DATA AND SIGNALS

3.1
 To be transmitted, data must be
transformed to electromagnetic signals.
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to
information that is continuous; digital data refers to
information that has discrete states. Analog data take on
continuous values. Digital data take on discrete values.

Topics discussed in this section:

Analog and Digital Data
Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
Note

Data can be analog or digital.

Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and
take discrete values.
Note

Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.
Comparison of analog and digital signals
 Note

In data communications, we commonly

use periodic analog signals and
nonperiodic digital signals.

3.7
 3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or

composite.

Sine Wave
Wavelength
Time and Frequency Domain
Composite Signals
Bandwidth

3.8
 Figure 3.2 A sine wave

3.9
 Note

We discuss a mathematical approach to

sine waves in Appendix C.

3.10
 Example 3.1

The power in your house can be represented by a sine

wave with a peak amplitude of 155 to 170 V. However, it
is common knowledge that the voltage of the power in
U.S. homes is 110 to 120 V. This discrepancy is due to
the fact that these are root mean square (rms) values.
The signal is squared and then the average amplitude is
calculated. The peak value is equal to 2½ × rms value.

3.11
 Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes

3.12
 Example 3.2

The voltage of a battery is a constant; this constant value

can be considered a sine wave, as we will see later. For
example, the peak value of an AA battery is normally
1.5 V.

3.13
 Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.

3.14
 Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies

3.15
 Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency

3.16
 Example 3.3

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.

The period of this sine wave can be determined as
follows:

3.17
 Example 3.4

Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

Solution

3.18
 Example 3.5

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz?

Solution

3.19
 Note

Frequency is the rate of change with

respect to time.

Change in a short span of time

means high frequency.

Change over a long span of

time means low frequency.

3.20
 Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.

3.21
 Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.

3.22
 Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

3.23
 Example 3.6

A sine wave with value 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution

3.24
 Figure 3.6 Wavelength and period

3.25
 Wavelength

 Wavelength is the distance a signal can

travel in one period.
 Wavelength= propagation speed* period
Or
 Wavelength= propagation speed/ frequency

3.26
 Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

3.27
 Note

A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.

3.28
 Example 3.7

The frequency domain is more compact and

useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave. For example, Figure 3.8 shows three
sine waves, each with different amplitude and
frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.

3.29
 Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

3.30
 Note

A single-frequency sine wave is not

useful in data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.

3.31
 Note

According to Fourier analysis, any

composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
Fourier analysis is discussed in
Appendix C.

3.32
 Note

If the composite signal is periodic, the

decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies;
if the composite signal is nonperiodic,
the decomposition gives a combination
of sine waves with continuous
frequencies.

3.33
 Example 3.8

Figure 3.9 shows a periodic composite signal with

frequency f. This type of signal is not typical of those
found in data communications. We can consider it to be
three alarm systems, each with a different frequency.
The analysis of this signal can give us a good
understanding of how to decompose signals.

3.34
 Figure 3.9 A composite periodic signal

3.35
 Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains

3.36
 Example 3.9

Figure 3.11 shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It

can be the signal created by a microphone or a telephone
set when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the
composite signal cannot be periodic, because that
implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.

3.37
 Figure 3.11 The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

3.38
 Note

The bandwidth of a composite signal is

the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.

3.39
 Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

3.40
 Example 3.10

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves

with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
3.41
 Figure 3.13 The bandwidth for Example 3.10

3.42
 Example 3.11

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show

this by a series of spikes (see Figure 3.14).

3.43
 Figure 3.14 The bandwidth for Example 3.11

3.44
 Example 3.12

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200

kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest
at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows the frequency domain
and the bandwidth.

3.45
 Figure 3.15 The bandwidth for Example 3.12

3.46
 Example 3.13

An example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the

signal propagated by an AM radio station. In the United
States, each AM radio station is assigned a 10-kHz
bandwidth. The total bandwidth dedicated to AM radio
ranges from 530 to 1700 kHz. We will show the rationale
behind this 10-kHz bandwidth in Chapter 5.

3.47
 Example 3.14

Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is

the signal propagated by an FM radio station. In the
United States, each FM radio station is assigned a 200-
kHz bandwidth. The total bandwidth dedicated to FM
radio ranges from 88 to 108 MHz. We will show the
rationale behind this 200-kHz bandwidth in Chapter 5.

3.48
 Example 3.15

Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is

the signal received by an old-fashioned analog black-
and-white TV. A TV screen is made up of pixels. If we
assume a resolution of 525 × 700, we have 367,500
pixels per screen. If we scan the screen 30 times per
second, this is 367,500 × 30 = 11,025,000 pixels per
second. The worst-case scenario is alternating black and
white pixels. We can send 2 pixels per cycle. Therefore,
we need 11,025,000 / 2 = 5,512,500 cycles per second, or
Hz. The bandwidth needed is 5.5125 MHz.

3.49
 3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS

In addition to being represented by an analog signal,

information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more
than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit
for each level.

Topics discussed in this section:

Bit Rate
Bit Length
Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal
Application Layer
3.50
 Figure 3.16 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels

3.51
 Note
Appendix C reviews information about exponential and
Appendix Clogarithmic
reviewsfunctions.
information about
exponential and logarithmic functions.

3.52
 Example 3.16

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are

needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

3.53
 Example 3.17

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are

needed per level? We calculate the number of bits by
using the formula. Each signal level is represented by
3.17 bits. However, this answer is not realistic. The
number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as
well as a power of 2. For this example, 4 bits can
represent one level.

3.54
 Bit Rate

 Most Digital Signals are non-periodic. Therefore,

period and frequency are not appropriate
characteristics.
 Bit rate is used.
 Bit rate is number of bits sent in 1s. Expressed in
bps.

3.55
 Example 3.18

Assume we need to download text documents at the rate

of 100 pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of
the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line. If we assume that one character requires 8
bits, the bit rate is

3.56
 Example 3.19

A digitized voice channel, as we will see in Chapter 4, is

made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice
signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest
frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each
sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate?

Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as

3.57
 Example 3.20

What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

Solution
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality
video signals. The HDTV screen is normally a ratio of
16 : 9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the
screen is renewed 30 times per second. Twenty-four bits
represents one color pixel.

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps

through compression.
3.58
 Bit Length

 Bit length is distance one bit occupies on

transmission medium.

 Bit length= propagation speed* bit duration

3.59
 Figure 3.18 Baseband transmission

3.60
 Note

A digital signal is a composite analog

signal with an infinite bandwidth.

3.61
 Figure 3.19 Bandwidths of two low-pass channels

3.62
 Figure 3.20 Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium

3.63
 Note

Baseband transmission of a digital

signal that preserves the shape of the
digital signal is possible only if we have
a low-pass channel with an infinite or
very wide bandwidth.

3.64
 Note
In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is
In baseband transmission,
proportional the required
to the bit rate;
bandwidth is proportional
if we need to send bits faster, we needto thebandwidth.
more bit rate;
if we need to send bits faster, we need
more bandwidth.

3.66
 Broadband Transmission: Bandwidth of a bandpass channel

3.69
 Note

If the available channel is a bandpass

channel, we cannot send the digital
signal directly to the channel;
we need to convert the digital signal to
an analog signal before transmission.

3.70
 Figure 3.24 Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass
channel

3.71
 Example 3.24

An example of broadband transmission using

modulation is the sending of computer data through a
telephone subscriber line, the line connecting a resident
to the central telephone office. These lines are designed
to carry voice with a limited bandwidth. The channel is
considered a bandpass channel. We convert the digital
signal from the computer to an analog signal, and send
the analog signal. We can install two converters to
change the digital signal to analog and vice versa at the
receiving end. The converter, in this case, is called a
modem which we discuss in detail in Chapter 5.

3.72
 Example 3.25

A second example is the digital cellular telephone. For

better reception, digital cellular phones convert the
analog voice signal to a digital signal (see Chapter 16).
Although the bandwidth allocated to a company
providing digital cellular phone service is very wide, we
still cannot send the digital signal without conversion.
The reason is that we only have a bandpass channel
available between caller and callee. We need to convert
the digitized voice to a composite analog signal before
sending.

3.73
 DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications

is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Topics discussed in this section:

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
Using Both Limits

3.74
 Note

Increasing the levels of a signal may

reduce the reliability of the system.

3.75
 Example 3.33

Does the Nyquist theorem bit rate agree with the

intuitive bit rate described in baseband transmission?

Solution
They match when we have only two levels. We said, in
baseband transmission, the bit rate is 2 times the
bandwidth if we use only the first harmonic in the worst
case. However, the Nyquist formula is more general than
what we derived intuitively; it can be applied to baseband
transmission and modulation. Also, it can be applied
when we have two or more levels of signals.
3.76
 Example 3.34

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000

Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as

3.77
 Example 3.35

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a

signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

3.78
 Example 3.36

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with

a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we
have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64
levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
3.79
 Example 3.37

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value

of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For
this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
receive any data through this channel.

3.80
 Example 3.38

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a

regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
3.81
 Example 3.39

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels.

Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2
MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be calculated
as

3.82
 Example 3.40

For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we

can assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR. In
these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be
simplified to

For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of

the previous example as

3.83
 Example 3.41

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR

for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate
and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper
limit.

3.84
 Example 3.41 (continued)

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit.

For better performance we choose something lower, 4
Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to
find the number of signal levels.

3.85
 Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the

upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.

3.86
 3-6 PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the performance of

the network—how good is it? We discuss quality of
service, an overall measurement of network performance,
in greater detail in Chapter 24. In this section, we
introduce terms that we need for future chapters.

Topics discussed in this section:

Bandwidth
Throughput
Latency (Delay)
Bandwidth-Delay Product
3.87
 Note
In networking, we use the term
bandwidth in two contexts.
❏ The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to
the range of frequencies in a
composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.

❏ The second, bandwidth in bits per

second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link.
3.88
 Example 3.42

The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or

data. The bandwidth of this line for data transmission
can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to
change the digital signal to analog.

3.89
 Example 3.43

If the telephone company improves the quality of the line

and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz, we can send
112,000 bps by using the same technology as mentioned
in Example 3.42.

3.90
 Example 3.44

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an

average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
3.91
 Example 3.45

What is the propagation time if the distance between the

two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic

Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
3.92
 Example 3.46

What are the propagation time and the transmission

time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time
as shown on the next slide:

3.93
 Example 3.46 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is short and

the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time, not the transmission time. The
transmission time can be ignored.

3.94
 Example 3.47

What are the propagation time and the transmission

time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth
of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance
between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission
times as shown on the next slide.

3.95
 Example 3.47 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is very long

and the bandwidth is not very high, the dominant factor
is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The
propagation time can be ignored.

3.96
Transmission Media
• A transmission medium can be broadly
defined as anything that can carry
information from a source to a destination.

• For example, the transmission medium for

two people having a dinner conversation is
the air.
Classes of transmission media
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit
from one device to another.

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves

without using a physical conductor.

7.5
 Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted Pair and Coax use metallic(Copper) conductors
that accept and transport the signals in the form of
Electrical Current.
Effect of Noise on Parallel Lines
Noise on Twisted-Pair Lines
UTP and STP cables
 Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
• Metal casing prevents the penetration of electromagnetic
noise.
• Eliminate the phenomenon , called CROSSTALK
Advantages :

1. Cheaper
2. Less susceptible to electrical interference caused by nearby
equipment or wires.
3. In turn are less likely to cause interference themselves.
4. Because it is electrically "cleaner", STP wire can carry data at
a faster speed.

Disadvantages :

1. STP wire is that it is physically larger and more expensive than

twisted pair wire.

7.11
Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Two kinds of coaxial cable
 One kind, 50-ohm cable, is commonly used when it is
intended for digital transmission from the start.

 The other kind, 75-ohm cable, is commonly used for analog

transmission and cable television.

 Cable TV operators began to provide Internet access over

cable, which has made 75-ohm cable more important for
data communication.
 High bandwidth
 Excellent noise immunity.
 The bandwidth possible depends on the cable quality and length.
 Used within the telephone system, cable television and MAN
 For long-distance lines, but have now replaced by fiber optics on
long distance routes.
 Categories of coaxial cables

7.16
 Optical Fiber Cable
Optical Fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accept and
transport the signals in the form of Light.
Advantages:
 Noise Resistance
 Less Signal Attenuation
 Higher BW

Disadvantages:
 Cost
 Installation/Maintenance
 Fragility(Broken Wire)
Optical fiber
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves

without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
 Propagation Methods
• Ground Propagation
• Sky Propagation
• Line-of-Sight Propagation

7.22
Bands
Wireless transmission waves
Note

Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and
television.
They can penetrate through walls.
Use Omni directional antennas
Omnidirectional antenna
Note

Microwaves are used for unicast

communication such as cellular
telephones and wireless LANs.
Higher frequency ranges cannot
penetrate walls.
Use directional antennas - point to point
line of sight communications.
Unidirectional antennas
Note

Infrared signals can be used for short-

range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.
 Transmission Impairment
• Signal transmit through medium that are not
perfect.

• This imperfection cause signal impairment.

• What is sent is not received.

Causes of impairment
 Attenuation

• Means loss of energy -> weaker signal

• When a signal travels through a medium it loses energy

overcoming the resistance of the medium

• Amplifiers are used to compensate for this loss of energy

by amplifying the signal.
 Measurement of Attenuation

• To show the loss or gain of energy the unit

“decibel” is used.

dB = 10log10P2/P1
P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal
Attenuation
• Suppose a signal travels through a
transmission medium and its power is reduced
to one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In
this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can
be calculated as

7.35
 Example 3.26

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half

the power.
 Example 3.27

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is

increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this
case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated
as
 Example 3.28

One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the

changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel
numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are
measuring several points (cascading) instead of just two.
In Figure 3.27 a signal travels from point 1 to point 4. In
this case, the decibel value can be calculated as
Decibels for Example 3.28
 Example 3.29

Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power

in milliwatts. In this case, it is referred to as dBm and is
calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where Pm is the power
in milliwatts. Calculate the power of a signal with dBm =
−30.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as
 Distortion
• Means that the signal changes its form or shape
• Distortion occurs in composite signals
• Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed traveling through a medium.
• The different components therefore arrive with
different delays at the receiver.
• That means that the signals have different phases
at the receiver than they did at the source.
Distortion
 Noise
• There are different types of noise
– Thermal - random noise of electrons in the wire
creates an extra signal
– Crosstalk - same as above but between two
wires.
– Impulse - Spikes that result from power lines,
lightening, etc.
– Induced
Noise
 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

• To measure the quality of a system the SNR

is often used. It indicates the strength of the
signal wrt the noise power in the system.
• It is the ratio between two powers.
• It is usually given in dB and referred to as
SNRdB.
 Example 3.31

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the

noise is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?
 Example 3.32

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel

are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

Figure 3.30 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR
Analog Transmission
5-2 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of

analog information by an analog signal. One may ask
why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is
already analog. Modulation is needed if the medium is
bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass channel is
available to us.
Topics discussed in this section:
 Amplitude Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
 Phase Modulation
Figure 5.15 Types of analog-to-analog modulation
Amplitude Modulation
 A carrier signal is modulated only in amplitude
value
 The modulating signal is the envelope of the
carrier
 The required bandwidth is 2B, where B is the
bandwidth of the modulating signal
 Since on both sides of the carrier freq. fc, the
spectrum is identical, we can discard one half, thus
requiring a smaller bandwidth for transmission.
Figure 5.16 Amplitude modulation
Note

The total bandwidth required for AM

can be determined
from the bandwidth of the audio
signal: BAM = 2B.
Figure 5.17 AM band allocation
Frequency Modulation

 The modulating signal changes the freq. fc

of the carrier signal
 The bandwidth for FM is high
 It is approx. 10x the signal frequency
Note

The total bandwidth required for FM can

be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B.
Where  is usually 4.
Figure 5.18 Frequency modulation
Figure 5.19 FM band allocation
Phase Modulation (PM)

 The modulating signal only changes the

phase of the carrier signal.
 The phase change manifests itself as a
frequency change but the instantaneous
frequency change is proportional to the
derivative of the amplitude.
 The bandwidth is higher than for AM.
Figure 5.20 Phase modulation
Note

The total bandwidth required for PM can

be determined from the bandwidth
and maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + β)B.
Where  = 2 most often.
Digital Transmission
4-2 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

A digital signal is superior to an analog signal because

it is more robust to noise and can easily be recovered,
corrected and amplified. For this reason, the tendency
today is to change an analog signal to digital data. In
this section we describe two techniques, pulse code
modulation and delta modulation.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
PCM
 PCM consists of three steps to digitize an
analog signal:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Binary encoding
 Before we sample, we have to filter the
signal to limit the maximum frequency of
the signal as it affects the sampling rate.
 Filtering should ensure that we do not
distort the signal, ie remove high frequency
components that affect the signal shape.
Figure 4.21 Components of PCM encoder
Sampling
 Analog signal is sampled every TS secs.
 Ts is referred to as the sampling interval.
 fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or
sampling frequency.
 There are 3 sampling methods:
 Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant
 Natural - a pulse of short width with varying
amplitude
 Flattop - sample and hold, like natural but with
single amplitude value
 The process is referred to as pulse amplitude
modulation PAM and the outcome is a signal
with analog (non integer) values
Figure 4.22 Three different sampling methods for PCM
Note

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.
Figure 4.23 Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals
Quantization
 Sampling results in a series of pulses of
varying amplitude values ranging between
two limits: a min and a max.
 The amplitude values are infinite between the
two limits.
 We need to map the infinite amplitude values
onto a finite set of known values.
 This is achieved by dividing the distance
between min and max into L zones, each of
height 
 = (max - min)/L
Quantization Levels

 The midpoint of each zone is assigned a

value from 0 to L-1 (resulting in L
values)
 Each sample falling in a zone is then
approximated to the value of the
midpoint.
Quantization Zones
 Assume we have a voltage signal with
amplitutes Vmin=-20V and Vmax=+20V.
 We want to use L=8 quantization levels.
 Zone width = (20 - -20)/8 = 5
 The 8 zones are: -20 to -15, -15 to -10,
-10 to -5, -5 to 0, 0 to +5, +5 to +10,
+10 to +15, +15 to +20
 The midpoints are: -17.5, -12.5, -7.5, -
2.5, 2.5, 7.5, 12.5, 17.5
Figure 4.26 Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
Quantization Error
 When a signal is quantized, we introduce an
error - the coded signal is an approximation
of the actual amplitude value.
 The difference between actual and coded
value (midpoint) is referred to as the
quantization error.
 The more zones, the smaller  which results
in smaller errors.
 BUT, the more zones the more bits required
to encode the samples -> higher bit rate
Quantization Error and SNQR
 Signals with lower amplitude values will suffer
more from quantization error as the error
range: /2, is fixed for all signal levels.
 Non linear quantization is used to alleviate
this problem. Goal is to keep SNQR fixed for
all sample values.
 Two approaches:
 The quantization levels follow a logarithmic curve.
Smaller ’s at lower amplitudes and larger’s at
higher amplitudes.
 Companding: The sample values are compressed
at the sender into logarithmic zones, and then
expanded at the receiver. The zones are fixed in
height.
Bit rate and bandwidth
requirements of PCM
 The bit rate of a PCM signal can be calculated form
the number of bits per sample x the sampling rate
Bit rate = nb x fs
 The bandwidth required to transmit this signal
depends on the type of line encoding used. Refer to
previous section for discussion and formulas.
 A digitized signal will always need more bandwidth
than the original analog signal. Price we pay for
robustness and other features of digital transmission.
Analog Transmission
5-1 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of

changing one of the characteristics of an analog
signal based on the information in digital data.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
 Amplitude Shift Keying
 Frequency Shift Keying
 Phase Shift Keying
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Digital to Analog Conversion

 Digital data needs to be carried on an

analog signal.
 A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the
function of transporting the digital data in
an analog waveform.
 The analog carrier signal is manipulated to
uniquely identify the digital data being
carried.
Figure 5.1 Digital-to-analog conversion
Figure 5.2 Types of digital-to-analog conversion
 Note

Bit rate, N, is the number of bits per

second (bps). Baud rate is the number of
signal
elements per second (bauds).
In the analog transmission of digital
data, the signal or baud rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate.
S=Nx1/r bauds
Where r is the number of data bits per
signal element.
 Example 5.1

An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If

1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the bit
rate.

Solution
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is
unknown. We can find the value of N from
 Example 5.2

An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud

rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are
carried by each signal element? How many signal
elements do we need?
Solution
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and
L are unknown. We find first the value of r and
then the value of L.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

 ASK is implemented by changing the amplitude of

a carrier signal to reflect amplitude levels in the
digital signal.
 For example: a digital “1” could not affect the
signal, whereas a digital “0” would, by making it
zero.
 The line encoding will determine the values of the
analog waveform to reflect the digital data being
carried.
Bandwidth of ASK

 The bandwidth B of ASK is proportional

to the signal rate S.
B = (1+d)S
 “d” is due to modulation and filtering,
lies between 0 and 1.
Figure 5.3 Binary amplitude shift keying
Frequency Shift Keying

 The digital data stream changes the

frequency of the carrier signal, fc.
 For example, a “1” could be represented by
f1=fc +f, and a “0” could be represented by
f2=fc-f.
Figure 5.6 Binary frequency shift keying
Bandwidth of FSK

 If the difference between the two

frequencies (f1 and f2) is 2f, then the
required BW B will be:
B = (1+d)xS +2f
 Example 5.5

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which

spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using FSK with d = 1?
Solution
This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we
are modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of
the band is at 250 kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50
kHz; this means
Phase Shift Keyeing

 We vary the phase shift of the carrier signal

to represent digital data.
 The bandwidth requirement, B is:
B = (1+d)xS
 PSK is much more robust than ASK as it is
not that vulnerable to noise, which changes
amplitude of the signal.
Figure 5.9 Binary phase shift keying
Quadrature PSK

 To increase the bit rate, we can code 2 or more bits onto one
signal element.

 In QPSK, we parallelize the bit stream so that every two

incoming bits are split up and PSK a carrier frequency. One
carrier frequency is phase shifted 90o from the other - in
quadrature.

 The two PSKed signals are then added to produce one of 4

signal elements. L = 4 here.
Figure 5.11 QPSK and its implementation
Note

Quadrature amplitude modulation is a

combination of ASK and PSK.
Multiplexing
Note

Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of

available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by

multiplexing; i.e., sharing of the
bandwidth between multiple users.
MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared
shared.. Multiplexing is the set
of techniques that allows the (simultaneous)
transmission of multiple signals across a single data
link.. As data and telecommunications use increases, so
link
does traffic
traffic..
Dividing a link into channels
Categories of multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
Note

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.
It uses the concept of modulation
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

6.9
 Note

WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine optical signals.

6.10
 Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

6.11