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Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science
Max Bramer
Principles
of Data
Mining
Third Edition
Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science
‘Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science’ (UTiCS) delivers high-quality instruc-
tional content for undergraduates studying in all areas of computing and information
science. From core foundational and theoretical material to final-year topics and ap-
plications, UTiCS books take a fresh, concise, and modern approach and are ideal for
self-study or for a one- or two-semester course. The texts are all authored by estab-
lished experts in their fields, reviewed by an international advisory board, and contain
numerous examples and problems, many of which include fully worked solutions.
v
vi Principles of Data Mining
No introductory book on Data Mining can take you to research level in the
subject — the days for that have long passed. This book will give you a good
grounding in the principal techniques without attempting to show you this
year’s latest fashions, which in most cases will have been superseded by the
time the book gets into your hands. Once you know the basic methods, there
are many sources you can use to find the latest developments in the field. Some
of these are listed in Appendix C. The other appendices include information
about the main datasets used in the examples in the book, many of which are of
interest in their own right and are readily available for use in your own projects
if you wish, and a glossary of the technical terms used in the book.
Self-assessment Exercises are included for each chapter to enable you to
check your understanding. Specimen solutions are given in Appendix E.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my daughter Bryony for drawing many of the more
complex diagrams and for general advice on design. I would also like to thank
Dr. Frederic Stahl for advice on Chapters 21 and 22 and my wife Dawn for her
very valuable comments on draft chapters and for preparing the index. The
responsibility for any errors that may have crept into the final version remains
with me.
Max Bramer
Emeritus Professor of Information Technology
University of Portsmouth, UK
November 2016
Contents
vii
viii Principles of Data Mining
8. Continuous Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.2 Local versus Global Discretisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.3 Adding Local Discretisation to TDIDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8.3.1 Calculating the Information Gain of a Set of Pseudo-
attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.3.2 Computational Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.4 Using the ChiMerge Algorithm for Global Discretisation . . . . . . 105
8.4.1 Calculating the Expected Values and χ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.4.2 Finding the Threshold Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.4.3 Setting minIntervals and maxIntervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
x Principles of Data Mining
B. Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
1
Introduction to Data Mining
– It is estimated that there are around 150 million users of Twitter, sending
350 million Tweets each day.
Alongside advances in storage technology, which increasingly make it pos-
sible to store such vast amounts of data at relatively low cost whether in com-
mercial data warehouses, scientific research laboratories or elsewhere, has come
a growing realisation that such data contains buried within it knowledge that
can be critical to a company’s growth or decline, knowledge that could lead
to important discoveries in science, knowledge that could enable us accurately
to predict the weather and natural disasters, knowledge that could enable us
to identify the causes of and possible cures for lethal illnesses, knowledge that
could literally mean the difference between life and death. Yet the huge volumes
involved mean that most of this data is merely stored — never to be examined
in more than the most superficial way, if at all. It has rightly been said that
the world is becoming ‘data rich but knowledge poor’.
Machine learning technology, some of it very long established, has the po-
tential to solve the problem of the tidal wave of data that is flooding around
organisations, governments and individuals.
Data comes in, possibly from many sources. It is integrated and placed
in some common data store. Part of it is then taken and pre-processed into a
standard format. This ‘prepared data’ is then passed to a data mining algorithm
which produces an output in the form of rules or some other kind of ‘patterns’.
These are then interpreted to give — and this is the Holy Grail for knowledge
discovery — new and potentially useful knowledge.
This brief description makes it clear that although the data mining algo-
rithms, which are the principal subject of this book, are central to knowledge
discovery they are not the whole story. The pre-processing of the data and the
interpretation (as opposed to the blind use) of the results are both of great
importance. They are skilled tasks that are far more of an art (or a skill learnt
from experience) than an exact science. Although they will both be touched on
in this book, the algorithms of the data mining stage of knowledge discovery
will be its prime concern.
– weather forecasting
and many more. Some examples of applications (potential or actual) are:
– a supermarket chain mines its customer transactions data to optimise tar-
geting of high value customers
– a credit card company can use its data warehouse of customer transactions
for fraud detection
– a major hotel chain can use survey databases to identify attributes of a
‘high-value’ prospect
– predicting the probability of default for consumer loan applications by im-
proving the ability to predict bad loans
– reducing fabrication flaws in VLSI chips
– data mining systems can sift through vast quantities of data collected during
the semiconductor fabrication process to identify conditions that are causing
yield problems
– predicting audience share for television programmes, allowing television ex-
ecutives to arrange show schedules to maximise market share and increase
advertising revenues
– predicting the probability that a cancer patient will respond to chemotherapy,
thus reducing health-care costs without affecting quality of care
– analysing motion-capture data for elderly people
– trend mining and visualisation in social networks.
Applications can be divided into four main types: classification, numerical
prediction, association and clustering. Each of these is explained briefly below.
However first we need to distinguish between two types of data.
Nearest Neighbour Matching. This method relies on identifying (say) the five
examples that are ‘closest’ in some sense to an unclassified one. If the five
‘nearest neighbours’ have grades Second, First, Second, Second and Second
we might reasonably conclude that the new instance should be classified as
‘Second’.
Classification Rules. We look for rules that we can use to predict the classi-
fication of an unseen instance, for example:
IF SoftEng = A AND Project = A THEN Class = First
IF SoftEng = A AND Project = B AND ARIN = B THEN Class = Second
IF SoftEng = B THEN Class = Second
Data for data mining comes in many forms: from computer files typed in by
human operators, business information in SQL or some other standard database
format, information recorded automatically by equipment such as fault logging
devices, to streams of binary data transmitted from satellites. For purposes of
data mining (and for the remainder of this book) we will assume that the data
takes a particular standard form which is described in the next section. We will
look at some of the practical problems of data preparation in Section 2.3.
Nominal Variables
A variable used to put objects into categories, e.g. the name or colour of an
object. A nominal variable may be numerical in form, but the numerical values
have no mathematical interpretation. For example we might label 10 people
as numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . , 10, but any arithmetic with such values, e.g. 1 + 2 = 3
Data for Data Mining 11
Binary Variables
A binary variable is a special case of a nominal variable that takes only two
possible values: true or false, 1 or 0 etc.
Ordinal Variables
Ordinal variables are similar to nominal variables, except that an ordinal vari-
able has values that can be arranged in a meaningful order, e.g. small, medium,
large.
Integer Variables
Integer variables are ones that take values that are genuine integers, for ex-
ample ‘number of children’. Unlike nominal variables that are numerical in
form, arithmetic with integer variables is meaningful (1 child + 2 children = 3
children etc.).
Interval-scaled Variables
Interval-scaled variables are variables that take numerical values which are
measured at equal intervals from a zero point or origin. However the origin
does not imply a true absence of the measured characteristic. Two well-known
examples of interval-scaled variables are the Fahrenheit and Celsius tempera-
ture scales. To say that one temperature measured in degrees Celsius is greater
than another or greater than a constant value such as 25 is clearly meaningful,
but to say that one temperature measured in degrees Celsius is twice another
is meaningless. It is true that a temperature of 20 degrees is twice as far from
the zero value as 10 degrees, but the zero value has been selected arbitrarily
and does not imply ‘absence of temperature’. If the temperatures are converted
to an equivalent scale, say degrees Fahrenheit, the ‘twice’ relationship will no
longer apply.
12 Principles of Data Mining
Ratio-scaled Variables
For many applications the data can simply be extracted from a database
in the form described in Section 2.1, perhaps using a standard access method
such as ODBC. However, for some applications the hardest task may be to
get the data into a standard form in which it can be analysed. For example
data values may have to be extracted from textual output generated by a fault
logging system or (in a crime analysis application) extracted from transcripts
of interviews with witnesses. The amount of effort required to do this may be
considerable.
Even when the data is in the standard form it cannot be assumed that it
is error free. In real-world datasets erroneous values can be recorded for a
variety of reasons, including measurement errors, subjective judgements and
malfunctioning or misuse of automatic recording equipment.
Erroneous values can be divided into those which are possible values of the
attribute and those which are not. Although usage of the term noise varies, in
this book we will take a noisy value to mean one that is valid for the dataset,
but is incorrectly recorded. For example the number 69.72 may accidentally be
entered as 6.972, or a categorical attribute value such as brown may accidentally
be recorded as another of the possible values, such as blue. Noise of this kind
is a perpetual problem with real-world data.
A far smaller problem arises with noisy values that are invalid for the
dataset, such as 69.7X for 6.972 or bbrown for brown. We will consider these to
be invalid values, not noise. An invalid value can easily be detected and either
corrected or rejected.
It is hard to see even very ‘obvious’ errors in the values of a variable when
they are ‘buried’ amongst say 100,000 other values. In attempting to ‘clean
up’ data it is helpful to have a range of software tools available, especially to
give an overall visual impression of the data, when some anomalous values or
unexpected concentrations of values may stand out. However, in the absence of
special software, even some very basic analysis of the values of variables may be
helpful. Simply sorting the values into ascending order (which for fairly small
datasets can be accomplished using just a standard spreadsheet) may reveal
unexpected results. For example:
– A numerical variable may only take six different values, all widely separated.
It would probably be best to treat this as a categorical variable rather than
a continuous one.
– All the values of a variable may be identical. The variable should be treated
as an ‘ignore’ attribute.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
La disonesta e rovinosa amministrazione frumentaria era stata, come
dire, il cavallo di battaglia dell'accusa di Cicerone, ed, appena,
l'allusione a' cittadini romani, arbitrariamente messi a morte, poteva
avere tanta azione su' giudici ed anche sul popolo, quanto ne avea
questo richiamo a' loro maggiori interessi, così offesi e compromessi.
Cicerone lo sapeva e vi si fermava volentieri, comprendendo che ciò
avrebbe contribuito grandemente all'esito della causa.
Le opere d'arte.
Lo stato della Sicilia sotto Verre non poteva essere, e non era, quello
stato di assoluta pace interna ed esterna, che Cicerone ci vorrebbe
far credere.
Anche dal semplice accenno, fatto innanzi, all'estendersi del
latifondo, al decadere della popolazione, alla crisi economica, si può
desumere che, se i Romani aveano due volte potuto spegnere nel
sangue quelle rivolte servili, che aveano attratto nel loro vortice
anche una parte del proletariato, non ne aveano tolto le cagioni, e il
fuoco semispento covava sempre sotto le ceneri. Spartaco stesso
guardava, con occhio pieno di speranza, a quella terra classica di
schiavi arditi ed insofferenti. E, mentre un lievito di future rivolte
fermentava, pur dissimulato, all'interno, tutti i mari intorno erano in
mano de' pirati, giunti allo stadio della loro maggiore potenza. L'onta
recente di M. Antonio Cretico era ancora invendicata e, da soli
quattro anni, Verre avea lasciata la Sicilia, quando i Romani
dovettero pensare a rimettere insieme una flotta, che non aveano
più, e dovettero conferire poteri illimitati al loro più famoso
comandante per venire a capo dell'impresa.
In tali condizioni, solo una mano ferma e virile potea impedire uno
scoppio immediato e il riardere di una guerra servile. Spartaco,
entrato in trattative con pirati di Cilicia, avea deliberato appunto di
passare in Sicilia; e, se, secondo qualcuno, il passaggio fu impedito
dalla malafede de' pirati, che, presa la mercede, non tennero i
patti [1042], non è men vero (ce lo dice un autore attendibile e non
remoto da que' fatti) che Verre sorvegliò ed assicurò i lidi
italiani [1043]. Questa tradizione recisa e sicura, il proposito di
Spartaco di volgersi alla Sicilia, donde gli dovettero venire
incitamenti ed assicurazioni di un terreno favorevole, bastano già per
mostrare la parzialità dell'accusa di Cicerone [1044]; ed, a chi
considera le cose da questo punto di vista, il caso degli schiavi
triocalini, prima condannati e poi liberati, quelli di Aristodemo, di
Apollonio, di Leonte d'Imachara, di Apollonio di Panhormus, a noi
neppure ben noti in tutte le loro particolarità, perdono d'importanza
sopra tutto, se intendono a dimostrare che Verre non si occupò di
tener sicura la Sicilia. La grazia accordata agli schiavi di Leonida, nel
momento stesso dell'esecuzione della condanna, se, a Roma, in un
giudizio pronunziato da un regolare tribunale contro un cittadino, era
cosa affatto sconosciuta ed illegale; in provincia, tenuto conto della
speciale posizione del pretore, dell'ordine non rigoroso de' giudizî,
può non destare sorpresa, ed, in linea di fatto, è suscettibile di
spiegazioni ben diverse da quelle che congetturalmente ne dava
Cicerone. E quanto ad Apollonio, se Cicerone mostrava di non saper
concepire, per la sua posizione, ch'egli avesse mano nelle sommosse
servili; quelli, cui è noto, per lungo ordine di esempî tutto lo sviluppo
del manutengolismo in Sicilia, potranno vedere, in quello, un caso
del genere.
I pirati ed i provvedimenti per la flotta.
I.
LVXVRIA INCVBVIT VICTVMQUE VLCISCITVR ORBEM
II.
PRAEDIA POPULI ROMANI
III.
PATRONA SOCIORUM
IV.
INSULA CERERIS
V.
HOMO AMENS AC PERDITUS?
Le Verrine 79
C. Verre e la sua famiglia 82
La questura di Verre 84
La legazione e la proquestura di Verre 87
Il viaggio 88
L'avventura di Lampsaco 89
Il brigantino di Mileto 90
Verre tutore 91
Verre e Dolabella in giudizio 92
La pretura di Verre 94
L'eredità di P. Annio 96
L'eredità di P. Trebonio ivi
L'eredità di Sulpicio Olympo 97
Verre e la lex Voconia ivi
Verre e la lex Cornelia de proscriptis 99
Verre e il diritto successorio de' patroni 100
La giustizia di Verre 101
Chelidone 102
La manutenzione de' pubblici edifici 103
La sortitio iuniana 106
VI.
QUASI IN PRAEDAM
5. VI, 57.
12. Lenormant et De Witte. Élite des monuments ceramogr. Intr., pp. XLII,
XLIII, XLV.
Belot. De la révolution économique et monétaire qui eut lieu à Rome du
III siècle. Paris, 1886, pag. 113.
14. Belot E. Histoire des chévaliers Romains. Paris, 1873, II, p. 4 e seg.
24. Marquardt J. Das Privatleben der Römer. Leipzig, 1886, pag. 221 e seg.
25. Jordan H. Topographie der Stadt Rom in Alterthum. Berlin, 1878, I Bd. I
Th. p. 297.
31. Comic. Roman. fragm., ed. O. Ribbeck. Lipsiae, 1878, p. 358, v. 644.
33. Dureau de la Malle. Économ. polit. des Romains. Paris, 1840, II, 219 e
seg.; 234 e seg.
43. Labatut Edm. La corruption électorale chez les Romains. Paris, 1876, p.
89 e seg.; Gentile I. Le elezioni e il broglio nella Repubblica romana.
Milano, 1879, p. 249 e seg.
48. Liv. XXI, 63, 4; Cic. A. S. in Verr., V, 18, 45; L. 3, D. 50, 5 de vacat. et
excusat. munerum. Mommsen. St. R. I3, 497; III, 898 e seg.
50. Orat. Rom. fragm., ed. H. Meyer. Turici, 1842, p. 281; Aul. Gell. 15, 12,
ed. Hertz.
53. Nitzsch. Gesch. der Röm. Republik. Leipzig, 1884, I, p. 188; II, p. 20.
58. Lex. agr. a. 643 C. I. L., I, 175, n. 200; Bruns5. Fontes iuris antiqui, p.
72.
63. Arnold. Op. cit. 180-7. -- Kuhn. Die stadtische und bürgerliche
Verfassung des Römisches Reichs. Leipzig, 1865, II, 1-80.
64. Liv. XXXI, 31, 8, ... captam iisdem armis et liberatam urbem reddidimus;
Plut. Marc. 23, ed. Sintenis.
66. Arnold. Op. cit. 201 e seg.; Marquardt. Staatsverwaltung, I2, 269 e seg.;
Person. Essai sur l'administration des provinces romaines sous la
République. Paris, 1878, pp. 89-113; Kuhn. Op. cit. 1-41; Marx. Essai sur
les pouvoirs du gouverneur de province. Paris, 1880, p. 20 e seg.;
D'Hughes. Une province romaine sous la République. Paris, 1876, p. 15-
50.
67. Cic. in Verr. A. S., II, 66, 160; De prov. cons. 3, 6; Strab. IV, 1, 5: C. I.
G., 2222, vv. 16-7.
68. Cic. in Verr. A. S., III, 73; 77, 180; IV, 9, 20, 21; 34, 76; C. I. L., I.
Plebisc. de Thermes, 52-6; Strab. VIII, 5, 5, ed. Müller-Dubner; Kuhn.
Op. cit. 30-1.
72. Marquardt. StVerv., II2, 192-3; Plin. N. H., XXI, 77; XXXIII, 51.
73. Cic. in Verr. A. S., iii, 70, 163; iii, 6, 13; III, 73, 170; Pro Flacc. 12, 14;
Liv. XXI, 19; xxxii, 27; xxxvi, 4; xliii, 8; Person. Op. cit. 161-9.
74. Liv. XXIII, 21, 5; 32, 9; 41, 6; xxxvi, 2, 13; xlii, 31, 8.
78. Laboulaye Ed. Essai sur les lois criminelles des Romains. Paris, 1845,
XXII-XXIII.
86. Diod. Sic. V, 26, 3, 4, ed. Müller; Caes. Bel. Gal., III, 1, 2.
88. Deloume. Op. cit. p. 403 e seg.; Boissier. Cicéron et ses amis. Paris,
1865, pp. 65-6.
98. Cic. pro Flac., 84, 86; de leg. agr., I, 3, 8; Arnold. Op. cit., p. 75.
100.
Dionys. VI, 95, ed. Jacoby.
101.
Bethmann-Hollweg. Der röm. Civilprocess. Bonn, 1864, I, 53, 67-8.
102.
Voigt. Das jus naturale aequum et bonum und jus gentium der Römer.
Leipzig, 1858, II, 218.
103.
Op. cit. II, 219-20.
104.
Liv. XLIII, 2.
105.
Willems. Le sénat de la république romaine. Paris, 1888, II, 275-6.
106.
Voigt. Op. cit. II, 193.
107. Zumpt A. W. Das Criminalrecht der röm. Republik. Berlin, 1868, II, 1, p.
16.
108.
Belot. De la revolut. économ. p. 26; Bethmann-Hollweg. Op. cit., I, 69.
109.
Dionys. VI, 95.
110.
Voigt. Op. cit., II, 196.
111.
Liv. XLIII, 8; Zumpt C. T. De legibus iudiciisque repetundarum in
Republica Romana. Berlin, 1895, p. 9; Zumpt A. W. Op. cit., II, 1, p. 20.
112.
Cic. Brut. 27, 106; De off., II, 21, 75.
113.
Rein. Das Criminalrecht der Römer. Leipzig, 1844, p. 614.
114.
Mommsen. Röm. St R., II3, 583.
115.
Mommsen. St. R., II3, 223-4; Laboulaye. Essai sur les lois criminelles des
Romains. Paris, 1845, p. 198.
116.
Bruns5. Fontes iuris Romani antiqui, ed. Mommsen. Lex Acilia repet. vs.
23 e 74.
118.
C. I. L., I, p. 54.
119.
Rein. Op. cit., 615-6.
120.
Zumpt C. T. De legibus iudiciisque etc. p. 15; Rein. Op. cit., 646 e seg.;
Zumpt Der Criminalprocess der röm. Republik. Leipzig, 1871, p. 468 e
seg.
121.
Val. Max. (V, 8, 3) narra del caso di D. Iunio Silano, ma questi non venne
sottoposto all'ordinario procedimento della quaestio, bensì, per volere
concorde anche degli accusatori, deferito al giudicio del padre, che di ciò
avea fatta domanda, e riconosciuto da lui colpevole, finì suicida (Zumpt
C. R., II, (1), 21). Lentulo è detto da Val. Max. (VI, 9, 10) condannato
secondo la lex Caecilia, ma deve intendersi Calpurnia. C. I. L., p. 54;
Zumpt Cr. Pr., 468; Cr. R., II, 1, 25; Rein. Op. cit. 646.
122.
App. B. Civ., I, 22, ed. Mendelsohn; Cic. in Verr. A. S., 1, 13; Velleius. II,
6, 3; 13, 2; 32, 3; Flor. III, 17, ed. Salmasii; Plin. N. H., XXXIII, 34;
Tacit. Ann., XII, 60, ed. Nipperdey; Belot. Hist. des chev., II, 233 e seg.
123.
C. I. L., I, p. 54.
124.
Cic. in Verr. A. I, 17, 51, 52.
125.
Karlowa. Röm. Rechtsgesch. Leipzig, 1885, I, 432 e seg.
126.
Cr. R., II, 1.
128.
Lex Ac. rep. v. 2.
129.
C. I. L., I, p. 64.
130.
Lex Acil. rep., v. 59.
131.
Lex Ac. rep., v. 58.
132.
Lex Ac. rep.., v. 57.
133.
Zumpt C. R., II, (1), 159.
134.
Zumpt C. R., II, (1), 160.
135.
Lex Ac. rep., v. 57.
136.
Lex Ac. rep., v. 62 e seg.
137. Orelli, 569.
138.
Lex Ac. rep., v. 12, 16.
139.
C. I. L., I, p. 65; Mommsen. St. R., II3, p. 191, A. I.
140.
Lex Ac. rep., v. 13, 16, 17.
141.
Loc. cit., v. 18.
142.
Lex Ac. rep., 1, 20.
143.
Lex Ac. rep., v. 22-23. Si trovano di nuovo qui eccepiti tutti quei
funzionari, che innanzi erano stati eccepiti come incapaci di entrare tra i
quattrocento cinquanta, il che ha dato luogo a dissensi d'interpretazioni
e di supplementi, in cui non entro, trattandosi di una discussione
speciale che non riguarda questo lavoro. Cfr. Zumpt C. R., II, (1), 127 e
seg.
144.
Lex Ac. rep., v. 25-6.
145.
Loc. cit. v. 30-1.
146.
Loc. cit. v. 30-3; Voigt. Op. cit. IV, 385.
148.
Loc. cit. v. 56.
149.
Loc. cit. v. 76-79.
150.
C. I. L., I, p. 56.
151.
Zumpt C. R., II, (1), 187-8.
152.
Iul. Obsequ. prodig. lib. c. 101 (41) ed. Jahn; Cassiod. Chron. s. a. 648,
ed. Mommsen.
153.
Tacit. Ann., XII, 60; Cic. de inv., I, 49; Brut., 44, 164.
154.
Laboulaye. Op. cit. 231 e seg.; Zumpt C. R., II, (1), 192 e seg.; Geib.
Gesch. des röm. Criminalprocess. Leipzig, 1842, p. 198.
155.
Cic. Brut., 62, 224.
156.
Zumpt C. R., II, (1), 192.
158.
Cic. in Verr. A. S., I, 9, 26.
159.
Cic. Pro Balb., 24, 54.
160.
Cic. Brut, 22, 86; Val. Max. VIII, 1, 11.
161.
S. v. res comperendinata, p. 282, Müller.
162.
Cic. in Verr., I, 9.
163.
Geib. Op. cit. p. 378.
164.
C. R., II, (1), 359, 371.
165.
Cic. Pro C. Rab. Post., 4, 8.
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