cylindrical tube bundles are commonly used in heat exchangers in characteristics at
downstream tubes. Variations occur from tube to tube for the first 10 tubes. Tube arrangement is
obviously another influencing factor.

Figure 4 Tube arrangement for inline and staggered configuration

The average heat-transfer coefficient for bundles at least 10 tubes deep in the flow direction is given by:
 Institute of
Space Technology

And the constants, C1 and n, are given in the above Table. The maximum velocity, Vmax, occurs at the
minimum flow passage. Referring to the shaded unit cells of Figure, we see that the minimum passage for

staggered bundles is the smaller of (a –D)/ 2 and

divided by this smaller value.

√( )
a 2 2
2
+ b −D (the diagonal), and Vmax is V∞. a/2

 Calculation of ho and Nu:

For cylindrical tube, the area is given by

A = πDL

Then, ho and Nu are calculated as follows:

Procedure:
 Install the tube bundle plate onto the vertical air duct.
 Switch ON the air blower and then switch ON the heater.
 Insert the tube heater into the slot in the first row.
 Set the inlet air velocity by turning the iris control to no. 1. Read the
inlet air velocity, V and record the reading.
 Institute of
Space Technology

 Increase the heater power slowly until is ΔT (T ¿ ¿ s−T inlet )¿

approximately 30°C.
Once the steady state condition is reached, record Ts and T inlet
 Read the heater power, Q and record the reading.
 Repeat steps 4 to 6 for various iris settings of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, each
time recording the inlet air velocity and corresponding heater power.
 Repeat steps for tube heater positions of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
 If no further experiment is required, switch off the heater and fan.

Calculations:
−5 2
v f =1.699 × 10 m /s

Diameter =D=0.015 m
k f =0.028W /m K

L=0.072 m
2
Area=A=πDL=0.00 339 m
a=0.038

V (a)
V max =
a−D
V max D
Re max =
vf

ho D
Nu=
kf
 Institute of
Space Technology

Sensor at 2 column 1st rows

For Power = 40W:
 Readings:
 Institute of
Space Technology

Figure 5 Power 40 at 0,45 90 positions

 Table of readings:
Sr No. Damper Opening Air Velocity Surface Air Temperature

T s(°C) T inlet(°C)
(m/s) temperature Inlet

1 0° 1.32 61.1 25.47

2 45° 3.54 51.1 25.30
3 90° 6.27 44.8 25.28

 Reynold Number:
(V ¿ ¿ max D)
Re =¿ ¿¿
vf

For V max =1.31 m/s

( 1.32 ) ( 0.015 )
Re = −5
=1165.39
1.699 ×10

For V max =3.54 m/ s

( 3.54 )( 0.01 5 )
Re = −5
=3125.36
1. 699× 10
 Institute of
Space Technology

For V max =6. 27 m/s

( 6. 27 ) ( 0.015 )
Re = −5
=5535.60
1.699 ×10

 Nusselt’s number:
ho D
Nu=
kf

Q
h o=
A ( T surface−T inlet )

For T s=61.1 ° C :
40 2
h o= =331.16 W /m ° C
0.00339(61.1−25.47)

331.16(0.015)
Nu= =177.40
0.028

For T s=51.1 °C :
40 2
h o= =457.34 W /m ° C
0.00 339(51.1−2 5.30)

457.34 (0.01 5)
Nu= =245.01
0.028

For T s=44.8 ° C :
40 2
h o= =604.47 W /m ° C
0.00 339(44.8−2 5.28)

604.47(0.015)
Nu= =323.82
0.028
 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:
Sr. Reynold ln ℜ ho Nu ln Nu
No Number
Re
1 1165.39 7.06 331.16 177.40 5.17
2 3125.36 8.04 457.34 245.01 5.50
3 5535.60 8.61 604.47 323.82 5.78
 Institute of
Space Technology

 Graph:

Figure 6 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re

Slope:
0 . 3874

Y-intercept:
2.4219
 Institute of
Space Technology

 For Power = 80W:

 Readings:
 Institute of
Space Technology

Figure 7 Readings

 Table of Readings:
Sr No. Damper Opening Air Velocity Surface Air Temperature

T s(°C) T inlet(°C)
(m/s) temperature Inlet

1 0° 1.25 69.2 25.26

2 45° 3.77 58.8 25.57
3 90° 6.51 51.9 25.39
 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:
Sr. Reynold ln ℜ ho Nu ln Nu
No Number
Re
1 1103.6 7.01 537.1 287.732 5.66
2 3328.4 8.11 710.16 380.44 5.94
3 5747.5 8.65 890.18 476.88 6.16
 Graph:
 Institute of
Space Technology

Figure 8 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re

Slope:0.2975

Y-intercept: 3.563

Sensor at Second Column Second Row:

 For Power = 40W:

 Readings:
 Institute of
Space Technology

Figure 9 Readings

 Table of Readings:
Sr No. Damper Opening Air Velocity Surface Air Temperature

T s(°C) T inlet(°C)
(m/s) temperature Inlet

1 0° 1.29 57.9 25.29

2 45° 3.58 53.4 25.25
3 90° 6.55 47.5 25.22

 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:

Sr. Reynold ln ℜ ho Nu ln Nu
No Number
Re
1 1138.91 7.03 723.66 387.675 5.96
2 3160.68 8.05 838.32 449.1 6.10
3 5782.81 8.66 1059.19 567.42 6.34
 Institute of
Space Technology

 Graph:

lnNu Vs ln Re
6.4 6.34
6.3
f(x) = 0.223276158647466 x + 4.36647466456972
6.2
6.1
6.1
ln Nu

6 5.96

5.9

5.8

5.7
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9

lnRe

Figure 10 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re

Slope:
slope=0.2233

Y-intercept:
4.3665

 For Power = 80W:

 Readings:
 Institute of
Space Technology

Figure 11 Readings

 Table of Readings:
Sr No. Damper Opening Air Velocity Surface Air Temperature

T s(°C) T inlet(°C)
(m/s) temperature Inlet

1 0° 1.31 81.8 25.44

2 45° 3.81 57.3 25.24
3 90° 6.37 49.0 25.37

 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:

Sr. Reynold ln ℜ ho Nu ln Nu
No Number
Re
1 1156.56 7.05 418.71 224.30 5.41
2 3363.74 8.12 736.08 394.32 5.97
3 5623.89 8.63 998.68 535.01 6.28
 Institute of
Space Technology

 Graph:

lnNu Vs ln Re
6.4 6.28
6.2 f(x) = 0.546444865945558 x + 1.55153739683191
5.97
6
5.8
ln Nu

5.6
5.41
5.4
5.2
5
4.8
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9

lnRe

Figure 12 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re

Slope:
slope=0.5464

Y-intercept:
1.5515
 Institute of
Space Technology

Sensor at Second Column Third Row:

For Power = 40W
 Readings:

Figure 13 Readings

 Table of Readings:
Sr No. Damper Opening Air Velocity Surface Air Temperature
(m/s) temperature Inlet
 Institute of
Space Technology

T s(°C) T inlet(°C)
1 0° 1.26 59.0 25.35
2 45° 3.61 42.9 25.25
3 90° 6.31 36.8 25.41

 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:

Sr. Reynold ln ℜ ho Nu ln Nu
No Number
Re
1 1112.4 7.01 701.30 375.69 5.92
2 3187.16 8.06 1337.04 716.27 6.57
3 5570.92 8.62 2071.88 1109.93 7.01

 Graph:

lnNu Vs ln Re
7.2
7.01
7
6.8 f(x) = 0.669577366398882 x + 1.21257073000349
6.57
6.6
6.4
ln Nu

6.2
6 5.92
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.2
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9

lnRe

Figure 14 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re

Slope:
slope=0.6696

Y-intercept:
1.2126
 Institute of
Space Technology

 For Power = 80W:

 Readings:

Figure 15 Readings

 Table of Readings:
Sr No. Damper Opening Air Velocity Surface Air Temperature

T s(°C) T inlet(°C)
(m/s) temperature Inlet

1 0° 1.20 50.3 25.28

2 45° 3.76 40.4 25.39
3 90° 6.33 36.3 25.44
 Institute of
Space Technology

 Table of Reynold’s Number and Nu:

Sr. Reynold ln ℜ ho Nu ln Nu
No Number
Re
1 1059.44 6.96 943.19 505.28 6.22
2 3319.59 8.10 1572.20 842.25 6.73
3 5588.58 8.62 2173.00 1164.10 7.05

 Graph:

lnNu Vs ln Re
7.2
7.05
7
f(x) = 0.491400036989089 x + 2.78788237469946
6.8 6.73

6.6
ln Nu

6.4
6.22
6.2

5.8
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9

lnRe

Figure 16 Graph between ln Nu Vs ln Re

Slope:
slope=¿ 0.4914

Y-intercept:
2.7879

Conclusion:
The crossflow heat exchanger demonstrates efficient heat transfer through a
perpendicular fluid configuration, which is ideal for applications requiring
 Institute of
Space Technology

compact designs and moderate heat exchange rates. The experimental

analysis provides insight into the operational efficiency of the device,
including the impact of flow rate, temperature differential, and material
properties on heat transfer performance. Crossflow heat exchangers prove
effective in industrial and automotive applications, balancing durability,
efficiency, and space-saving design