FACULTY Engineering

DEPARTMENT Chemical Engineering

PROGRAMME Bachelor of Engineering Honours Degree in Chemical

Engineering
LEVEL Undergraduate

COURSE TITLE Research Methodology

COURSE CODE ECE 3108

FACILITATOR Ms Lawrencia Tshuma

Table of Contents

MODULE OVERVIEW 2
MODULE AIM 3
LEARNING OUTCOMES 3
OBJECTIVES 3
RESOURCES /TECHNOLOGY 4
ASSESSMENT TYPE 4
TOPIC 1: Introduction and Overview 4
TOPIC 2: Assortment of Problem 14
TOPIC 3: Literature Review 22
TOPIC 4: Problem assortment 26
TOPIC 5: Hypothesis and Postulation 27
TOPIC 6: Data Accumulation and Processing 31
APPENDICES 50

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MODULE OVERVIEW Welcome to the module on Research Methodology. I assume
that you have done some research on the courses you
covered in part one and part two. This module is designed
to prepare you with knowledge and skills that will help
you excel in research. It will up your attitudes towards
research. To accomplish this aim, we are going to focus our
attention on,

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview

Chapter 2: Assortment of Problem

Chapter 3: Literature Review

Chapter 4: Hypothesis and Postulation

Chapter 5: Data Accumulation and Processing
Chapter 6: Scientific writing skills and
presentations

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MODULE AIM This module explains the incorporation of Research
Methodology in Chemical Engineering at undergraduate
levels.

LEARNING OUTCOMES • Understand the purpose of a project proposal

• Conduct a research project.

• Select the appropriate research methodology

and research designs
• Show an understanding of Research methods
and research methodology.
• Select the right referencing style
• Use the correct methods of data analysis

OBJECTIVES By the end of the module students should be able to:

 Define Research Methodology
 Define Research Methods
 Differentiate between Research methods and
research methodology
 Produce a well-developed research proposal and
research project
 Select an appropriate methodology to conduct
the research
 Understand various tasks required to carry out
the research,
 Find the resources needed to guide them
through the research process.

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 RESOURCES  Laptops, smartphones
/TECHNOLOGY  Projectors
 Access to internet
 Boards
 Whiteboard Markers

ASSESSMENT Assessment Date Contribution to a

TYPE final mark
st
Final Examination End of 1 half 75 %
Continuous Assessment 25 %
st
Project Proposal End of 1 half 12.5 %
Semester
PowerPoint Mid-Module- 12.5 %
Presentation TBA
Test 10/10/2024 25 %
NB: Coursework includes Working collaboratively in groups to
complete assigned tasks, writing assignments, Class exercises,
and individual tasks/assignments.

Examinations are administered at the end of the 1st half of

the semester to candidates who would have submitted
coursework.

Week MODULE CONTENT SUBTOPICS

One

TOPIC 1: Introduction and Overview

2.1. Introduction
Research has transitioned to a central role in social and economic
dynamics this century. What underlies this phenomenon? What drives its
increasing significance? While we acknowledge that societal
advancements stem largely from research, a precise definition remains
elusive. Our understanding of research tends to be overly focused on
experimental approaches typically seen in the social sciences.

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2.2. Meaning of research
Research refers to the systematic investigation and study aimed at
discovering or validating existing knowledge in the field. It involves
various methodologies, including experimental studies, simulations, and
theoretical analysis.

2.3.Examples in Chemical Engineering:

(i) Process Optimization: Research may focus on improving the

efficiency of chemical processes, such as optimizing reaction
conditions in a reactor to maximize yield while minimizing energy
consumption.

(ii) Material Development: Investigating new materials for catalysts

that enhance reaction rates or developing polymers with specific
properties for industrial applications.

(iii) Environmental Impact Studies: Conducting research to

assess the environmental effects of chemical processes and
developing methods to reduce waste and emissions, such as carbon
capture technologies.

(iv) Biochemical Engineering: Exploring the use of biological systems for

chemical production, such as using microorganisms for biofuel
production or pharmaceuticals.

(v) Safety and Risk Assessment: Researching methods to improve

safety protocols in chemical plants, including hazard analysis and
accident prevention strategies.

2.4. Key terms

Meaning of Research

The word research is composed of two syllables, RE AND SEARCH

The term "research" combines a prefix meaning "again" or "anew" with a

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verb that signifies careful investigation, resulting in a noun that denotes
thorough and methodical inquiry aimed at establishing facts or principles.

(i) Research involves repeated observation of phenomena from various

perspectives, leading to the development of multiple theories, such
as those related to learning.

(ii) The research process entails systematic observation, data

collection, and conclusion drawing based on the gathered
information.

(iii) Research aims to uncover relationships among phenomena,

assuming that consistent relationships exist between specific
backgrounds and their consequent outcomes under defined
conditions.
(iv) Rusk emphasises that research embodies an attitude of inquiry,
posing previously unasked questions and seeking factual answers
through a structured approach, rather than merely supporting
existing beliefs.
(v) Successful research contributes to the body of scientific knowledge,
highlighting the importance of openness to unexpected conclusions.
(vi) George J. Mouly defines research as the systematic application of
the scientific method to address social studies problems,
reinforcing the notion that any organized study promoting social
studies as a science qualifies as research.
(vii) Francis G. Cornell characterizes research as reliable,
verifiable, and exhaustive, asserting that it reflects a fundamental
aspect of human behaviour, where all intelligent actions involve
some form of research.

2.5.Characteristics of a research

The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of

‘Research’
(i) It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand
sources.
(ii) It emphasizes the discovery of general principles.
(iii) It is a systematic and accurate investigation.
(iv) It uses certain valid data-gathering devices.
(v) It is logical and objective.
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 (vi) The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that
support his hypotheses.
(vii) The researcher eliminates personal feelings and
preferences.
(viii) It endeavours to organise data in quantitative terms.
(ix)Research is patient and unhurried activity.
(x) The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions
that may be unpopular and bring social disapproval.
(xi)Research is carefully recorded and reported.
(xii) Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and
cautiously.

2.6. The Functions of Research

Research serves to enhance research methodologies through the
refinement and expansion of knowledge. It plays a critical role in
improving the social studies process by refining existing knowledge
and acquiring new insights.

2.7. Key functions of research in social studies include

(i) Supporting decision-making related to knowledge refinement
and extension in the field.
(ii) Enhancing student learning and addressing classroom
challenges faced by teachers, leading to the development of
more effective teaching techniques.
(iii) Assisting social studies administrators in improving
educational systems and practices.
(iv) Research should simultaneously contribute to both the
theoretical and practical aspects of social studies, functioning
as a valuable tool for researchers aimed at process
improvement.

2.8.Objectives of Research
(i) To discover new facts.
(ii) To verify and test important facts.
(iii) To analyse an event, process or phenomenon to identify the
cause-and-effect relationship.

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 (iv) To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and
understand scientific and non-scientific problems.
(v) To find solutions to scientific, non-scientific and social problems.
(vi) To overcome or solve the problems happening in our everyday lives.

Research objectives can be categorized into three main types:

(i) Exploratory or formulative research studies aim to gain familiarity

with a phenomenon or provide new insights.

(ii) Diagnostic research studies focus on determining the frequency of

occurrences or associations between variables.

(iii) Hypothesis-testing research studies are designed to test

causal relationships between variables.

Theoretical Objective:
a) Focuses on formulating new theories, principles, or laws. -
Explanatory in nature, elucidating relationships between
variables.
b) Contributes to foundational knowledge across various
disciplines, including Engineering, Physics, Chemistry, and
Mathematics.
Factual Objective:
a) Aims to discover new facts through descriptive research.
b) Primarily concerned with documenting historical events and
facts.

Application Objective
a) Seeks to suggest new applications rather than contribute new
knowledge.
b) Focuses on improvements and modifications in practical
applications, such as innovative uses of electricity.

2.9. Motivation in Engineering Research

(i) Intrinsic motivations (interest, challenge, learning) are linked to
enhanced creative performance
(ii) Extrinsic factors (rewards, fame, patents) can motivate but may
hinder creativity.
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 (iii) Influences from peers (competition, collaboration) serve as
additional motivators.
(iv) Personal motivations include solving unsolved problems and
contributing to the community.

2.10. Types of Research:

Descriptive vs. Analytical
(i) Descriptive research reports current states without controlling
variables; may include cause determination.
(ii) Analytical research that utilizes existing facts for critical
evaluation can be both descriptive and analytical.

Applied vs. Fundamental

(i) Applied research addresses immediate organizational problems.
(ii) Fundamental research focuses on generalizations and theory
formulation, often related to natural phenomena or pure
mathematics.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

(i) Quantitative research employs statistical analysis of large
representative samples.
(ii) Qualitative research relies on smaller, non-representative cases or
narratives, often in behavioural studies.

2.11. Characteristics of Qualitative and Quantitative Research:

Qualitative research Quantitative research
1 Collects information without Uses structured procedures and
formal, structured instruments formal instruments to collect
information
2 Analyses narrative Analyses numerical information
information in an organized through statistical procedures.
but intuitive fashion
3 Flexible, evolving, emergent Predetermined, structured
4 Conducted in a natural, The environment is unfamiliar,
familiar environment artificial
5 The sample is small, usually, a Based on a large, random,
non-random theoretical representative sample
6 Inductive Deductive
7 Comprehensive, holistic, Precise, narrow, reductionist
expansive

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2.12. Research Approaches
Theoretical Objective: Focuses on formulating new theories, principles, or
laws; explanatory; contributes to basic human knowledge across various
disciplines such as Engineering, Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics.
Factual Objective: Aims to discover new facts; descriptive; often
associated with historical research that describes past events.
Application Objective: Seeks to suggest new applications rather than
contribute new knowledge; involves improvements and modifications in
practice, exemplified by new applications of electricity.

2.13. Significance of Research

This can be understood keeping in view the following points from
different persons’ perspectives:
(i) To those students who are to write a master's or PhD thesis,
research may mean careerism or a way to attain a high position in
the social structure.
(ii) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a
source of livelihood.
(iii) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet
for new ideas and insights.
(iv) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of
new styles and creative work.
(v) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the
generalizations of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge
and an important source of providing guidelines for solving different
business, governmental and social problems. It is a sort of formal
training which enables one to understand the new developments in
one's field in a better way.

2.14. Research Methods versus Methodology

The distinction between research methods and research methodology is
crucial for understanding research processes. Research methods
encompass the techniques employed to conduct research effectively.

Methodology – refers to the methods, techniques, and procedures that are

employed in implementing your research plan (design)
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Research Methods or techniques refer to all the methods the researchers
use in performing research operations (see research instruments/research
tools)

Research Methodology

A science of studying how research is carried out scientifically

A way to systematically solve the research problem by logically adopting
various steps

2.15. The distinction between method and methodology

Research Method Research Methodology
1 Research methods are the Research methodology explains
techniques and tools used to and justifies the techniques and
conduct research into a subject tools used in research.
or a topic
2 Conducting experiments, tests, Techniques used to conduct
surveys and the like utilizing research and acquire knowledge to
the knowledge and skills perform tests, experiments,
learned through research surveys and critical studies.
methodology.
3 Aim at finding solutions to Aims at the employment of the
research problems. correct procedures to arrive at a
solution.
4 Research methods are the end Research methodology paves the
of any scientific or non- way to choosing appropriate
scientific research. research methods to be conducted
properly and thus is the beginning
of any scientific or non-scientific
research.

2.16. Research and Scientific Method

The research process often follows the scientific method, which includes
the following steps: observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation,
analysis, and conclusion. Examples.
(a) Observation: A chemical engineer notices that a particular catalyst
is not performing as expected in a reaction.
(b) Hypothesis: They hypothesize that increasing the temperature will
enhance the catalyst’s performance.
(c) Experimentation: The engineer conducts experiment at various
temperatures to test this hypothesis.
(d) Analysis: Data from these experiments are analysed to determine
if there is a significant performance improvement.
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 (e) Conclusion: Based on the analysis, they conclude whether their
hypothesis was correct or needs revision.

2.17. Importance of Knowing How Research is Done

Understanding how research is conducted is crucial for several reasons:
1. Innovation: Knowledge of research methodologies allows engineers
to develop new processes and materials that may lead to more
efficient production methods.
2. Problem-Solving: Familiarity with scientific methods equips
engineers with tools to systematically address and solve complex
engineering problems.
3. Quality Assurance: Understanding research helps ensure that
experimental results are reliable and reproducible, which is
essential for safety and compliance in chemical engineering.
The ability to critically evaluate research also aids in making informed
decisions based on empirical evidence rather than assumptions.

2.18. Research Process

The research process consists of a sequence of actions or steps necessary
to effectively carry out research and the desired progression of these
steps.

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Figure 1: Research Process Flow Diagram (Kothari,1990)
Where F = feedback (Helps in controlling the sub-system F to which it is
transmitted) FF= feed-forward (Serves the vital function of providing
criteria for evaluation

Figure 1 indicates that the research process consists of several closely

related activities, from I to VII. However, such activities overlap
continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence. At
times, the first step determines the nature of the last step. If subsequent
procedures have not been in the early stages, serious difficulties may
arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. The various
steps involved in a research process are separate and distinct. The steps
do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the
researcher should constantly anticipate at each step in the research
process the requirements of the subsequent steps. However, the following
order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process:

(i) Identification of research problem

(ii) Broad literature survey
(iii) Hypothesis formulation
(iv) Preparation of research design
(v) Determining sample design
(vi) Data collection
(vii) Analysis of data
(viii) Hypothesis testing
(ix)Generalizations and interpretation
(x) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results,
(xi)Conclusion

2.19. Measure of Good Research

One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
The purpose of research should be clearly defined, and common concepts
be used.
(i)The research procedure should be described in sufficient detail to
permit another researcher to repeat the research for further

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 advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been
attained.
(ii)The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned
to yield results that are as objective as possible.
(iii)The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
(iv)The analysis of data should be adequate to reveal its significance,
and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity
and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
(v)Conclusions should be confined to findings justified by the data
collected and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate
basis.
(vi)Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is
experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.

2.20. Criteria of Good Research

In other words, we can state the qualities of good research under
(i) Good research is systematic: It means that research is
structured with logical steps to be taken in a specified
sequence following a well-defined set of rules.
(ii) Good research is logical: Implies that research is guided by the
rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction
and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to that; whole
whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some
premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise.
(iii) Good research is empirical: It implies that research is
related to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals
with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity
to research results.
(iv) Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows
research results to be verified by replicating the study and
thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

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 Exercise 1

 Define the term ‘Research.

 Name the characteristics of research.

 Describe the specific features of Research,

 List the main objectives of research and explain

them in detail.

Week Two MODULE CONTENT SUBTOPICS

TOPIC 2: Assortment of Problem

2.1. Introduction
Research transcends simple formula creation in the realm of science;
its objective is to address challenges or provide answers within social
science. The preliminary stage of research involves the identification
of problems. The selection of issues is shaped by contemplative
reasoning. Actions lacking reflection are predominantly governed by
custom or affect. Early societies did not possess efficient reflective

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reasoning until novel solutions were introduced. As a result, institutions
of higher learning promote systematic and critical analysis. Human
cognition can be classified into four distinct categories: convergent,
divergent, reflective, and scientific thought. Reflective thought yields
innovative solutions to pre-existing challenges, whereas scientific
thought is distinguished by systematic contemplation.

2.2. Reflective thinking

Reflective thinking implies two components: mastery of the
situation or content plus divergent thinking or creative thinking.
Reflective thinking acts in terms of problem situations, therefore,
it involves the following steps:
(i) The occurrence of a felt need or difficulty.
(ii) Definition of the problem in terms of a problem statement.
(iii) Occurrence of a suggested explanation or possible
solution or hypothesis or tentative theory.
(iv) The rationale elaboration of an idea through the
development of its implication using collection of data or
evidence.
(v)Collection of the ideas and formation of concluding belief
through experimental verification of the hypothesis.
(vi) Conclusions and formulation of generalizations. It is
recognized that at every level of generalization, the human
mind may act through these steps. The research process
involves an inductive-deductive mode of thinking which is
known as scientific thinking

2.3.Scientific thinking
Scientific thinking is defined as an inductive-deductive mode of
thinking or reasoning in which one seeks to explain the
uniformities of nature by appealing to experiences.
 Induction moves forward from particular to general.
 Deduction is backward movement from general to particular
Scientific thinking initiates and concludes with factual
verification of hypotheses. It relies on empirical evidence to
establish causal relationships. Evidence sources include customs,
authority, personal experiences, syllogistic reasoning, self-
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 evident propositions, and scientific experimentation. These
methods of seeking truth have continued to the present day and
form man’s current intellectual equipment for solving problem of
life. Man in his quest for truth has appealed in general to five
sources, of evidences.

2.4. Some distinguishing characteristics of scientific thinking

There are six main features of scientific thinking:
(i) Scientific thinking is based upon cause-effect relationship
and evidences.
(ii) It involves certain principles and certain assumptions.
(iii) Every scientific thinking employs hypotheses to
verify the concepts.
(iv) It is free from emotional bias, personal prejudices and it
is highly objective.
(v) It utilizes accurate measurement and observation to
contribute in situation.
(vi) Scientific thinking employs quantitative analysis in the
treatment of data for conclusions.

2.5.Steps in the process of scientific thinking

The logically related steps are involved in scientific thinking:
(i) The location and definition of a problem.
(ii) The survey of past experiences with problems of previous
investigations is already available.
(iii) The formulation of hypotheses representing a
tentative solution to the problem. All the activities are
organized for the verification of the hypotheses
(collection of data statistical techniques etc.).
(iv) The collection of new data or evidence.
(v) The analysis of the data classification and summarization
by quantitative treatment.
(vi) The formulation of generalizations.

2.6. What is a Research Problem?

A research problem is an issue or challenge that should be
investigated and resolved using scientific methods. For example,
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 developing more efficient catalysts for chemical reactions or
addressing the environmental impact of waste products in
chemical processes.

2.7. Selecting the Problem

Selecting a research problem involves identifying gaps in existing
knowledge or areas needing improvement. An example could be
choosing to study the optimization of heat exchangers to enhance
energy efficiency in industrial processes.

2.8. Necessity of Defining the Problem

Defining the problem is crucial as it sets the direction for research
efforts and ensures that resources are allocated effectively. For
instance, if a researcher aims to reduce emissions from a chemical
plant, clearly defining the types of emissions and their sources will
guide targeted solutions.

2.9. Technique Involved in Defining a Problem

Defining a problem means “to pinpoint the problem or defining a
problem to reach the core of the problem.”
The definition of a problem serves the following purposes:
(i) The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study.
(ii) The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the
study.
(iii) The definition helps the researcher to control
subjectivity or biases of the researcher.
(iv) The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the
variables to be taken up into the investigation through a
problem involved into so many variables.
(v) The definition makes the research work practicable.

2.10. The importance of formulating a research problem

Formulation of a research problem is the initial and crucial step in
the research process, akin to identifying a destination before a
journey.

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 (i) A clear research problem is essential for developing an
effective and efficient research plan.
(ii) The research problem is the foundation of a study; its
quality directly influences the overall research outcome.
(iii) Kerlinger emphasizes the importance of understanding the
problem to effectively address it, highlighting that clarity in
objectives is vital.
(iv) Researchers must focus on what they genuinely seek to
discover rather than preconceived notions of what they
should find.
(v) Research problems can vary in complexity

2.11. The way a problem is formulated significantly impacts

subsequent research steps, for example, the,
 the type of study design that can be used
 the type of sampling strategy that can be employed
 the research instrument that can be used or developed
 the type of analysis that can be undertaken.

2.12. Identification of a problem

The identification and analysis of a research problem is the
foundational step in the research process.
- Effective problem-solving requires a researcher to understand the
specific factors contributing to the issue at hand.
- There is a distinction between a research problem and a research
topic; they are not synonymous but rather inclusive.
- A research problem pertains to the broader field of study, while a
research topic is a verbal statement that defines and narrows the focus
of the research.
- Researchers often select topics from various sources, such as research
abstracts, without adequately identifying the underlying problem. This

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practice can lead to a lack of engagement and mechanical execution in
research activities.
- Recognizing and defining the exact nature and dimensions of a problem
is crucial for successful research.
- A systematic approach is necessary for identifying a research problem,
involving specific steps to be followed.

2.13. Identification of a research problem involves a systematic

approach with several key steps.
(i) emphasizes the importance of selecting a specific field of
research that aligns with the researcher’s interests.
(ii) highlights the necessity for the researcher to gain mastery
in their chosen area, ideally linked to their specialization.
(iii) involves reviewing existing research to understand current
trends and studies within the field.
(iv) encourages the researcher to prioritize specific areas of
study based on the review findings.
(v) suggests utilizing personal experiences and insights, as well
as seeking guidance from supervisors or experts, to identify
potential problems. –
(vi) focuses on narrowing down to a specific aspect of the
problem for investigation.

An example illustrates the process: a researcher in teacher

education identifies a problem regarding the effectiveness of
training institutions in producing competent teachers.
- The researcher notes that despite the increase in institutions
post-independence, there are issues with the admission of
potential candidates into teacher education programs. The
identification process can be represented through a paradigm,
demonstrating the structured approach to problem identification
in research.

2.14. Considerations in selecting a research problem

Interest: Selecting a research topic that genuinely interests the
researcher is crucial for maintaining motivation throughout the
study, as research is often time-consuming and challenging.
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 Magnitude: It is essential to have a clear understanding of the
scope of the research. The topic should be specific, manageable,
and feasible within the available time and resources.
Measurement of Variables: For quantitative studies, clarity on the
indicators and measurement of variables is vital. Researchers
should avoid using variables that they cannot measure effectively.
Level of Expertise: Researchers should assess their own expertise
related to the proposed study. While learning and support from
supervisors are expected, the primary responsibility lies with the
researcher.
Relevance: The chosen topic should be relevant to the researcher’s
professional context, contributing to existing knowledge,
addressing gaps, or informing policy, which helps sustain interest.
Availability of Data: Before finalizing a research topic, it is
important to ensure that necessary data from secondary sources is
accessible and in a usable format.
Ethical Issues: Ethical considerations must be addressed during
the formulation of the research problem, including potential
impacts on the study population and strategies to mitigate ethical
concerns.

2.15. Steps in formulating a research problem

The formulation of a research problem is critical to the success of
a research project, influencing its quality and relevance. The
entire research process is contingent upon how the research
problem is articulated.
(i) A preliminary literature review is essential for expanding
knowledge and understanding the context of the research
problem.
(ii) Identifying a broad field or subject area of personal
interest is a foundational step in formulating a research
problem.
(iii) Reflecting on professional interests can guide the
selection of a relevant and engaging research topic.

Examples of potential research areas include issues such as,

climate change, pollution, and waste management drive research

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 into sustainable processes and green technologies. Selecting a
topic aligned with future career aspirations enhances the
significance and applicability of the research.

2.16. Select what is of most interest to you.

(i) It is impractical to study all subareas; focus on those that
ignite passion.
(ii) Interest should be the primary factor in selecting a
research problem, despite other considerations.
(iii) Utilize a process of elimination to narrow down subareas
of interest.
(iv) Aim to retain a manageable number of topics based on time,
expertise, and resources.
(v) Formulate research questions to clarify what you wish to
investigate within the chosen subarea.
(vi) If the list of questions becomes overwhelming, apply
elimination again to focus on key inquiries.
(vii) Develop main objectives and sub-objectives from the
research questions, using action-oriented language.
(viii) Some researchers may prefer to start with objectives and
derive questions from them; both approaches are valid.
(ix)Assess the feasibility of your objectives considering
available time, financial resources, and technical expertise.
(x) Conduct a final review to ensure genuine interest and
adequate resources for the study; reassess if necessary.

2.17. Defining Problem

Defining a problem means “To pin-point the problem or defining a
problem to reach the core of the problem i.e. threadbare analysis.”
(a) Need of defining a problem The definition of a problem serves
the following purposes:
(i) The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study.
(ii) The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the
study.
(iii) The definition helps the researcher to control the
subjectivity or biases of the researcher.

22
 (iv) The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the
variables to be taken up into the investigation through a
problem involving so many variables.
(v) The definition makes the research work practicable.

(b) Precautions are to be taken in identifying the problem The

following precautions should be taken into consideration for
identifying problem.
(i) The words used for defining a problem should have a
single meaning.
(ii) The statement of the problem must be brief but
comprehensive.
(iii) The assumptions are to be recognised for the study.
(iv) The problem should have practical importance in the
field of Education.
(v) The definition or the statement of the problem should
have certain rationale.

(c) Steps in defining a problem

The following steps are to be followed in defining a problem
(i) The researcher should develop a conceptual framework for
the problem. The conceptual framework should be such that
it can be stated in verbal form.
(ii) Delimiting the elements of the problem.
(iii) Classifying the elements in the homogeneous group.
(iv) Locating the key points in the conceptual framework.
(v) Evaluating the theoretical security of the problem.
(vi) The final form of the statement can be given in verbal form
to a conceptual framework of the problem.
(vii) Deciding the practical difficulty in conducting the study.

2.18. The Statement of the Problem

This attempt to focus on a stated goal gives direction to the
research process. It must be limited enough in scope to make a
definite conclusion possible. A problem suggests a specific answer
or conclusion. The statement of the problem should be written in
specific clear-cut words.

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 1. Research work is guided by reflective thinking, not by traditional or
conventional thinking. Comment on this statement.
2. Indicate the sources of research process. Enumerate the steps of the
research process.
3. Give the sources of research problem. How a problem is identified?
Enumerate the criteria for the selection of a problem.
4. Why is it necessary to define a problem and delimiting a problem?
5. How is a problem stated? Describe the various ways of defining a problem.
6. Discuss characteristics of good problem and criteria for evaluating a
problem.
7. What do you understand by the Research proposal? Give the structure of
Research proposal. Enumerate the criteria for evaluating the Research
proposal

Exercises

Week MODULE CONTENT SUBTOPICS

Three

TOPIC 3: Literature Review

2.19. 3.1. Literature Review and Technical Reading
A literature review involves systematically searching for and analysing
existing research to identify gaps in knowledge. For example, reviewing
studies on catalytic converters can help understand advancements in
reducing emissions.

3.1. Purpose of Literature Review

 Provide a context for the research.

 Justify the research.

 Ensure that research hasn't been done before (or that it is not
just a "replication study")

 Show where the research fits into the existing body of knowledge.

24
 Enable the researcher to learn from previous theories on the
subject.

 Illustrate how the subject has been studied previously.

 Highlight flaws in previous research.

 Outline gaps in previous research

 Help refine, refocus or even change the topic.

3.2. The Literature Review Process

 Identify a research topic.

 Review secondary sources to get an overview of the topic.

 Develop a search strategy and use appropriate preliminary

sources and primary research. Journals, check the references at
the end of relevant research publications. Access personal
networks.

 Search and select specific articles to review.

 Obtain full-text references (e.g. Journal articles or books).

 Read articles and prepare bibliographic information and notes

on each article.

 Evaluate the research reports.

 Synthesize the findings.

 Writing the review.

 Use the literature review to gain a conceptual framework and to

formulate research questions, hypotheses, or both

3.3. New and Existing Knowledge

New knowledge refers to recent discoveries or technologies, such as the
development of bioplastics from renewable resources. Existing
knowledge includes established principles like thermodynamics and
fluid mechanics that continue to inform current practices.

25
3.4.Bibliographic Databases
These databases, such as Scopus or IEEE Xplore, provide access to a vast
array of scientific articles and papers. They are essential for
researchers to find relevant literature efficiently.

3.5. Web of Science

A Web of Science is a comprehensive research database that covers
numerous disciplines, including chemical engineering. It allows users to
track citations and analyze trends in research topics over time.

3.6. Google and Google Scholar

Google provides general search capabilities, while Google Scholar
specifically indexes scholarly articles across various disciplines. Both
tools are useful for finding accessible research papers; however, Google
Scholar is focused on academic content.

3.7.Effective Search: The Way Forward

To enhance search effectiveness, researchers should use specific
keywords related to their topic, utilize advanced search options in
databases, and stay updated with alerts on new publications in their
field of interest.

MODULE CONTENT SUBTOPICS

Literature Review

3.8. Introduction to Technical Reading

Technical reading involves understanding complex documents
such as research papers, technical reports, and safety data
sheets. For example, a chemical engineer might read a safety
data sheet (SDS) to understand the hazards of a specific
chemical and the necessary precautions for handling it. Another
example is interpreting process flow diagrams (PFDs) that
outline the steps in a chemical manufacturing process.

3.9.Attributions and Citations

26
 In academic writing, proper attribution and citation are crucial
for acknowledging the sources of information and maintaining
academic integrity. For instance, when referencing a study on
reaction kinetics published in a journal like the “Journal of
Chemical Engineering,” one would cite it under specific
formatting styles (e.g., APA, MLA). For this course, the Harvard
style of referencing will be used.

3.9.1. The Havard Style of Referencing

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’
names. For four or more authors, list only the first name,
followed by ‘et al.’:

Examples of References using the Harvard Style

Book: E.g.: Bhatt, D.P. (2012). Educational technology. New Delhi:
Aph Publishing. Journal: E.g.: Megarry, J. (1983). Educational
Technology: Promise and Performance. Programmed Learning and
Educational Technology, 20(2), pp.133–137.8

Week Five MODULE CONTENT SUBTOPICS

Literature Review

3.10. Citations: Functions and Attributes

Citations serve multiple functions in academic writing,

 providing evidence for claims

 acknowledging prior work

 guiding readers to additional resources.

27
 For example, a paper discussing a new catalyst might cite previous
studies on catalyst efficiency to establish context and credibility.

3.11. Knowledge Flow Through Citation

Citations facilitate the flow of knowledge by connecting research
findings across different studies. In academic writing, citing
foundational theories or methodologies allows researchers to build
upon existing knowledge, such as referencing the Arrhenius equation
when discussing reaction kinetics.

3.12. Styles for Citations

Different citation styles are used in academic writing, including APA,
MLA, and Chicago styles. For uniformity, we will adopt the Harvard
style of referencing. This will be discussed in section 3.8.1.

 Revision of in-Class test

 In-class test
Evaluation

Exercise 1

Week Six MODULE CONTENT SUBTOPICS

TOPIC 4: Problem assortment

4.1 What is a Research Problem?

A research problem is a specific issue or challenge requiring

28
scientific investigation and resolution, for example, optimizing the
catalytic process in petrochemical production to increase yield
while reducing energy consumption.

4.2 Selecting the Problem

Selecting a research problem involves identifying gaps in existing

knowledge or areas needing improvement. An example could be the
need for more efficient wastewater treatment methods in chemical
plants, which can lead to environmental sustainability.

4.3 Necessity of Defining the Problem

An articulated problem significantly aids in its resolution. This
highlights the importance of precisely defining a research problem.
An unambiguous definition facilitates the distinction between
relevant and irrelevant data. A well-defined research problem
guides the researcher, whereas a poorly defined one may present
challenges. Researchers must consider questions regarding data
collection, relevant characteristics, relationships to investigate, and
appropriate methodologies, which necessitate a well-defined problem
for effective planning. Therefore, a concise definition of a research
problem is crucial in any study. The formulation of a problem often
takes precedence over finding its solution. Careful elaboration of the
research problem allows for the development of a coherent research
design and the seamless execution of subsequent research steps.

4.4 Technique Involved in Defining a Problem

- Defining a research problem involves establishing the scope and

boundaries for the study, ensuring clarity in objectives. - The process
of defining a research problem is complex and requires careful
consideration to prevent confusion during research. - Researchers
should either formulate their own questions or receive specific
inquiries from stakeholders to guide their research. - Broadly
phrased questions often lead to ambiguous results, making it
essential to refine the research question for effective testing. - A
systematic approach to defining a research problem is critical and

29
 should not be rushed, as this can lead to significant issues later in
the research process. - Key steps in defining a research problem
include: - Stating the problem in general terms. - Understanding the
nature of the problem. - Conducting a literature review to gather
existing knowledge. - Engaging in discussions to develop ideas further.
- Rephrasing the research problem into a clear working proposition.
G

Week Seven MODULE CONTENT SUBTOPICS

TOPIC 5: Hypothesis and Postulation

5.2 What is a Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a testable statement or prediction about the
relationship between two or more variables. After data
analysis, the researcher may test previously formulated
hypotheses. The key inquiry is whether the data supports or
contradicts the hypotheses. This fundamental question guides
the hypothesis-testing process. Statisticians have developed
various tests, including the Chi-square test, t-test, and F-test, for
this purpose. The selection of tests depends on the research
inquiry's nature and objectives. Hypothesis testing yields either
acceptance or rejection of the hypotheses. In the absence of
initial hypotheses, data-based generalizations may become
hypotheses for future research.

5.3 Concerning Testing of Hypotheses

Testing hypotheses involves collecting data and using
statistical methods to determine whether there is enough
evidence to support or reject the hypothesis. For instance, in
chemical engineering, one might conduct experiments at various
temperatures to observe changes in reaction rates.

5.4 Procedure for Hypothesis Testing

(i) Formulate the Hypothesis: Define null (H0) and
alternative (H1) hypotheses.
(ii) Select Significance Level (α): Commonly set at 0.05.

30
 (iii) Collect Data: Perform experiments and gather
relevant data.
(iv) Choose Appropriate Test: Select a statistical test based
on data type (e.g., t-test, ANOVA, Chi-square).
(v) Calculate Test Statistic: Compute the statistics from
collected data.
(vi) Make Decision: Compare the test statistic to critical
values; reject H0 if it falls into the rejection region.

5.5 Chi-square as a Test for Comparing Variance

The Chi-square test is used to compare variances from different
samples to determine if they come from populations with equal
variances. In chemical engineering, this can be applied when
comparing the variability of yield from two different production
processes. The test would provide a method of testing the
difference between actual preferences and choices based upon
a probability assumption.
CONDITIONS FOR THE APPLICATION OF χ 2 TEST The following
conditions should be satisfied before χ 2 test can be applied: (i)
Observations recorded and used are collected on a random
basis. (ii) All the itmes in the sample must be independent. (iii)
No group should contain very few items, say less than 10. In case
where the frequencies are less than 10, regrouping is done by
combining the frequencies of adjoining groups so that the new
frequencies become greater than 10. Some statisticians take
this number as 5, but 10 is regarded as better by most of the
statisticians. (iv) The overall number of items must also be
reasonably large. It should normally be at least 50, howsoever
small the number of groups may be. (v) The constraints must be
linear.

The Chi-square formula:

If 0i, (i=1,2,…..,n) is a set of observed (experimental frequencies)and Ei
(i=1,2,…..,n) is the corresponding set of expected (theoretical or
hypothetical) frequencies, then,
2
2 (Oi- Ei) 2
χ = ∑ni=1 ≈ χ (n - 1)
Ei

31
 Example

The number of yeast cells counted in a haemocytometer is

compared to the theoretical value is given below. Does the
experimental result support the theory?

Number of yeast cells

in the square Observed Frequency Expected Frequency

1 103 106

2 143 141

3 98 93

4 42 41

5 8 14

6 6 5

Solution
• H0: the experimental results support the theory
• Ha: the experimental results do not support the theory.
• Level of significance (LOS)=5%
• Test Statistic
Tabulate your Results
Q1 E1 O1-E1 (O1-E2)2 (O1-E2)2/Ei
103 106 -3 9 0.0849
143 141 2 4 0.0284
98 93 5 25 0.2688
42 41 1 1 0.0244
8 14 -6 36 2.5714
6 5 1 1 0.2
400 400 3.1779
2
χ cal = 3.1779

5.6 Student t-test

The student t-test is a statistical method used to determine if
there is a significant difference between the means of two groups.
In chemical engineering, it can be applied in various scenarios:

32
(i) Comparing Reaction Yields: If a chemical engineer wants to
compare the yields of two different catalysts in a reaction,
they can use the t-test to analyze whether the difference in
yields is statistically significant.
(ii) Quality Control: In quality control processes, engineers may
test samples from two different production batches to see if
there is a significant difference in properties such as viscosity
or density.
(iii) Process Optimization: When optimizing a process, an engineer
might test two different operating conditions (e.g., temperature
or pressure) and use the t-test to evaluate if one condition
leads to significantly better performance than the other
method.
The t-test helps ensure that decisions made based on
experimental data are statistically valid and reliable.

5.7 Difference Between Student’s T-Test and Chi-Square Test

1. Purpose:
 The Student’s T-Test is used to determine if there is a
significant difference between the means of two groups, which
may be related to certain features or treatments.
 The Chi-Square Test is used to assess whether there is a
significant association between categorical variables.
2. Data Type:
 The Student’s T-Test requires continuous data that follows a
normal distribution.
 The Chi-Square Test requires categorical data, which can be
nominal or ordinal.
3. Hypothesis Testing:
 In the Student’s T-Test, the null hypothesis typically states
that the means of the two groups are equal.
 In the Chi-Square Test, the null hypothesis states that there is
no association between the variables being studied.

4. Calculation:
33
  The Student’s T-Test calculates a t-statistic based on sample
means, variances, and sample sizes.
 The Chi-Square Test calculates a chi-square statistic based on
observed and expected frequencies in contingency tables.
The main distinction lies in their application: one tests for
differences in means (T-Test), while the other tests for
relationships between categorical variables (Chi-Square).

Exercise
Distinguish between the following: (i) Simple hypothesis and composite
hypothesis; (ii) Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis; (iii) One-
tailed test and two-tailed test; (iv) Type I error and Type II error;
What is a hypothesis? What characteristics it must possess to be a
good research hypothesis?

Week Eight MODULE CONTENT SUBTOPICS

TOPIC 6: Data Accumulation and Processing

6.1.Meaning of Interpretation
Interpretation refers to process of analysing and making sense of data
obtained from experiments, simulations, or literature. For example,
interpreting the results of a reaction kinetics study involves understanding
how different variables affect the rate of reaction.

6.2. Why Interpretation?

Interpretation is crucial because it allows researchers to draw conclusions
from experimental data, make informed decisions, and optimise processes.
For instance, interpreting thermodynamic data can help to design more
efficient heat exchangers.

6.3. Technique of Interpretation

Techniques for interpretation include statistical analysis, graphical
representation of data (such as plots and charts), and modelling.

6.4. Layout of the Research Report

A typical research report includes sections such as:
(i) Abstract: A summary of the research objectives and findings.
34
 (ii) Introduction: Background information and significance of the study.
(iii) Methodology: Detailed description of experimental procedures
or simulations used.
(iv) Results: Presentation of data through tables and figures.
(v) Discussion: Interpretation of results and their implications.
(vi) Conclusion: Summary of findings and recommendations for future work.

6.5. Oral Presentation

Oral presentations are used to communicate project proposals or research
findings. The presentation is done on PowerPoint slides to illustrate key
points and data.

According to Weissman (2009), in an oral presentation how you present

yourself (body language) is the most important (55%) followed by how you
deliver the presentation (38%) and lastly the words you used in the
presentation (7%).

6.6. The 10/20/30 PowerPoint rule

The 10/20/30 PowerPoint rule was devised by Guy Kawasaki, a venture
capitalist, author and speaker. The rule is that no presentation should have
more than 10 slides, use less than 20 minutes and font size of at least 30
points. This rule is useful for any presentation lasting less than 20 minutes.

6.7. Writing Research Reports

A research work presented in written form is referred to as a thesis or
research report. These documents can vary significantly in their scope and
the intricacies of their presentation. Nonetheless, all research reports should
have a consistent format, style, and structure. The conventional format for
research reports has been developed over time and has established itself as
a standard within the academic community. A research report or thesis
represents a systematic arrangement of the research conducted, which can
be classified into three primary categories.

Precautions For Writing Research

Reports Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings
to the readers of the report. A good research report is one which does this

35
task efficiently and effectively. As such it must be prepared keeping the
following precautions in view:
1. While determining the length of the report (since research reports vary
greatly in length), one should keep in view the fact that it should be long
enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain interest
2. A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it should be
such as to sustain reader’s interest.
3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a research
report. The report should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible.
4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main
findings and as such the report must provide a ready availability of the
findings
5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate
and in accordance with the objective of the research problem.
6. The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be
prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of composition of report-
writing
7. The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter. It must
reflect a structure wherein the different pieces of analysis relating to the
research problem fit well. 8. A research report should show originality and
should necessarily be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem. It must
contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the store of
knowledge.
9. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in the
report.
10. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and must
necessarily be given.
11. Report must be attractive, neat and clean, whether typed or printed.
12. Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed,
and the analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the
beginning of the report in the form of introduction.

Each category has been outlined further as follows:

a. Preliminary Section

36
The preliminaries of a thesis report are crucial and require careful
preparation. Adhering to the specifications set by colleges or universities is
essential when they are provided. Nonetheless, a general standard pattern is
a useful guideline for researchers in structuring their work. This approach
ensures that the preliminaries are comprehensive and aligned with academic
expectations.

1. Title page
Title Page This is the first page of a thesis or a dissertation. It includes: (a)
Title of thesis. (b) Name of the candidate. (c) Purpose or relationship of the
thesis to the course or degree requirement. (d) College and/or department in
which the candidate has been admitted for the degree. (e) Name of the
university to which it is submitted. (f) Month and year of submission or
acceptance.

3. Preface or acknowledgements

A preface serves a distinct purpose compared to an introduction,

primarily focusing on the background and significance of the study
presented in a thesis. It provides a concise overview of the research's
origin and its utility, offering readers insight into the motivations behind
the work. Additionally, the preface includes acknowledgments, recognizing
individuals and sources that contributed to the researcher's efforts. When
crafting a preface, it is advisable to maintain a simple and restrained
tone, avoiding excessive flattery or overly emotional expressions of
gratitude, particularly towards family members. The content should be
succinct, steering clear of detailed discussions about the research itself,
which are more appropriately placed in the introduction. The title
"PREFACE" or "ACKNOWLEDGEMENT" should be prominently displayed in
capital letters, and the overall presentation should be engaging and
impressive to the reader.
3. Table of content
4. List of tables (if any)
5. List of figures (if any).
B. Main Body of Report or Textual Body
1. Introduction
(a) Statement of the problem
(b) Objectives of the study
(c) Hypotheses to be tested
37
(d) Significance of the problem
(e) Assumptions and delimitations.
(f) Definitions of Important terms used.
2. Review of related literature.
3. Design of the study
(a) Method and procedure used
(b) Tools of research or sources of data
(c) Techniques of data collection
(d) Description of techniques used.
3. Analysis and presentation of data
(a) Analysis of data
(b) Tables and interpretation
(c) Figures and interpretation.
4. Conclusions
(a) Discussion of results
(b) Main Findings and inferences
(c) Implication of the findings and limitations
(d) Suggestions for further studies
C. Reference Section
1. Bibliography
2. Appendices (if any)
3. Index or glossary (if any).

1. Explain the following terms used in a research.

(a) Research proposal or synopsis or outline of a research project,
(b) Research report, or thesis or dissertation,
(c) Research summary, and
(d) Research abstracts.
2. What do you understand by research report or thesis?
3. Indicate the general format of research report and mention its
specific category of each major section of report.
4. Differentiate between bibliography and footnotes or references.
Illustrate your answer with examples.
5. Point out the mechanics of report writing and illustrate your answer
with examples.
6. Describe the precautions that the researcher should take while
interpreting his findings.

Exercise

38
6.8. Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of central tendency such as mean, median, and mode are crucial in
analyzing experimental data.
The mean

The Median
The Median of a distribution is the point on the score scales below which one-
half or 50 per cent of the scores fall.
The mode
The mode is defined as the size of the variable (say a score) which occurs
most frequently.

Exercise

1. Compute Median for the following Ungrouped data:

(i) 16, 2, 10, 9, 4, 7, 12, 4, 150.
(ii) 8, 3, 10, 5, 2, 11, 14, 12.
Ans. (i) 10 (ii) 9
2. Find the crude Mode for the following data:
15, 14, 8, 14, 14, 11, 9, 9, 11. Ans. 14

6.9. Measures of Variability/Dispersion

Measures of dispersion like range, variance, and standard deviation help
assess the variability in data sets.
Range (R)
Range is the simplest measure of variability or dispersion. It is calculated by
subtracting the lowest scores in the series from the highest. But it is a very
rough measure of the variability of a series. It considers only extreme scares
and tells nothing about the variation of the individual items.

39
Standard deviation (SD)
Standard Deviation of a set of scores is defined as the square root of the
average of the squares of each deviation from the mean.

where X stands for individual score, M for mean of the given set of scores. N
for total number of the scores and x for the deviation of each score from the
mean. Standard Deviation is regarded as a most stable and reliable measure
of variability as it employs mean for its computation. It is often called as
root-mean square deviation and is denoted by the Greek letter sigma

Example
Calculate SD for the following set of test scores: 52, 50, 56, 68, 65, 57, 70
Solution
480
Mean of the given scores = = 60
8

Therefore,

40
 Exercise
1. What do you understand by dispersion or variability of the scores
in a given series?
2. Discuss in brief the different measures of variability.
3. Calculate average Deviation from the following Data:
(a) Scores 30, 35, 36, 42, 46, 38, 34, 35
Ans. (a) 3.9,

MODULE CONTENT SUBTOPICS

TOPIC 6: Scientific writing skills and presentation

6.1. Research and Scientific Method

6.1.1. Introduction

- Understanding research requires familiarity with the scientific method,

as both concepts are interrelated.

- Research is defined as an inquiry into the nature, reasons, and

consequences of specific circumstances, emphasizing the importance of
repeatability and generalization of results.

- The scientific method is a philosophical framework common to all

research methods, regardless of the scientific discipline.

- Karl Pearson asserts that the unity of sciences lies in their methods
rather than their subject matter, highlighting the role of logical
reasoning in scientific inquiry.

- The scientific method aims to achieve a systematic interrelation of

facts through experimentation, observation, and logical reasoning.

- Logic is essential in the scientific method for formulating clear

propositions, exploring alternatives, and comparing them with observable
phenomena.

- Experimentation is crucial for testing hypotheses and discovering

relationships among variables, but conclusions must be drawn cautiously
to avoid common pitfalls such as faulty assumptions or poor
experimental design.

41
 - Survey investigations serve to gather scientifically valid information,
providing a foundation for researchers' conclusions.

- The scientific method is grounded in fundamental postulates that guide

the research process.

(i) It relies on empirical evidence

(ii) It utilises relevant concepts

(iii) It is committed to only objective considerations

(iv) It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making

only adequate and correct statements about population objects

(v) It results in probabilistic predictions

(vi) Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny
for use in testing the conclusions through replication

(vii) It aims at formulating the most general axioms or what can be

termed as scientific theories.

- The scientific method promotes a rigorous and impersonal approach to

research.
- It is characterised by objectivity, logic, and systematic procedures.
- The method aims to eliminate personal bias and prejudice in the research
process.
- It focuses on identifying demonstrable qualities of phenomena that can be
verified.
- Researchers are guided by logical reasoning throughout their
investigations.
- The investigation follows an orderly progression, ensuring clarity and
coherence.
- Internal consistency is a fundamental aspect of the scientific method.

6.2. Structure of a research proposal

Structure of a Research Proposal Title Page
Includes the title of the research, the researcher’s name, institution, and
date.
Abstract

42
An abstract is a summary of the research proposal, outlining the main
objectives and significance.

Introduction
Background information on the topic, including literature review and the
identification of gaps in current knowledge.
Research Objectives
Clear statements of what the research aims to achieve, are often presented
as specific questions or hypotheses.
Methodology
Detailed description of experimental design, materials, procedures, and
analytical techniques to be used.
Experimental Design
Overview
Experimental design is a systematic approach to planning experiments to
obtain valid and reliable results. It involves selecting the appropriate
methods and procedures to investigate the relationships between variables
in chemical processes.

6.3. Examples of Experimental Design

Factorial Design
In a factorial design, multiple factors are varied simultaneously to
determine their effects on a response variable. For example, in optimizing a
chemical reaction, factors such as temperature, pressure, and concentration
can be tested at different levels to evaluate their impact on yield.

Response Surface Methodology (RSM)

RSM is used for exploring the relationships between several explanatory
variables and one or more response variables. An example would be using
RSM to optimize the conditions for a catalytic reaction by varying catalyst
concentration and reaction time to maximize product formation.
Randomized Block Design
This design is useful when there are known sources of variability that can
affect the outcome of an experiment. For instance, if testing different
catalysts under varying temperatures, blocks can be created based on
temperature ranges to reduce variability and improve accuracy.

43
Central Composite Design (CCD)
CCD is often used in conjunction with RSM for building a second-order
(quadratic) model for the response variable without needing a full three-
level factorial experiment. An example could be optimizing the pH and ionic
strength of a solution in a biochemical process.

Taguchi Methods
Taguchi's methods focus on robust design and minimizing variation through
controlled experimentation. For example, using Taguchi techniques to study
how variations in raw material properties affect product quality in polymer
production.
The application of these experimental designs helps chemical engineers
efficiently explore complex interactions within chemical processes, leading
to improved product quality and process optimization.

Selection of the topic for your study

The context of what your study plans to do must be short and clear. You
should mention all the key variables that will be investigated. Sources for
the paper topic should be selected based on basic research (i.e., theory of
your field of interest) or applied research (i.e., daily problems, recent
trends of technologies) or both.

Selection of the Topic for Your Study in Chemical Engineering

1. Process Design and Optimization
Example: Developing a new method for synthesizing biodiesel from waste
cooking oil to improve yield and reduce costs.
2. Reaction Engineering
Example: Investigating the kinetics of a catalytic reaction in the
production of ammonia using Haber-Bosch process.
3. Separation Processes
Example: Studying membrane technology for water desalination to enhance
efficiency and lower energy consumption.
4. Thermodynamics
Example: Analyzing phase equilibria in natural gas processing to optimize
separation techniques.
5. Environmental Engineering

44
Example: Evaluating the impact of chemical processes on air quality and
developing strategies for emission reduction.
6. Materials Science
Example: Researching new polymer composites for use in chemical reactors
to improve durability and performance.
7. Biochemical Engineering
Example: Exploring fermentation processes for biofuel production from
agricultural waste materials.
8. Safety and Risk Assessment
Example: Conducting hazard analysis on chemical plants to identify
potential risks and develop mitigation strategies.

Topic of the Study

The topic must be specific and focused. The length of the topic is usually
around 5 -20 words The dependent or main variables may be mentioned
here.

6.4. Abstract
The abstract is written when the entire document is complete. The
purpose of an abstract is to give readers basic (summary) information
about the document.
Some general guidelines for writing an abstract are as follows:
1. An abstract is a summary of about 250-300 words. It should be short
and should contain concise sentences in one paragraph.
2. An informative abstract should have the following order:
 The statement of purpose indicating the situation, problem, or issue
that will be studied and why the research should be undertaken (i.e.,
objective or hypothesis).
 The variables involved and how these will be measured (i.e., technique
or method).
 The data analyses were undertaken and show the results that will
explain or solve the issue. (i.e., observation or evaluation).
 Conclusion and provide recommendations for further research.
3. You should not mention the names of authors and avoid tables, equations,
graphs, references, or other citations.

45
6.5. Purpose of the Abstract
An abstract summarizes the main objectives, methods, results, and
conclusions of a research paper or project. It provides readers with a
quick overview of the content.
Structure of the Abstract
Introduction/Background: Briefly introduce the topic and its significance in
chemical engineering.
Example: “This study investigates the efficiency of a novel catalytic process
for biodiesel production.”

Aims and Objectives: Clearly state the purpose of your research.

Example: “This study aims to optimise reaction conditions to maximise
yield.”

Methods: Summarize the methodology used in your research.

Example: “Experiments were conducted using a batch reactor under varying
temperature and pressure conditions.”

Results: Present key findings without excessive detail.

Example: “The optimal conditions resulted in a biodiesel yield of 95%.”

Conclusions: Highlight the implications of your findings.

Example: “These results indicate that this catalytic process could
significantly enhance biodiesel production efficiency.”

Length and Style

An abstract should typically be between 150-250 words, written concisely
and clearly without jargon.

Importance of Keywords
Include relevant keywords to improve searchability and relevance in
databases.

Conclusion
The conclusion is the last paragraph of the research. The conclusion is like
the final chord in a song. It makes the listener realise that the piece is
completed. It gives an understanding of the issues raised in the research,

46
synthesises the thoughts, and shows the importance of the findings. The
conclusion is like the introduction section plus the abstract section. You can
restate the main points of evidence in these sections for the readers.

Gramma
In the paper, you should use the correct tense in constructing sentences. You
should use simple past for specific methods, simple present for facts, and
present perfect for general findings or many studies.

 Checklist for writing a research proposal

 References

Literature Review
After selecting the research topic from the defined problem (basic and/or
applied research), search for all relevant literature related to the topic.
This will get the reader's attention and interest. This section will show how
to carry out a literature survey.

Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem could be a description of the current
situation or a gap in scientific knowledge. It could be a description of a
current controversy or contradiction in findings in interest. It also could be
an explanation of how the current findings or beliefs are no longer true in
the light of recent developments.

 Shows the reasons why the study should be undertaken, how urgent or
important it is, and what contributions your research will make to
your area of study.

 Indicate the potential practical or policy implications of your

research.

 Show intellectual merit, that is how your research will make an

original contribution. How it will fill gaps in the existing research?
How it will extend understanding of particular topics?

 After that, you write the research objectives, research questions, or

hypothesis. In this section, you use the statement: “Therefore, this
study intends to ...”

47
  Finally, you may briefly describe the research methodology or outline
of your present work and the outcome of the study.

Exercise

3. Discuss the sources of literature review.

4. Explain the difference between theoretical and conceptual
frameworks.
5. Select one topic of your interest and then show a statement of
problems, write objective, and outcome of the study.
6. Give an example of the following references: textbook, book
chapter, conference proceeding, patent, and the Internet
according to the Harvard style of referencing.
7. Differentiate between bibliography and footnotes or references.
Illustrate your answer with examples.
8. Point out the mechanics of report writing and illustrate your
answer with examples.

Research Design
- The research design is a critical component following the definition of the
research problem.
- It encompasses decisions related to the inquiry, including aspects such as
what, where, when, how much, and by what means.
- A research design serves as a framework for data collection and analysis,
ensuring relevance to the research purpose while maintaining procedural
efficiency.
- It acts as a conceptual structure guiding the entire research process, akin
to a blueprint. - The design outlines the researcher's actions, from
formulating the hypothesis to the final data analysis.
- Key design decisions are essential for the successful execution of the
research project.

(i) What is the study about?

(ii) Why is the study being made?

(iii) Where will the study be carried out?

(iv) What type of data is required?

(v) Where can the required data be found?

(vi) What periods will the study include?

48
 (vii) What will be the sample design?

(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?

(ix)How will the data be analysed?

(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

Keeping in view the above-stated design decisions, one may split the overall
research design into the following parts:

(i) the sampling design deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study.

(ii) the observational design relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made.

(iii) the statistical design is concerned with the question of how

many items are to be observed and how the information and data
gathered are to be analysed.

(iv) the operational design deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational
designs can be carried out.

Therefore, we can state the important features of a research design as

under,

(v) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information

relevant to the research problem.

(vi) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering

and analysing the data.

(vii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies
are done under these two constraints.

In brief, the research design must, at least, contain

 a clear statement of the research problem.

 procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information.

49
  the population to be studied.

 methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

Need for Research Design

- Research design is essential for enhancing the efficiency of research
operations, and maximising information yield while minimising effort, time,
and financial resources.
- A well-prepared research design serves as a blueprint, akin to an
architect's plan for constructing a house, guiding the data collection and
analysis processes.
- It involves advanced planning of methods for data collection and analysis
techniques, aligned with the research objectives and resource availability
(staff, time, money).
- Careful preparation of the research design is crucial, as errors can
compromise the entire research project and affect the reliability of
results.
- Many researchers underestimate the importance of a well-thought-out
design, leading to studies that may not fulfil their intended purpose and
could produce misleading conclusions.
- Inadequate design can render research efforts futile, highlighting the
necessity for an efficient and appropriate design before commencing
research operations.
- A structured design allows researchers to organise their ideas, identify
potential flaws, and seek feedback from others for critical evaluation,
enhancing the overall quality of the research.

Data Collection Methods

The data collection method is the second major part of a research project.
In this chapter, you will see how to present a detailed methodology, which
readers can replicate to check your study. The methodology can be
presented in terms of experiment or design and construction or even both.

Experiment Method
The methodology section outlines the type of experimental study
conducted.

50
 (i) It is recommended to use past tense and active voice throughout this
section.

(ii) The sample used in the study is presented, emphasizing the

importance of ethical considerations in research involving animal or
human subjects, including obtaining necessary permissions.

(iii) Specific instruments utilized in the study must be identified,

along with their validity and reliability.

(iv) A detailed description of the data collection procedure is provided,

ensuring clarity in the research process.

(v) The analysis of data is proposed based on the research questions or

hypotheses established in the study.

Data Analysis of the Report

The results section contains facts related to your experiment. You should
use figures, tables, and equations to make understanding your data
Data collection
- Data collection is essential for answering research questions, testing
hypotheses, and evaluating outcomes across various fields of study.
- It involves systematic gathering and measuring of information on relevant
variables.
- Methods of data collection are categorized into quantitative and
qualitative approaches, reflecting a continuum of techniques.
- Key decisions in the data collection process include:
- Determining which data to collect.
- Choosing the method of data collection.
- Identifying who will be responsible for data collection.
- Establishing the timing for data collection.
- The selection of data collection methods should align with:
- The identified hypothesis or research problem.
- The overall research design.
- The characteristics of the variables being studied.
- Variations in data collection methods are influenced by:
- The degree of structure in the approach.
- The level of quantifiability of the data.
- The degree of obtrusiveness of the method.
- The level of objectivity in the data collection process.
51
Results and Discussion

 This section gives all evidence relevant to the research problem and
its solution.

 Data analysis and the report must be accurate.

 Results and discussion must be based on the research questions you

have formulated.

 This section must include statistical operations.

 You compare your findings to see whether they agree with previous
research.

 You inform the strengths and weaknesses of your work and your
suggestions for the study.

 Also, you can show the direction of your future research.

Organisation of Results
The organization of the results section should be as follows:

1. You start with a paragraph, not tables or figures.

2. You produce tables and figures after mentioning them in the text.

3. You can explain if any data is missing or problems exist.

4. You explain the main results and compare your expectation

(hypothesis) with that of other researchers.

5. You explain all other interesting trends in your data.

The results and discussion section can be revised anytime based on

the following:

(i) Quantitative and qualitative analyses are adequately performed to

conclude.

(ii) The results and discussion are general.

(iii) The results and discussion are valid for the situation
considered in the present work.

52
 (iv) The discussion is not too broad considering the analysis performed.

(v) The evidence is not too weak for the discussion.

Reading Sources /Links

Al-ani, A. (2023) ‘Research Methodology Lecture Notes for M . Sc . Course Tutor
Course Code : ME5103 Syllabus oAl-ani, A. (2023) ‘Research Methodology
Lecture Notes for M . Sc . Course Tutor Course Code : ME5103 Syllabus of
Research Methodology Lectures’, (September), pp. 5–8.
Deb, D., Dey, R. and Balas, V.E. (2019) Engineering Research Methodology. A
Practical Insight for Researchers, Intelligent Systems Reference Library.
Downs, F.S. (1990) ‘Handbook of Research Methodology’, Dimensions Of
Critical Care Nursing, 9(1), p. 60. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1097/00003465-199001000-00018.
Leong, E.C. et al. (2011) ‘Guide to Research Projects for Engineering Students’,
Research Methods for Engineers, 2(1), pp. 1–2. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139542326.
Leong, E.C. (2015) Guide to Research Projects for Engineering Students, Guide
to Research Projects for Engineering Students. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1201/b18756.
Ranjit Kumar (1996) ‘Research Methodology Final.pdf’.
Thiel, D. V. (2014) Research methods for engineers, Research Methods for
Engineers. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139542326.
Deb, D., Dey, R. and Balas, V.E. (2019) Engineering Research Methodology. A
Practical Insight for Researchers, Intelligent Systems Reference Library.
Downs, F.S. (1990) ‘Handbook of Research Methodology’, Dimensions Of
Critical Care Nursing, 9(1), p. 60. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1097/00003465-199001000-00018.
53
 Leong, E.C. et al. (2011) ‘Guide to Research Projects for Engineering Students’,
Research Methods for Engineers, 2(1), pp. 1–2. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139542326.
Leong, E.C. (2015) Guide to Research Projects for Engineering Students, Guide
to Research Projects for Engineering Students. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1201/b18756.
Ranjit Kumar (1996) ‘Research Methodology Final.pdf’.
Thiel, D. V. (2014) Research methods for engineers, Research Methods for
Engineers. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139542326.
.

Miscellaneous Questions
1. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process.
2. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern times.
3. Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology.
4. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the
difference between an experiment and a survey.
5. Write short notes on
(i) Design of the research project
(ii) Motivation in research
(iii) Objectives of research
(iv) Criteria of good research
(v) Research and scientific method

EXAMINATION

To be administered at the end of the semester to candidates who would have submitted
coursework.

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APPENDICES

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