energies

Article
Analysis, Design, and Implementation of
Improved LLC Resonant Transformer for
Efficiency Enhancement
Zhenxing Zhao 1,2 , Qianming Xu 1, *, Yuxing Dai 1,3 and Hanhang Yin 1
1 College of Electrical and Information Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China;
[email protected] (Z.Z.); [email protected] (Y.D.); [email protected] (H.Y.)
2 College of Electrical Information, Hunan Institute of Engineering, Xiangtan 411100, China
3 College of Physical and Electrical Engineering, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325000, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-731-8882-3964




Received: 9 November 2018; Accepted: 22 November 2018; Published: 25 November 2018


Abstract: In battery charging applications, the charger changes its output voltage in a wide range
during the charging process. This makes the design of LLC converters difficult to be optimized
between the efficiency and the gain range. In this paper, an improved resonant transformer is
presented for LLC resonant converter charger to improve the gain adjustment and charger efficiency.
The resonant inductance and magnetizing inductance are integrated in the designed LLC transformer,
and the magnetizing inductance can be adjusted dynamically with the change of output voltage
and load, which is realized by a switch-controlled inductor (SCI) parallel to the secondary winding
of transformer. The proposed transformer has 22.4% reduction in losses under full load conditions
compared to conventional solutions. Moreover, the conduction loss and switching loss of LLC
resonant tank are reduced by dynamically adjusting the magnetizing inductance, which improves the
comprehensive efficiency of the whole charging process. The proposed transformer design is verified
on a 720 W prototype.

Keywords: LLC resonant converter; resonant transformer; fringing effect; adjustable magnetizing
inductance; efficiency

1. Introduction
LLC resonant converter has been widely used in electric vehicle battery chargers, flat panel
television (TV), and photovoltaic (PV) system due to its high-power density and high conversion
efficiency [1–4]. For now, it has become one of the most concerned DC/DC converters.
In constant output voltage applications, LLC resonant converter can achieve high efficiency.
However, there are many challenges for LLC resonant converter in the charger applications which
requires a wide output voltage adjustment range [5]. It requires a small magnetizing inductance
to obtain a wide output voltage adjustment range, but it can lead to increased conduction loss and
switching loss as well as efficiency reduction [6]. The magnetizing inductance is usually integrated in
LLC resonant transformer. The usual structure of magnetic integrated LLC transformer is as shown in
Figure 1, the leakage layer is set between the primary winding and secondary winding. The required
resonant inductance is obtained by using stray flux and the magnetizing inductance is achieved by
inserting an appropriate air-gap in the magnetic circuit [7,8]. The transformer with that structure has
high integration and low cost and has been widely used in converters with power level from dozens to
hundreds of watts.

Energies 2018, 11, 3288; doi:10.3390/en11123288 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

transformer has a much higher percentage than that of phase-shift full-bridge transformer in the same
power [9]. One of the main reasons is that the air gap in the magnetic core of LLC resonant
transformer causes fringing effect, leading to an increase in the equivalent resistance of windings
near the air gap, and the transformer inner temperature rise distributed imbalance. The other reason
is that the
Energies 2018,small magnetizing inductance leads to increased conduction loss and switching loss of
11, 3288 the
2 of 19
LLC resonant converter, so the light-load efficiency is lower.

Figure 1.
Figure Structure of
1. Structure of conventional
conventional LLC
LLC transformer
transformer and
and leakage
leakage flux
flux effect
effect on
on the
the windings.
windings.

As order
In the core to device
improve of LLCthe resonant
efficiencyconverter, the transformer
of LLC transformer, plays aimprovement
different critical role indesigns
converter’s are
efficiency, volume, power density, and reliability. However,
proposed. In [10], a novel shape magnetic core is used to achieve the integration of two the whole loss of the LLC resonant
LLC
transformer has
transformers. In a[11],
much higher percentage
a magneto plated wire thanis that
usedoftophase-shift
effectivelyfull-bridge
decrease the transformer
winding loss in the same
caused
power [9]. One of the main reasons is that the air gap in the
by the proximity effect when working in high frequency. In [12], the integration of resonant magnetic core of LLC resonant transformer
causes fringing
inductance effect, is
required leading
achieved to anby increase
inserting in the equivalent
a layer resistance
of flexible of windings
magnetic material near the air gap,
between the
and the transformer inner temperature rise distributed
primary and secondary windings. The designs proposed by [10–12] have high integration, imbalance. The other reason is that the small
but
magnetizing
without regard inductance
for the fringing leads to increased
effect, so they conduction
are more loss and for
suitable switching
low power loss applications.
of the LLC resonantIn [13],
converter, so the light-load efficiency is lower.
the copper loss of the Litz wire caused by the air gap is analyzed, and the influence of the fringing
effectInisorder to improve
weakened by usingthe efficiency
multiple smallof LLCair transformer,
gaps in series, different
but thisimprovement
increases the designs
cost andare proposed.
difficulty
In [10], a novel shape magnetic core is used to achieve the integration
of transformer production. In [7], a design method of LLC resonant transformer is presented, and of two LLC transformers. In [11],
the
a magneto plated wire is used to effectively decrease the winding
current density in the conductor near the air gap is simulated. In [14], the optimal design method of loss caused by the proximity effect
when working ininhigh
the transformer frequency.LLC
conventional In [12], the integration
resonant converter is ofextended
resonant inductance
to the design required is achieved
and application of
by inserting a layer of flexible magnetic material between the
flat panel transformer, and a complete design scheme and a detailed application method are given. primary and secondary windings. The
designs
In [7,14],proposed
the fringing by [10–12]
effect have high integration,
is mentioned, but the but withoutofregard
influence for the
the effect is fringing
not analyzed effect,and
so they
the
are more suitable for low power applications. In [13], the copper loss
solution is not given. In [15], the relationship between the temperature rise and the switch frequency of the Litz wire caused by the air
gap
as is analyzed,
well as the windingand the influence
number of the
of the LLC fringing
resonant effect is weakened
transformer by using multiple
are discussed, small air gaps
and a combination of
in series, but this increases the cost and difficulty of transformer
two smaller transformers is used instead of one larger transformer to reduce the temperature production. In [7], a design method
rise.
of LLC transformer
Matrix resonant transformeris used toisachieve presented, and the
a higher outputcurrentpower density
in [16].in the conductor
However, withnear the air gap
the increase of
is simulated. In [14], the optimal design method of the transformer
power, the matrix transformer which consists of too many transformers will lead the system more in conventional LLC resonant
converterIn
complex. is extended
[17,18], toto the design
reduce and application
the influence of flat panel
of the fringing effect,transformer,
the distanceand a complete
between design
the winding
scheme
and the and a detailed
air gap application
is increased method
by making are given.
changes of theInwinding
[7,14], the fringing which
structure, effect is mentioned,
leads but the
to the increase
influence of the effect is
in difficulty of processing windings. not analyzed and the solution is not given. In [15], the relationship between
the temperature
To improve rise the and the switch
light-load frequency
efficiency, the as well as the in
transformers winding
[19,20]number of the LLC
are designed with resonant
variable
transformer are discussed, and a combination of two smaller
magnetizing inductance. In [19], by using utilizing a step-gap in the core column, a larger transformers is used instead of one larger
transformer to reduce the temperature rise. Matrix transformer
magnetizing inductance is obtained at light load, and it decreases at heavy load, but the variety of is used to achieve a higher output
power in [16].inductance
magnetizing However, with the increase
is non-linear and of power, the matrix
uncontrollable. transformer
In [20], whichpower
a bidirectional consists of tooismany
switch used
transformers will lead the system more complex. In [17,18],
to achieve the parallel operation of two transformers. When under heavy load, the switch turn-on, to reduce the influence of the fringing
effect,
two the distanceprimary
transformers betweenside the work
winding and the air
in parallel, thegap is increased
magnetizing by making
inductance ofchanges
resonantoftank the winding
is small,
structure, which leads to the increase in difficulty of processing
and can satisfy the gain demand required in the initial stage of charging. When under light load, thewindings.
switch Toturns
improve the light-load
off, only one transformer efficiency,
works, thethetransformers
magnetizingininductance[19,20] areofdesigned
resonantwith tank variable
is large,
magnetizing inductance. In [19], by using utilizing a
and the conduction loss and switching loss of primary side decrease. However, the step-gap in the core column, a larger magnetizing
resonant
inductance is
inductance obtained
cannot at light load,
be integrated into and theit decreases
transformer, at heavy load, but theinductance
the magnetizing variety of magnetizing
can only be
inductance is non-linear and uncontrollable. In [20], a bidirectional power switch is used to achieve the
parallel operation of two transformers. When under heavy load, the switch turn-on, two transformers
primary side work in parallel, the magnetizing inductance of resonant tank is small, and can satisfy the
gain demand required in the initial stage of charging. When under light load, the switch turns off, only
one transformer works, the magnetizing inductance of resonant tank is large, and the conduction loss
and switching loss of primary side decrease. However, the resonant inductance cannot be integrated
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

changed between two fixed values, and when under light load, only one transformer works and the
other is vacant.
Aiming
Energies to3288
2018, 11, address the design problems of the conventional LLC transformer caused by the3 of large
19
influence of the fringing effect and the unchangeable magnetizing inductance, this paper presents a
design for the integrated LLC resonant transformer. The magnetizing inductance does not need to be
into the transformer,
obtained by insertingthe airmagnetizing
gap, so theinductance can only
fringing effect of be changed
the between
transformer is two
small.fixed values, and
Moreover, the
when under light load, only one transformer works and the other is
magnetizing inductance can be dynamically adjusted by a SCI parallel to the secondary winding of vacant.
Aiming to address
the transformer. This canthe notdesign problemsthe
only improve of the conventional
efficiency and theLLC transformer
temperature risecaused
of theby the large
transformer
influence of the fringing effect and the unchangeable magnetizing
but also optimize the comprehensive efficiency of the LLC resonant converter during the inductance, this paper presents
whole
a design for
charging process. the integrated LLC resonant transformer. The magnetizing inductance does not need
to be obtained
This paper by inserting
includes air gap, so
following the fringing
aspects. Section effect of the transformer
2 analyzes is small. integrated
the conventional Moreover, the LLC
magnetizing inductance can be dynamically adjusted by a SCI parallel to the secondary winding of
resonant transformer. Section 3 presents the proposed design scheme, analysis of magnetic flux in
the transformer. This can not only improve the efficiency and the temperature rise of the transformer
the transformer core and the application circuit. Section 4 gives the calculation formula and design
but also optimize the comprehensive efficiency of the LLC resonant converter during the whole
procedure of the transformer. Section 5 shows the experimental results of a 720 W LLC resonant
charging process.
converter. The conclusion is given in the last section.
This paper includes following aspects. Section 2 analyzes the conventional integrated LLC
resonant transformer. Section 3 presents the proposed design scheme, analysis of magnetic flux in
2. Analysis of Conventional LLC Transformer
the transformer core and the application circuit. Section 4 gives the calculation formula and design
In high-power
procedure applications,Section
of the transformer. the fringing
5 shows effect
thenear the air gap
experimental leads of
results to aa 720
significant
W LLCincrease
resonantin
the current The
converter. density of the windings
conclusion is given innear the section.
the last air gap, resulting in an apparent increase in the partial
temperature rise and copper loss of the transformer [7]. To analyze the influence of fringing effect,
2. Analysis
finite elementofanalysis
Conventional LLC Transformer
(FEA) simulation is carried out by using Maxwell software. Figure 2 illustrates
the simulation of fringing effect at
In high-power applications, the fringing 100 kHz. It can be near
effect seen thethe air
current density
gap leads to aofsignificant
the copper conductor
increase in
near
the the air gap
current is about
density of the70% higher near
windings thanthe thatairaway
gap, from the air
resulting gap,
in an so the copper
apparent increaseloss of this
in the part
partial
istemperature
significantlyrise increased.
and copper The loss
increased
of the copper loss results
transformer [7]. Toin the conspicuous
analyze the influence regional temperature
of fringing effect,
rise near
finite the airanalysis
element gap. The simulation
(FEA) simulationalsoisshows
carriedthatoutthe fringing
by using effect software.
Maxwell has a significant
Figure 2impact near
illustrates
the
theair gap, andof
simulation the affected
fringing range
effect increases
at 100 kHz. Itwithcan betheseen
increase of transformer
the current density ofpower
the copper fromconductor
the center
ofnear
the the
air gap.
air gap is about 70% higher than that away from the air gap, so the copper loss of this part is
After theincreased.
significantly winding The turns and air copper
increased gap size lossofresults
the transformer are determined,
in the conspicuous the transformer
regional temperature rise
near the air gap.
magnetizing The simulation
inductance is a fixedalso shows
value. that the small
Choosing fringing effect has ainductance
magnetizing significant impact
to obtainnear the air
sufficient
gap, and
output the affected
voltage gain will range
resultincreases with the
in increased increase of
conduction losstransformer
and switching power from
loss of the LLC center of the
resonant
air gap.
converter.

Figure
Figure2.
2.High
High frequency
frequency fringing effect
effect near
nearthe
theair
airgap.
gap.

After
The the winding
simulation turns
results showandthat
air the
gapinduced
size of the transformer
magnetic are determined,
flux increases the transformer
in pace with the increase
magnetizing inductance is a fixed value. Choosing small magnetizing inductance
of the transformer power and input voltage, the area influenced by the air gap expand accordingly. to obtain
sufficient output voltage gain will result in increased conduction loss and switching
In order to reduce the fringing effect, it is needed to increase distance d of leakage layer, as shown loss of thein
LLC resonant
Figure converter.
1. However, the increasing d causes the available area of the core window decrease, under the
The simulation
same diameter and turns,resultstheshow
layerthat
p ofthe induced magnetic
transformer windingflux increasesAccording
is increase. in pace with
to the
the increase
Dowell’s
of the transformer power and input voltage, the area influenced by the
formula as below, this effect can lead to a significant increase in proximity loss. air gap expand accordingly.
In order to reduce the fringing effect, it is needed to increase distance d of leakage layer, as shown in
Figure 1. However, the increasing d causes the available area of the core window decrease, under the
 Rac  sinh 2  sin 2 2( p 2  1) sinh   sin  
    (1)
Rdc  cosh 2  cos 2 3 cosh   cos  

where,2018,
Energies p is 11,
the3288
number of transformer windings layers, Δ is the ratio of the winding layer thickness
4 of 19
d of the skin depth  0 .
To integrate the resonant inductance into the transformer, the primary winding and the
same diameter
secondary and turns,
winding cannot theuse
layer p of transformer
‘sandwich’ method, winding
which isis increase.
used in According
full-bridgetophase-shifting
the Dowell’s
formula as below, this effect can lead to a significant increase in proximity loss.
transformer to decrease the proximity loss. Therefore, at high frequency condition, use Litz wire to
decrease the impact of the proximity effect and the skin 2effect.
2( p − 1) sinh ∆ − sin ∆
 
R ac sinh 2∆ + sin 2∆
In summary, the fringing = ∆ effect, proximity effect, + and the increase of the conduction loss and (1)
Rdc cosh 2∆ − cos 2∆ 3 cosh ∆ + cos ∆
switching loss caused by small magnetizing inductance are main factors affect the transformer
p is the number of transformer windings layers, ∆ is the ratio of the winding layer thickness d
efficiency.
where,
of the skin depth δ0 .
3. Analysis of Improved
To integrate the resonantLLCinductance
Resonant Transformer
into the transformer, the primary winding and the secondary
winding
In order to promote the efficiency, anwhich
cannot use ‘sandwich’ method, is used
improved LLC intransformer
full-bridge phase-shifting transformer to
design is presented.
decrease the proximity loss. Therefore, at high frequency condition, use Litz wire to decrease the
impact
3.1. Mainof Structure
the proximity effect and the skin effect.
In summary, the fringing effect, proximity effect, and the increase of the conduction
The structure of proposed LLC resonant transformer is shown in Figure 3, which has the
loss and switching loss caused by small magnetizing inductance are main factors affect the
following characteristics. (1) The skeleton adopts double groove structure, thus primary winding and
transformer efficiency.
secondary winding are wound respectively in two grooves. Therefore, the resonant inductance is still
integrated
3. Analysisinofthe transformer.
Improved LLC (2) The air Transformer
Resonant gap is not inserted in the magnetic circuit, so there is nearly
no leakage flux, the intensive windings in the transformer is almost not affected by the fringing effect.
In order to promote the efficiency, an improved LLC transformer design is presented.
(3) The thickness d of the middle leakage layer can be small, which does not occupy the space of the
windings
3.1. and improves the utilization rate of the core window, reducing the proximity effect.
Main Structure
The fringing effect simulations comparison is shown in Figure 4. It can be seen that the conductor
Thedensity
current structure of proposed
near the air gap LLC resonant
of the proposedtransformer is shown
transformer in Figure
is greatly 3, which
reduced, andhas
thethe following
conduction
characteristics. (1) The skeleton adopts double groove structure,
loss is effectively decreased, so the internal temperature rise can be improved. thus primary winding and secondary
winding are wound
However, the respectively in two grooves.
proposed transformer almostTherefore,
has no the airresonant
gap, and inductance is still integrated
the equivalent magnetic
in the transformer. (2) The air gap is not inserted in the magnetic circuit, so
permeability of the magnetic core is large. Hence, its magnetizing inductance is much larger than there is nearly no leakage
that
flux, the intensive windings in the transformer is almost not affected by
of conventional LLC transformer with air gap, which cannot satisfy the LLC resonant tank demand. the fringing effect. (3) The
thickness d of theamiddle
For this reason, SCI is leakage
parallel layer
to thecan be small, winding
secondary which does to not occupy
achieve thethe space of theinductance
magnetizing windings
and improves
adjustment, asthe utilization
shown in Figurerate5,ofCotheis core window,
the output reducing
filter the proximity
capacitor, and RL is theeffect.
load.

Figure 3. Main structure of proposed transformer.

transformer.

The fringing effect simulations comparison is shown in Figure 4. It can be seen that the conductor
current density near the air gap of the proposed transformer is greatly reduced, and the conduction
loss is effectively decreased, so the internal temperature rise can be improved.
Energies 2018, 11, 3288 5 of 19
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

(a) (b)
Fringing effect comparison: (a)
Figure 4. Fringing (a) Conventional scheme; (b) Proposed scheme.

However, the proposed transformer almost has no air gap, and the equivalent magnetic
permeability of the magnetic core is large. Hence, its magnetizing inductance is much larger than that
of conventional LLC transformer with air gap, which cannot satisfy the LLC resonant tank demand.
(a) (b)
For this reason, a SCI is parallel to the secondary winding to achieve the magnetizing inductance
adjustment,Figure
as shown in Figure
4. Fringing 5, comparison:
effect Co is the output filter capacitor,
(a) Conventional and(b)RLProposed
scheme; is the load.
scheme.

Figure 5. Switch controlled inductor parallel to secondary winding of transformer.

3.2. Switch Controlled Inductor (SCI)

The SCI in Figure 5 adopts series type [21], and its circuit structure and working waveforms are
shown in Figure 6. The SCI consists of linear inductance La and two control switches Ta and Tb. The
voltage 𝑒𝐴𝐵 added Figure 5.to the both
Switch
5. Switch sides of
controlled SCI isparallel
inductor the transformer
to secondary
secondarysecondary ofwinding
winding of voltage close to
transformer.
Figure controlled inductor parallel to winding transformer.
square wave. VTa and VTb are the drive signal of switch devices Ta and Tb respectively, and their
3.2. Switch Controlled
frequencies Inductor
are equalInductor (SCI)
to the operating frequency of the LLC resonant converter. The current flowing
3.2. Switch Controlled (SCI)
through the SCI is
The SCI in Figure 𝑖 . 𝛿
𝐴𝐵 5 adopts series typeof
is the phase angle the and
[21], switchits drive
circuitsignal. The and
structure working principle
working of SCI
waveforms
in The SCI in Figure 5 adopts series
follows.of linear inductance La and two control switches Ta andare
type [21], and its circuit structure and working waveforms
area shown
switch in period
Figureis analyzed
6. The SCIasconsists Tb.
shown in Figure
At 𝑡0 , when 6. The SCI
the secondary consists of linear inductance Lapositive
and twopolarity
𝑒𝐴𝐵transformer control switches Taturn-off,
and Tb. The
The voltage e AB added to the bothwinding
sides of voltage
SCI is the is secondaryand Ta is
winding the
voltage close
voltage
inductor 𝑒𝐴𝐵 added to through
the bothSCI sides of SCI At is𝑡1the
, thetransformer
drive signalsecondary windingonvoltage
and Tb close to
to squarecurrent
wave. V flow is zero. makes Ta turning
Ta and VTb are the drive signal of switch devices Ta and Tb respectively, and their
turning
square
off, wave.
and 𝑖𝐴𝐵 are V Ta and VTb are the drive signal of switch devices Ta and Tb respectively, and their
increases
frequencies equal tolinearly from zero.
the operating Therefore,
frequency of theTaLLCturns on at zero
resonant currentThe
converter. and Tb turn
current off at
flowing
frequencies
zero current. areAtequal
𝑡 , to thethe
when operating
polar offrequency
𝑒 of thethe
reverses, LLC resonant
inductor converter.
current 𝑖 The current
reaches a flowing
maximum
through the SCI is 2i AB . δ is the phase angle 𝐴𝐵of the switch drive signal. The working 𝐴𝐵 principle of SCI in
through
and then the SCI to
begins 𝑖𝐴𝐵 . 𝛿 is linearly.
is decrease the phaseAtangle 𝑡 , of inductor
the the switch drive signal.
current 𝑖 The working
decreases to principle
zero. Becauseof ofSCI
the
a switch period is analyzed as follows. 3 𝐴𝐵
in a switch
reverse period
blocking ofis analyzed
Tb, 𝑖 as
remainsfollows.
zero until 𝑡 . Therefore, Ta realizes zero current turn-off and Tb
At t0 , when the secondary 𝐴𝐵 winding voltage e4AB is positive polarity and Ta is turn-off, the inductor
realizes 𝑡0 , when
At zero currenttheturn-on.
secondary The winding
opposite voltage
direction 𝑒𝐴𝐵
is is positive
the same. polarity
Since the and Ta is turn-off,
conduction resistance the
of
current flow through SCI is zero. At t1 , the drive signal makes Ta turning on and Tb turning off, and
inductor
Ta current flow through SCI is zero. At 𝑡1 , the drive signal makes Ta turning on and Tb turning
i ABand Tb is linearly
increases very small, fromthe switching
zero. Therefore, loss Taand
turns conduction loss of switch
on at zero current and Tb devices Tazero
turn off at andcurrent.
Tb are
off, and 𝑖𝐴𝐵
relatively increases linearly from zero. Therefore, Ta turns on at zero current and Tb turn off at
small.
At t , when the polar of e reverses, the inductor current i AB reaches a maximum and then begins to
zero2 current. At 𝑡2 , whenABthe polar of 𝑒𝐴𝐵 reverses, the inductor current 𝑖𝐴𝐵 reaches a maximum
decrease linearly. At t3 , the inductor current i AB decreases to zero. Because of the reverse blocking of
and then begins to decrease linearly. At 𝑡3 , the inductor current 𝑖𝐴𝐵 decreases to zero. Because of the
Tb, i AB remains zero until t4 . Therefore, Ta realizes zero current turn-off and Tb realizes zero current
reverse blocking of Tb, 𝑖𝐴𝐵 remains zero until 𝑡4 . Therefore, Ta realizes zero current turn-off and Tb
turn-on. The opposite direction is the same. Since the conduction resistance of Ta and Tb is very small,
realizes zero current turn-on. The opposite direction is the same. Since the conduction resistance of
the switching loss and conduction loss of switch devices Ta and Tb are relatively small.
Ta and Tb is very small, the switching loss and conduction loss of switch devices Ta and Tb are
relatively small.
Energies 2018, 11, 3288 6 of 19
Energies 2018,
Energies 2018, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 66 of
of 18
18

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Topology
Topology and
and waveforms
waveforms of
of SCI.
SCI.

The
The equivalent
The equivalent inductance
equivalent inductance of
inductance of SCI
of SCI can
SCI can be
can be obtained
be obtained from
obtained from[22]
from [22]as
[22] asEquation
as Equation(2)
Equation (2)
(2)
LLaa
LSCI 
SCI=
LLSCI (2)
(2)
(2)
(2
222−  −
((22δ sin
sin )))///π
sin222δ ππ

According to
According toEquation
to Equation(2),
Equation (2),when
(2), whenthe
when the
the phase
phase
phase angle
angle
angle of switch
of of switch
switch drive
drive
drive signal
signal
signal ranges
ranges
ranges between
between
between π/2
π/2 π/2
and
and
and
π, π,
theπ, the equivalent
the equivalent
equivalent switch-controlled
switch-controlled
switch-controlled inductance
inductance
inductance 𝐿𝐿𝑆𝐶𝐼
LSCI ranges
𝑆𝐶𝐼 ranges
ranges
between between
between
La and ∞.
La
La and
and
The ∞.
∞. The
The relationship
relationship
relationship curve
curve between
curve
betweenbetween inductance
inductance
inductance ratio
ratioratio 𝐿𝐿𝑆𝐶𝐼
LSCI /L 𝑆𝐶𝐼 /𝐿
a /𝐿 and
𝑎𝑎 and
and the
the the phase
phase
phase angle
angle
angle of
of of switch
switch
switch drivesignal
drive
drive signalisis
signal isshown
shownin
shown in Figure
in Figure 7.
7.
It can
It can be
be found
found the
the circuit
circuit shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 55 can
can be
be equivalent
equivalent to
equivalent to an
an inductance
inductance which
inductance which cancan be
be adjusted
adjusted
from La
from to ∞.
La to ∞.
∞.

Figure
Figure 7. Equivalent inductance
7. Equivalent inductance of
of SCI.
SCI.

3.3. Equivalent
3.3. Equivalent Circuit
Circuit of
Equivalent Circuit of Resonant
Resonant Tank
TankandandMagnetic
MagneticField
FieldAnalysis
Analysis
3.3. of Resonant Tank and Magnetic Field Analysis
The equivalent circuit of LLC resonant tank for secondary winding parallel SCI is shown in
The equivalent
The equivalent circuit
circuit of
of LLC
LLC resonant
resonant tank
tank for
for secondary
secondary winding
winding parallel
parallel SCI
SCI is is shown
shown in in
Figure 8.
Figure 8. where
8. where
where CC r is
Crr is the
is the resonant
the resonant capacitance,
resonant capacitance, L r is
capacitance, LLrr is the
is the resonant
the resonant inductance
resonant inductance and
inductance and L m-ini
and LLm-ini is the
is the large
the large
large
Figure m-ini is
magnetizing
magnetizing inductance
inductance integrated
integrated in
in transformer,
transformer,asasshown
shownin inEquation
Equation(3).
(3).
magnetizing inductance integrated in transformer, as shown in Equation (3).

eeffefff f ·N
µ NNp2p2p2 ·A
AA
cc c
LmLL
−mmini
ini 
ini= (3)
(3)
(3)
llclcc

whereµ𝜇𝜇e𝑒𝑓𝑓
where
where f isis
f𝑒𝑓𝑓 the
is theequivalent
the equivalent
equivalent magnetic
magnetic
magnetic permeability
permeability
permeability of of
the magnetic
of the
the magnetic
magnetic circuit approximately
circuit
circuit approximately
approximately equal to the
equal
equal to
to
relative permeability
the relative
the relative permeability of the
permeability of core
of the
the core material 𝜇𝜇𝑟𝑟.. 𝑁
material
core material
µ r . N p is 𝑁𝑝𝑝 is
the turns
is the of primary
the turns
turns of winding,
of primary A is
winding, 𝐴
primary winding, c the𝐴𝑐𝑐 is
cross-section
is the
the cross-
cross-
area of the
section
section area
area magnetic
of the
of core, lc is the
the magnetic
magnetic magnetic
core,
core, 𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 is
is the
the circuit length.
magnetic
magnetic circuit
circuit µe f f ≈ Since
Sincelength.
length. µ r , the𝜇
Since 𝜇value
𝑒𝑓𝑓 ≈
≈ of
𝜇𝜇 L
,, the
the
m − is
value
value
ini large
of
of
𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟
as
𝐿𝐿 resultis of the
is large
large aslarge relative
as result
result of
of thepermeability
the large
large relative of the core
relative permeability material.
permeability of of the
the core
core material.
material.
𝑚−𝑖𝑛𝑖
𝑚−𝑖𝑛𝑖
 Otherwise, the magnetizing inductance Lm-eq participates in resonant, and the resonant frequency
is Equation
Energies (7).x FOR PEER REVIEW
2018, 11, 7 of 18

1
f r 
Setting a is the ratio of the transformer, and 𝑎2 ⋅ 𝐿𝑆𝐶𝐼 is the primary equivalent inductance (7)
Energies 2018, 11, 3288 2π ( L  Lm eq )Cr and 𝑅
reflected by the SCI. Re is the equivalent load impedance,
7 of 19
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 is the load resistance. The
r

magnetizing inductance in the resonant tank can be expressed as Equation (4).

Lmeq  Lmini || a 2  LSCI (4)

8
Re   a 2  Rload (5)
π2
Due to the adjusted value of 𝐿𝑆𝐶𝐼 driven by 𝛿, so the inductance 𝑎2 ⋅ 𝐿𝑆𝐶𝐼 in Equation (4) can be
represented as an adjustable inductance. Therefore, the equivalent magnetizing inductance Lm-eq can
also be adjusted by changing 𝛿.
As shown in Figure 8, when the resonant tank is transferring energy to secondary side, the
𝑓𝑟 . 8.
resonant frequency isFigure
Figure Equivalent circuit of the proposed LLC resonant tank.
8. Equivalent

2 1 is the primary equivalent inductance reflected

Inner a is the ratio
Settingmagnetic fluxof the transformer,
analysis f r a · LSCI
and
of the transformer is shown in Figure 9. The primary side is on (6) the
by the SCI. Re is the equivalent load impedance,2πand Lr C
rpload is the
R  load resistance. The magnetizing
left, and theinsecondary
inductance the resonantside
tankis on
canthe
be right.
expressed The asflux Equation and(4). S in the magnetic core established
Otherwise,
respectively by the
the magnetizing inductance
primary resonant current Lm-eqipparticipates in resonant,
and the secondary and the
current is resonant frequency
cancel each other.
 Lmeq
and LABm−eq
is Equation (7). 2
Meanwhile, the flux in=the ini a · LSCI
Lm−magnetic core established respectively by the (4)
magnetizing current iLm-eq and the SCI current iAB cancel 1 each other. It follows that, the transformer
f r  (7)
does not store energy, and the inductive energy 8 L 2 L required
= (2storage
Re 2π eq )Cr
·r a · mRload by LLC half-bridge switch for zero(5)
voltage switching (ZVS) is completed by SCI. π
Due to the adjusted value of LSCI driven by δ, so the inductance a2 · LSCI in Equation (4) can be
represented as an adjustable inductance. Therefore, the equivalent magnetizing inductance Lm-eq can
also be adjusted by changing δ.
As shown in Figure 8, when the resonant tank is transferring energy to secondary side, the
resonant frequency is f r .
1
fr = √ (6)
2π Lr Cr
Otherwise, the magnetizing inductance Lm-eq participates in resonant, and the resonant frequency
is Equation (7).
1
Figure 8. Equivalent f r0 =
circuitqof the proposed LLC resonant tank. (7)
Figure 9. Magnetic 2πflux( Linr +
theLcore )Ctransformer.
m−eqof r
Inner magnetic flux analysis of the transformer is shown in Figure 9. The primary side is on the
Inner magnetic flux analysis of the transformer is shown in Figure 9. The primary side is on the left,
  S in the magnetic core established
left, the
and andsecondary
the secondary
side isside
on the is on theThe
right. right.
fluxThe flux φS pinand
φp and the magnetic core established respectively
respectively
by the primary by resonant
the primarycurrent resonant
ip and current ip and current
the secondary the secondary
is cancelcurrent is cancel
each other. each other.
Meanwhile, the
 
flux φLm−eq and
Meanwhile, fluxin the magnetic
theφ AB Lm eq
and core AB established
in the magnetic respectively by the magnetizing
core established respectively byiLm-eq
current the
and the SCI current i cancel each other. It follows that, the transformer does not
magnetizing current iLm-eq and the SCI current iAB cancel each other. It follows that, the transformer
AB store energy, and
the
doesinductive
not storeenergy
energy,storage
and therequired
inductive byenergy
LLC half-bridge switch for
storage required zero half-bridge
by LLC voltage switching
switch (ZVS)
for zerois
completed by SCI. (ZVS) is completed by SCI.
voltage switching

Figure 9. Magnetic flux in the core of transformer.

transformer.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
Energies 2018, 11, 3288 8 of 19
3.4. LLC
Energies Resonant
2018, 11, x FORConverter Charger
PEER REVIEW Application 8 of 18

3.4. TheResonant
LLC application of theCharger
Converter proposed transformer in LLC resonant converter charger is shown in
3.4. LLC Resonant Converter Charger Application
Application
Figure 10, and the secondary side adopts a full-bridge rectifier. The resonant tank consists of Cr, Lr,
and L The
The application of the proposed transformer in LLC resonant converter charger is shown in
m-eq. application of the proposed transformer in LLC resonant converter charger is shown in
Figure
Figure 10, and
10, and the
the secondary
secondary side
side adopts
adopts aa full-bridge
full-bridge rectifier.
rectifier. The
The resonant
resonant tank
tank consists of C
consists of Crr,, L
Lrr,,
and LLm-eq
m-eq. .

Figure 10. Proposed resonant transformer applied to LLC resonant converter charger.

The ratio Figure

Figure 10.
of10.theProposed
equivalent
Proposed resonant
resonant transformerinductance
magnetizing
transformer applied to
applied to LLC
LLC resonant
to resonant converter
resonantconverter charger.
inductance
charger. is defined as
Equation (8).
The ratio
The ratioofofthethe equivalent
equivalent magnetizing
magnetizing inductance
inductance to resonant
to resonant inductance is defined
inductance is as Equation
defined as
(8). Lm eq
Equation (8). k L (8)
m−eq
k = Lr (8)
LmLreq
k√ (8)
Lr L /C π
r rr · π2
2

QQ= 8  a22  R
Lr /C (9)
(9)
8 · a · Rload
Lr / Cr  π 2
load
Q (9)
In
In Equation
Equation (9), (9), QQ is
is the
the quality
quality factor.
factor. Under 8  a 2 constant
Under constant
Rload LLrr,, C
Crr,, and
and a,a, QQ isis only
only related
related to to load.
load.
Under
Under thethe same
same loadload (Q (Q value),
value), thethe voltage
voltage gain gain curves
curves with different kk are
with different are shown
shown in in Figure
Figure11. 11. The
The
In
horizontal Equation
axis is (9),
the Q is the
normalized quality factor.
frequency, Under
which constant
is the L
ratio ,
horizontal axis is the normalized frequency, which is the ratio of working frequency fss to resonant
r C
of r, and
workinga, Q is only
frequency related
f to to load.
resonant
Under
frequency the fsame
frequency frr, andload (Q value),
the vertical axisthe voltage
is DC voltage gaingain.
curves It canwith bedifferent
seen thatk in aretheshown
same in Figure 11.
frequency The
range,
ahorizontal axis is the normalizedk frequency, which is the ratio
a resonant tank with smaller k can get a larger output voltage regulating range. Moreover, under the
resonant tank with smaller can get a larger output voltage of
regulatingworking frequency
range. Moreover, f s to resonant
under the
frequency
condition
condition of fr, and
fixedthe verticalinductance
resonant axis is DC voltage
inductance LLrr, ,the gain.
theproposed
proposed It can be seen that
transformer
transformer inregulate
can
can the sameLfrequency
regulate Lm-eq
m-eq to to range,
adjust
adjust k,
k, so
athat
so resonant
that it can
it can tank with smaller
dynamically
dynamically adjustk can
adjust the
the get a larger
voltage
voltage output
gain
gain ofofLLCLLCvoltage regulating
resonant
resonant range.
converter
converter Moreover,
in the
in charging under the
process
process
condition
according of
to fixed
the resonant
corresponding
according to the corresponding demand. inductance
demand. L r, the proposed transformer can regulate Lm-eq to adjust k, so
that it can dynamically adjust the voltage gain of LLC resonant converter in the charging process
according to the corresponding demand.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Gain
Gain curves
curves with
with different
different kk value.
value.

Furthermore,
Furthermore, the
the simplified
simplified typical
typical
Figure battery
battery
11. Gain charging
curvescharging curve
curvekis
with different is shown
shown in
value. in Figure
Figure 12.
12. The
The charging
charging
process
process can be divided to three stages: constant current charging, constant power charging, and
can be divided to three stages: constant current charging, constant power charging, and
Furthermore,
constant
constant voltage the simplified
voltage charging.
charging. The typical
The output
output battery
power
power charging
becomes
becomes curve
very
very isat
small
small shown
at the in Figure
thecharging
charging 12. The charging
end.
end.
process can be divided to three stages: constant√ current charging, constant power charging, and
2·I
Lr /Cr · πvery
constant voltage charging. The output power
Q= becomes osmall at the charging end.
(10)
8 · a2 · Vo
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18

Energies 2018, 11, 3288 9 of 19

At the initial stage of charging, the charger current Io is large, and the output voltage Vo is
relatively small. At the latter stage of charging, the output voltage Vo is relatively high and the output
current Io is small. According to Equation (10), the Q value should be large at the initial stage of
charging. With the charging process carrying on, the Q value decreases. Figure 13 gives several gain
curves of k value in the charging process. The shaded area (ZVS region) in Figure 13 is the work areas
of LLC resonant converter. Usually, the operating frequency of LLC resonant converter is set as the
resonant frequency with the maximum output power (point A in Figure 12), since the LLC converter
can get2018,
Energies highest
11, x efficiency [22].
FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18
Figure 12. Simplified battery charging profile.

Lr / Cr  π 2  I o
Q (10)
8  a 2  Vo

At the initial stage of charging, the charger current Io is large, and the output voltage Vo is
relatively small. At the latter stage of charging, the output voltage Vo is relatively high and the output
current Io is small. According to Equation (10), the Q value should be large at the initial stage of
charging. With the charging process carrying on, the Q value decreases. Figure 13 gives several gain
curves of k value in the charging process. The shaded area (ZVS region) in Figure 13 is the work areas
of LLC resonant converter. Usually, the operating frequency of LLC resonant converter is set as the
resonant frequency with the maximum output power (point A in Figure 12), since the LLC converter
can get highest efficiency [22].Figure 12. Simplified battery charging profile.
profile.

Lr / Cr  π 2  I o
Q (10)
8  a 2  Vo

At the initial stage of charging, the charger current Io is large, and the output voltage Vo is
relatively small. At the latter stage of charging, the output voltage Vo is relatively high and the output
current Io is small. According to Equation (10), the Q value should be large at the initial stage of
charging. With the charging process carrying on, the Q value decreases. Figure 13 gives several gain
curves of k value in the charging process. The shaded area (ZVS region) in Figure 13 is the work areas
of LLC resonant converter. Usually, the operating frequency of LLC resonant converter is set as the
resonant frequency with the maximum output power (point A in Figure 12), since the LLC converter
can get highest efficiency [22].

Figure 13. Change

Figure 13. Change of
of gain
gain curve
curve during
during charging
charging process.
process.

Therefore,
Therefore, the
the operating
operating frequency
frequency of of the
the constant
constant current
current charging
charging stage
stage in
in Figure
Figure 1212 is
is located
located
at
at the right of the resonant frequency (fnn = 1) in Figure 13. The primary switching device of LLC
the right of the resonant frequency (f = 1) in Figure 13. The primary switching device of LLC
resonant
resonantconverter
converterworks
worksinin the
the ZVS
ZVS conduction
conduction state,state, but
but the
the turn-off
turn-off loss
loss increases
increases with
with the
the increase
increase
of
of frequency
frequency andand the
the secondary
secondary rectifier
rectifier diode
diode loses
loses ZCS
ZCS characteristic.
characteristic. Therefore,
Therefore, inin this
this area,
area, the
the
operating frequency can be set as close as possible to the resonant frequency. As
operating frequency can be set as close as possible to the resonant frequency. As shown in Figure 13, shown in Figure 13,
the
the curve
curve corresponding
corresponding to to aa smaller
smaller K K value
value is is closer
closer to
to the
the resonant
resonant frequency
frequency point
point (the
(the frequency
frequency
range is smaller with same gain range). When charging process enters constant
range is smaller with same gain range). When charging process enters constant power stage, the LLC power stage, the
LLC resonant converter works at the left of the resonant frequency point. The
resonant converter works at the left of the resonant frequency point. The primary switch of LLC primary switch of LLC
resonant
resonant converter
converter can
can realize
realize ZVSZVS conduction,
conduction, and and the
the secondary
secondary rectifier
rectifier diode
diode can
can realize
realize ZCS
ZCS
turn-off,
turn-off, which can achieve better efficiency. With the decrease of operating frequency, the smaller K
which can achieve better efficiency. With the decrease of operating frequency, the smaller K
value leads to the increased resonant tank magnetizing current, conduction loss as well as turn-off loss.
Figurethe
Especially, when at light load, 13.proportion
Change of gain curve during
of conduction charging
loss process.
in the whole loss increases and reduces

Therefore, the operating frequency of the constant current charging stage in Figure 12 is located
at the right of the resonant frequency (fn = 1) in Figure 13. The primary switching device of LLC
resonant converter works in the ZVS conduction state, but the turn-off loss increases with the increase
of frequency and the secondary rectifier diode loses ZCS characteristic. Therefore, in this area, the
operating frequency can be set as close as possible to the resonant frequency. As shown in Figure 13,
Energies 2018, 11, 3288 10 of 19

overall efficiency. Therefore, with the decrease of output power and the increase of output voltage, the
magnetizing inductance should gradually increase (k value gradually increases). In the conventional
scheme, the K value is constant after the magnetizing inductance is selected. However, the proposed
transformer can make the LLC resonant converter change its equivalent magnetizing inductance
according to load and output voltage during the whole charging process, so that the gain characteristic,
circulation loss, and switching loss of LLC resonant tank can be optimized via programming.

4. Design Methodology

4.1. Electrical Design Considerations

A: Selection of magnetizing inductance
The maximum magnetizing inductance to realize ZVS under idle condition is Lm1 , and the
maximum value to ensure the maximum gain at the lowest frequency is Lm2 . The final value of the
magnetizing inductance should satisfy the above two requirements at the same time. Hence, the
smaller one between Lm1 and Lm2 can be chosen. If Lm1 is greater than Lm2 , the dead time tdead should
be appropriately reduced [23], as shown in Equation (11).
 
Ts(min)

tdead

 tdead · a·Vo(min) · 4 − 2
Lm1 =

CHB ·Vin(max)




1− G 1 (11)
π2 DC (max)
Lm2 = Lr · ·




 4 f r · Ts(max) −1

Lm−eq = min( Lm1 , Lm2 )


where GDC(max) is the maximum DC gain, and CHB is the total equivalent capacitance of the H bridge.
B: Selection of minimum resonant inductance
The minimum resonant inductance should limit the maximum output current under short circuit
when working at the highest frequency.

a · Vin(norm) · Vo(norm)
Lr(min) = (12)
8 f s(max) · Po

C: Selection of resonant capacitance

After Lr is selected, the resonant capacitance can be obtained by Equation (13).

1
Cr = (13)
(2π · f r )2 Lr

4.2. Transformer Loss and Thermal Design Considerations

The loss of transformer includes core loss and winding loss.
A: Core loss
The core loss and core loss can be calculated by Steinmetz formula.

Pf e = Vc Kc f α Bmax β (14)

where Vc is the core volume, Kc is the typical value. α and β are provided by core manufacturer or
obtained by loss curve.
Energies 2018, 11, 3288 11 of 19

B: Winding loss
The winding loss include DC loss and AC loss. The current through the winding can be calculated
as below.
The current through the primary winding ir is the sum of i p and i Lm−eq , and the current through
secondary winding is the sum of is and i AB . The expressions of the peak current through primary
winding is Ir− peak with the RMS value Ir−rms , and the peak magnetizing current ILm− peak are [7]
s 2 2
π · Io

aVo
Ir− peak = + (15)
2a f n 4 f r Lm−eq

aVo
ILm− peak = (16)
4Lm−eq f r
s
a2 Vo 2 Tr 2 (2Ts − Tr ) π2 Io 2 Ts 2
Ir−rms = + (17)
32Lm 2 Ts 8a2 Tr 2
where Ts and Tr are the switching period and resonant period respectively, Vo and Io are the output
voltage and output current, respectively.
By using Equation (18), the RMS value of the current though secondary winding can be obtained.
v
u R Tr
u 2 · 2 ( aI a2 Vo a2 Vo 2
t 0 r_peak sin[ ωr t + φ ] + 4Lm f r − Lm t ) dt
is_rms = (18)
Tr
 2 
a R f
where ωr = 2π f r , φ = arctan − ωr LmL fsr .
The DC copper loss is calculated as below.

Pcu = R p−rms I 2 r−rms + Rs−rms I 2 s−rms (19)

The AC impedance of winding can be got from Equation (1).

C: Temperature rise consideration
The maximum loss is determined by the core thermal resistance and the permissible
temperature increase.
∆T
PL_max ≈ (20)
Rθ
where Rθ is the thermal resistance of the core provided by manufacturer or obtained from empirical
data, hc is thermal conductivity, and At is the surface area of transformer.

1
Rθ = (21)
hc A t

4.3. Transformer Design Considerations

Under the premise of minimize core loss and winding loss, the design purpose of a transformer
is to transfer energy from input side to output side by electromagnetic induction. The optimization
result can be boiled down to one conclusion: iron loss is equal to copper loss [23]. The transformer
design method is related to the best magnetic induction intensity and temperature rise of magnetic
core and is limited by the maximum permissible power loss.
Energies 2018, 11, 3288 12 of 19

A: Core selection
The appropriate core is up to Ap value. Ap is the product of core window area Wa and core
cross-section area Ac , as Equation (22).

√ !8
7
2∑ VA
Ap = √ (22)
Kv f s Bo k f Kt k u ∆T

where, ∑ VA is the sum of each windings rated VA values, Kv = 4.44, f s is the operating frequency, Bo is
the best magnetic induction intensity value, Kt = 48.2 × 103, k f is the core lamination factor, Am is the
effective sectional area of magnetic circuit.
The best magnetic induction intensity Bo is given by Equation (23).

2  61
(hc k a ∆T ) 3 Kv f k f k u

Bo = (23)
2 1
2 3 (ρw k w k u ) 12 (k c KC f α ) 12
7
∑ VA

where, hc is the thermal convection transfer coefficient with typical value 10, and k a , k c , and k w are
dimensionless constants with the typical values k a = 40, k c = 5.6, k w = 10. KC , α are the material
parameters, ρw is the wire resistivity.
B: Calculation of transformer winding turns and turns ratio
The winding turns can be calculated by Equation (24).

Vrms
N= (24)
Kv f Bmax Am

where Vrms is the wingding terminal voltage, Am is the core cross-section area, Bmax is the smaller one
between Bo and Bsat . Bo is usually smaller than Bsat at the high frequency condition.
The turns ratio can be calculated by Equation (25). where, Vd is the conduction voltage drop of
the secondary rectifier diode.
Vin(norm)
a= (25)
2(Vo(min) + Vd )
C: Transformer wire diameter selection
The current density J0 in the wire should satisfy the temperature rise requirement under the
whole power loss. √
∆T
J0 = Kt p p (26)
k u (1 + γ ) 8 A p
The calculation of wire sectional area Aw is Equation (27).

Irms
Aw = (27)
J0

D: Determination of inductance La
According to Equation (2) and Figure 7, the switch-controlled inductance LSCI can be adjusted in
a wide range. When α = π/2, LSCI = La. While the k value of LLC resonant tank obtains a minimum
value kmin as Equation (28) According to Equation (4).

kmin · Lr · Lm−ini
La = 2
(28)
a ( Lm−ini − kmin · Lr )
Energies 2018, 11, 3288 13 of 19

5. Experimental Verification

5.1. Design Specification

An LLC resonant DC/DC converter with 720 W output power is designed, its input voltage is
390 VDC and output voltage is 60 VDC–96 VDC with maximum output current is 8 A. The resonant
frequency is 85 kHz. According to Equation (12), the resonant inductance Lr should be greater than
44 µH and set as 50 µH. According to Equation (13), the resonant capacitance Cr is 70 nF. According to
Equation (24), the transformer turns ratio a = 2:1. According to Equation (28), kmin is 3, Lmin is 1 mH
and La = 44 µH.
The design requirement is shown in Table 1, the RMS value of resonant current, the peak
magnetizing current and the RMS value of secondary current are calculated by Equations (15)–(18).
The core window utilization factor ku is 0.55.

Table 1. Design Specification.

Symbol Description Value

Po Output power 760 W
fs Switching frequency 50 k–300 kHz
f r1 Resonant frequency 85 kHz
La Magnetizing inductance 44 µH
Lr Resonant inductance 50 µH
a Turns ratio 2:1
∆T Temperature rise 70 ◦ C
Ta Ambient temperature 40 ◦ C
Ir−rms Resonant rms current 4.53 A
ILm− peak Magnetizing peak current 1.26 A
Is−rms Secondary rms current 9.1 A
I AB−rms SCI current 2A
∑ VA The total rated VA values of windings 1466.3 VA

5.2. Transformer Parameters

The ferrite core is used for the high switch frequency. Bo = 0.1 T is calculated by Equation (23),
A p = 2.5 cm4 is calculated by Equation (22), the ETD44 magnetic core is chosen. The magnetic
material is the N87 from EPCOS company, the parameters of this material are given in Table 2, and
the parameters of core and winding are given in Table 3. The saturation flux density of this material
is 0.4 T. By Equation (24), the transformer secondary turns can be calculated as Ns = 11.9 ≈ 12. The
primary turns number is 24.

Table 2. Material Specifications (Epcos N87).

Symbol Description Value

Kc Steinmetz parameter 16.9
α Steinmetz parameter 1.25
β Steinmetz parameter 2.35
Bsat Saturation magnetic flux 0.4 T
ku Window utilization factor 0.55
Am Effective magnetic circuit sectional area 213 mm2
γ Ratio of core loss to winding loss 1
Energies 2018, 11, 3288 14 of 19

Table 3. Core and Winding Parameters.

Symbol Description Value

Ac Cross-section area 1.73 cm2
lc Magnetic path length 10.3 cm
Wa Window area 2.78 cm2
Ap Area product parameter 4.81 cm4
Vc Volume of core 17.70 cm3
MLT Mean length of a turn 7.77 cm
kf Core stacking factor 1.0
ρ20 Copper resistivity (20 ◦ C) 1.72 µΩ·cm
α20 Constant 0.00393

The current density can be obtained by Equation (26) as 344 A/cm2 , and the wire sectional area
of the primary winding is 0.0132 cm2 from Equation (27). Considering the wire skin effect at high
frequency, the skin depth is
66
λ0 = p (29)
fs
It is set as λ0 = 0.226 mm and the specification parameters are shown in Table 4. The DC resistance
of primary winding is 120.3 µΩ/cm (20 ◦ C).

Table 4. Core and Winding Parameters.

AWG Sectional Area Resistivity Diameter

24 0.2047 mm2 842.1 µΩ/cm 0.51 mm

To reduce the secondary proximity effect, the Litz wire of 0.15 mm × 110 mm is chosen. The
equivalent electric conduction area is 1.95 mm2 , the current density is 464 A/cm2 , and the primary DC
internal resistance is 89.2 µΩ/cm (20 ◦ C).
The DC internal resistance of each winding can be obtained with temperature correction as

Rcu−dc = N · MLT · ρw · [1 + α20 ( Tmax − 20 ◦ C)] (30)

where Tmax is the maximum temperature.

Considering the wire skin effect at high frequency, the skin effect factor is calculated by

R ac− pri (ro /δ0 )4

= 1+ = 1.019 (31)
Rdc− pri 48 + 0.8(ro /δ0 )4

where, ro . is the radius of wire and ro = 0.255 mm.

The influence of the proximity effect of the secondary winding is calculated by

ds 0.15
∆s = = = 0.577, ps = 4 (32)
δ0 0.26

where, ds is the diameter of wire. The ratio of secondary AC resistance and DC resistance is
R ac_S /Rdc_S = 1.2. Power loss and the efficiency of transformer are shown in Table 5. It is worth
noting the efficiency of the transformer is calculated under the condition of resonant frequency and
full power.
 PLa The loss of SCI 1.1 W
Ptol Total loss 4.78 W
 Transformer efficiency 99.37%
Energies 2018, 11, 3288 15 of 19

5.3. Experimental Results

Table 5. Loss Calculations.
The designed transformer is applied to 720 W LLC resonant converter charger. The experimental
waveforms under different Symbol operating conditions are given in Figure 14. Value
Description The operating waveform of
LLC resonant converter Patmaxthe initial stage of Maximum
Allowed constantpower currentloss charging4.9 is Wgiven in Figure 14a. The
P DC winding loss
output power is 608 W and the operating frequency is 98.1 kHz, which is higher
cu_dc 1.56 W than the resonant
Pcu_ac AC winding loss 1.74 W
frequency. The phase-shifting Pf e angle of the SCI is α =
Core loss π/2, and the current
1.94 Wof the SCI branch 𝑖𝐴𝐵 is
triangular wave. At this time, PLa the magnetizing Theinductance
loss of SCI of the resonant 1.1 tank
W is small, the K value
Ptol Total loss 4.78 W
is also small, which helps reducing the switching frequency range.
η Transformer efficiency 99.37%
Figure 14b shows the working waveform of LLC resonant converter at the constant power
charging
5.3. stage. The output
Experimental Results power is 720 W and the operating frequency is 84.8 kHz, near the resonant
frequency. The phase-shifting angle of the switch-controlled inductor is α ≈ 0.67π, and the
The designed transformer is applied to 720 W LLC resonant converter charger. The experimental
magnetizing current of the transformer is relatively decreased, which reduces the conduction loss.
waveforms under different operating conditions are given in Figure 14. The operating waveform of
Figure 14c shows the working waveform of LLC resonant converter at constant voltage charging
LLC resonant converter at the initial stage of constant current charging is given in Figure 14a. The
stage.output
The output power
power is 608 Wisand 240
theW, the operating
operating frequency frequency
is 98.1 kHz, is which
70.2 kHz, which
is higher thanisthelower than the
resonant
resonant frequency,
frequency. and the output
The phase-shifting angle ofpower is issmaller.
the SCI α = π/2, The
and the phase-shifting
current of the angle of the
SCI branch i AB switch-
is
controlled inductor
triangular wave.isAtαthis
≈ 0.79π, themagnetizing
time, the magnetizing current of
inductance of the
theresonant
transformer
tank isissmall,
decreased further
the K value is and
alsoload
the light small, which helps
efficiency reducing the
is improve switching frequency range.
effectively.

(a)

(b)
Figure 14. Cont.
 Energies 2018, 11, 3288 16 of 19
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 18

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 18

(c)
Figure
Figure 14. Experimental
14. Experimental waveforms.(a)
waveforms. (a)Constant
Constant Current
CurrentStage
Stagewith Vo V
with =o76 V and
= 76 Io = I8o =
V and A8(αA=(α
0.5π);
= 0.5π);
(b) Constant Power Stage with Vo = 90 V and Io = 8 A (α = 0.67π); (c) Constant Voltage Stage with
(b) Constant Power Stage with Vo = 90 V and Io = 8 A (α = 0.67π); (c) Constant Voltage Stage with Vo =
Vo = 96 V and Io = 2.5 A (α = 0.79π).
96 V and Io = 2.5 A (α = 0.79π).
Figure 14b shows the working waveform of LLC resonant converter at the constant power
The experiment
charging stage. Theresults
outputcomparison
power is 720 W of and
the the
transformer temperature
operating frequency after
is 84.8 kHz, operating under a full
near the resonant
loadfrequency.
for 1 h isThe shown in Figure
phase-shifting 15.ofThe
angle temperature riseinductor
the switch-controlled of the isproposed
α ≈ 0.67π, transformer is 65.2 °C.
and the magnetizing
Experiments
current of show that the transformer
the transformer works inwhich
is relatively decreased, an ideal temperature
reduces the conductionrise range.
loss. In addition, the
Figuretransformer
conventional 14c shows thewith
working waveform
air gap of LLC to
is applied resonant
the sameconverter at constant
resonator circuit,voltage
the charging
transformer
stage. The output power is 240 W, the operating(c) frequency is 70.2 kHz,
retaining wall interval d is 4.3 mm, the temperature rise is measured as 83.8 °C. Moreover, which is lower than the the
resonant
temperature frequency,
rise
Figure of theand thewaveforms.
outputwinding
secondary
14. Experimental power is smaller.
theThe
near Current
(a) Constant phase-shifting
air-gap is the
Stage with angle
Vo =highest,
76 of which
V and the
Io = 8switch-controlled
is=14.9
A (α 0.5π);°C higher
inductor is α ≈ 0.79π, the magnetizing current of the transformer is decreased further and the
Vo = light
than the (b) Constanttransformer.
proposed Power Stage with Vo = 90 V and Io = 8 A (α = 0.67π); (c) Constant Voltage Stage with
load 96
efficiency
V and Io =is2.5
improve effectively.
A (α = 0.79π).
The experiment results comparison of the transformer temperature after operating under a full
load The
for 1experiment
h is shown in Figure 15. Theoftemperature rise temperature
of the proposed ◦ C.
results comparison the transformer aftertransformer is 65.2
operating under a full
Experiments
load for 1 h isshow
shownthatinthe transformer
Figure 15. Theworks in an ideal
temperature rise temperature
of the proposed rise transformer
range. In addition,
is 65.2 the
°C.
conventional transformer
Experiments show that the with air gap is applied
transformer works to inthe
an same
ideal resonator
temperaturecircuit,
risethe transformer
range. retaining
In addition, the
wall interval dtransformer
is 4.3 mm, the ◦ C. Moreover, the temperature
conventional withtemperature rise is measured
air gap is applied to the same as 83.8
resonator circuit, transformer
rise of thewall
retaining secondary
intervalwinding
d is 4.3 near
mm, the air-gap is therise
temperature highest, which is
is measured 83.8◦ C
as14.9 °C.higher than the
Moreover,
proposed transformer.
temperature rise of the secondary winding near the air-gap is the highest, which is 14.9 °C higher
than the proposed transformer.
(a) (b)
Figure 15. Temperature rise comparison. (a) The conventional scheme; (b) The proposed scheme.

Corresponding to Figure 14, the measured loss of the proposed transformer under 100%, 80%,
and 33% loads are compared with those of the conventional LLC transformer, as shown in Figure 16.
Experimental results show that the proposed design scheme is more efficient to reduce the
temperature rise of magnetic components.
Figure 17 shows the efficiency (a) comparison between the(b) proposed LLC resonant converter
charger and the 15.
Figure
Figure conventional
15. LLCcomparison.
Temperature rise
Temperature resonant (a)converter chargerscheme;
The conventional (k = 5)(b)
inThe
theproposed
whole charging
scheme. process.
At the left of point A, the operating frequency is higher than resonant frequency. The proposed
Corresponding
Corresponding
transformer magnetizing to Figure
to Figure 14, the
14,
inductance the can
measured
measured loss of
loss of the
be dynamically the proposed
proposed
adjusted, transformer
transformer
which not under
under 100%,
only100%, 80%, the
80%,
improves
and 33%
and 33% loads
loads are
are compared
compared with
with those
those of
of the
the conventional
conventionalLLC LLCtransformer,
transformer, as asshown
shown ininFigure
Figure16.
16.
efficiency of the transformer itself, but also effectively reduces the conduction loss and switching loss
Experimental
Experimental results
resultsshow
showthat the
that proposed
the design
proposed scheme
design is more
scheme efficient
is more to reduce
efficient the
to temperature
reduce the
of the LLC resonant converter. Hence, the comprehensive efficiency can be improved.
rise of magnetic
temperature risecomponents.
of magnetic components.
Figure 17 shows the efficiency comparison between the proposed LLC resonant converter
charger and the conventional LLC resonant converter charger (k = 5) in the whole charging process.
At the left of point A, the operating frequency is higher than resonant frequency. The proposed
transformer magnetizing inductance can be dynamically adjusted, which not only improves the
efficiency of the transformer itself, but also effectively reduces the conduction loss and switching loss
of the LLC resonant converter. Hence, the comprehensive efficiency can be improved.
 Figure 17 shows the efficiency comparison between the proposed LLC resonant converter
charger and the conventional LLC resonant converter charger (k = 5) in the whole charging process.
At the left of point A, the operating frequency is higher than resonant frequency. The proposed
transformer magnetizing inductance can be dynamically adjusted, which not only improves the
efficiency
Energies 2018,of
11,the transformer itself, but also effectively reduces the conduction loss and switching
3288 loss
17 of 19
of the LLC resonant converter. Hence, the comprehensive efficiency can be improved.

Figure 16. Measured loss comparison.

Figure 17 shows the efficiency comparison between the proposed LLC resonant converter charger
and the conventional LLC resonant converter charger (k = 5) in the whole charging process. At the
left of point A, the operating frequency is higher than resonant frequency. The proposed transformer
magnetizing inductance can be dynamically adjusted, which not only improves the efficiency 17
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
ofofthe
18
transformer itself, but also effectively reduces the conduction loss and switching loss of the LLC
resonant converter. Hence, the comprehensive efficiency
Figure 16. Measured can be improved.
loss comparison.

Figure 17. Efficiency comparison in the whole charging process.

process.

6.
6. Conclusions
Conclusions
Aiming
Aiming atat the
the relatively
relatively low
low efficiency
efficiency problem
problem of of the
the conventional
conventional integrated
integrated transformer
transformer in in
LLC
LLC resonant converter, a controlled magnetizing inductance resonant transformer suitable for
resonant converter, a controlled magnetizing inductance resonant transformer suitable for high
high
power
power LLC
LLC resonant
resonant converter
converter is
is proposed.
proposed. TheThe proposed transformer mainly
proposed transformer mainly removes
removes the influence
the influence
of
of fringing effect, improving
fringing effect, improving the efficiency of
the efficiency of the transformer, and
the transformer, and the
the temperature
temperature rise
rise of transformer.
of transformer.
The ◦C
The experimental results show that the temperature rise of the transformer is reduced by
experimental results show that the temperature rise of the transformer is reduced by 14.9
14.9 °C
compared
compared with
with the
the conventional
conventional scheme. Moreover, according
scheme. Moreover, according to to the
the change
change of of charging
charging process
process
(output
(output voltage and equivalent load impedance changes), the magnetizing inductance of
voltage and equivalent load impedance changes), the magnetizing inductance of proposed
proposed
transformer
transformer can
can be
be dynamically
dynamically adjusted
adjusted toto reduce
reduce the
the conduction
conduction loss loss and
and switching
switching loss
loss of
of the LLC
the LLC
resonant
resonant converter. Therefore, the
converter. Therefore, the comprehensive
comprehensive efficiency
efficiency of of the
the whole
whole charging
charging process
process cancan be
be
improved further, especially at the initial charging stage and at the charging end
improved further, especially at the initial charging stage and at the charging end (light load).(light load).

Author Contributions: All the authors conceived and designed the study. Z.Z., Q.X. performed the simulation
Author
and the Contributions:
experiment andAll the the
wrote authors conceived
manuscript withand designed
guidance theY.D.,
from study. Z.Z.,
Z.Z., Q.X.Y.D.
Q.X., performed
and H.Y.the simulation
reviewed the
and the experiment and wrote the manuscript
manuscript and provided valuable suggestions. with guidance from Y.D. Z.Z., Q.X., Y.D. and H.Y. reviewed the
manuscript and provided valuable suggestions.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under Grant
No. 51807056.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under Grant
No. 51807056.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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