BIODIVERSITY

Published: 09 January 2024

doi: 10.3389/frym.2023.991723

HOW DO PLANTS PROTECT THEMSELVES AGAINST

ANIMAL ATTACKS?
Tamara Citlali Ochoa Alvarez 1,2 and Antonio González Rodríguez 3*
1
Programa Institucional de Doctorado en Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás
de Hidalgo, Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico
2
Laboratorio de Genética de la Conservación, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de México, Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico
3
Laboratorio Nacional de Innovación Ecotecnológica para la Sustentabilidad (LANIES), Instituto de Investigaciones en
Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico

Natural systems are made up of countless interactions between living

YOUNG REVIEWERS:
beings. One of the most essential interactions is when a plant is
ATHARV eaten by an animal. Why is this so important? When plants are eaten,
AGE: 15
their growth and ability to reproduce decrease, and we all know
that plants are critical because they provide us with food, medicine,
OLIVE
AGE: 12
and wood. They also provide homes for other living things, produce
the oxygen we breathe, keep soils healthy, regulate humidity, and
contribute to climate stability. Plants have also developed smart
strategies to defend themselves from animal attacks. Some plants
have evolved protective structures like thorns and thick leaves,
while others have produced defensive chemicals. Together, plant
protection mechanisms can reduce or prevent the damage that plant
predators may cause. In this article, you will learn many strategies
plants evolved to protect themselves from plant-eating animals.

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 Ochoa Alvarez and González Rodríguez

DEFENSIVE PLANTS?
Stop for a second and imagine that a mosquito is trying to suck the
blood out of your arm. Or that you are walking down the street and
suddenly you see a ferocious dog. How would you react to both
situations? You would surely swat the mosquito away, and maybe
run from the scary dog. Humans can react immediately to avoid
dangerous situations and plants can do the same. It may not seem
as obvious, but plants have various defenses to protect themselves
from attacks, too. And this is important because plants are a critical
part of life on Earth. They provide us with food, medicine, and wood.
They also provide homes for other living things, produce the oxygen
we breathe, keep soils healthy, regulate humidity, and contribute to
NATURAL ENEMIES climate stability.
Living organisms that
feed on other
organisms. They can HERBIVORES: THE ENEMIES OF PLANTS
kill, weaken, or reduce
the reproductive Plants have many natural enemies, from bacteria to insects, fungi
potential of the species
to mammals. These enemies are attracted to plants because they
they feed on.
may have bright colors, nice smells, good-tasting leaves, or fruits.
Herbivory is an important interaction between plants and animals
HERBIVORY
because it is the process by which some animals feed on living
Biological interaction plants. So, animals that eat plants are known as herbivores. Herbivores
between two living
organisms in which damage plant organs, such as leaves, stems, roots, and flowers, when
animals eat living plant they feed on plants. If a plant loses part of its living tissue, it can have
tissues, like leaves, trouble taking in water and nutrients, leaving the plant weaker. In some
stems, roots, flowers,
or fruits.
cases, herbivory decreases photosynthesis, growth, reproduction, and
survival. This means that herbivory can control how abundant plants
HERBIVORE are in nature, and it can even determine if forests grow back after they
Animal that feeds are cut down or destroyed by wildfires.
mainly on plants.
Insects are the main plant herbivores, and they make up more than
50% of the known species in terrestrial ecosystems. There are at least
450,000 species of plants distributed throughout the world [1], so
there are a lot of options on the menu for plant-eating insects! Unlike
humans, plants cannot run away from dangerous predators—so how
have plants managed to avoid being eaten by herbivores? The answer
lies in the fascinating mechanisms plants have developed to protect
themselves. But first, we need to explain how the environment affects
how plants respond to threats.

THE ENVIRONMENT AFFECTS PLANT DEFENSES

To survive and grow, humans need food and a healthy place to live
in. Plants also need resources from the environment to grow and
reproduce, including water, sunlight, good-quality soil, and access
to nutrients. A scientific theory called Resource Availability Theory

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 Ochoa Alvarez and González Rodríguez

helps us understand how the environment, particularly the availability

of resources, affects plant responses [2]. The theory says that plants
living in ecosystems with high availability of natural resources will use
their energy for growth and development. On the contrary, plants that
do not get enough resources will put their energy toward resistance
ENVIRONMENTAL
or tolerance mechanisms, which help them survive in the face of
VARIABLES
limited resources.
Elements or aspects of
the environment that
can affect living The availability of resources in an ecosystem depends on many
organisms. Some of environmental variables (Figure 1). The amount of rainfall, soil type,
these include the temperature, and wind intensity are examples of environmental
amount and quality of
variables that affect how plants respond. Throughout time, plants
water and soils,
temperature, and the have grown in diverse environments, each with its specific levels of
presence of resources which has been important for the evolution of plants and
other organisms. their ability to adapt to many different conditions.

Figure 1
Environmental
variables. The
environment influences
the amount of natural
resources necessary for
the survival of species.
How species define
their life strategies will
affect how they relate
to others. Herbivory is
an important
interaction between
species within
ecosystems.

Figure 1

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 Ochoa Alvarez and González Rodríguez

Differences in the natural abundance of a resource from area to

area is called an environmental gradient. Environmental gradients
ENVIRONMENTAL
can change the way plants and herbivores interact by affecting both
GRADIENT
herbivores and the physical and chemical traits of plants. For example,
Differences in the there are more plants in habitats with more resources so these patches
environmental
characteristics from are more attractive to herbivores increasing the chances of plants
one area to another. being eaten [3]. The traits of individual plants can also influence
herbivory; for example, nutritious plants are more likely to be eaten if
they don’t have defense mechanisms to keep herbivores away. These
traits vary from plant to plant depending on environmental variables
such as soil quality, amount of rainfall, and exposure to sunlight. In
general, the environment in which plants live will influence their ability
to protect themselves from external damage.

THE DELICIOUS PLANT LEAVES

You do not have to be a botanist to know that leaves are the
part of a plant most eaten by herbivores—just go to your garden
and observe. But what do leaves have to attract herbivores? Leaves
are rich in nutrients that insects need, including carbohydrates,
nitrogen, phosphorus, protein, and water. However, plants can
develop chemicals that make their leaves less digestible, making it
more difficult for herbivores to get nutrients from them, decreasing
herbivory [4].

Similarly, the physical characteristics of leaves, such as their weight,

thickness, and size, influence how attractive they are to herbivores
(Figure 2). For example, larger leaves attract more attention from

Figure 2
Leaves are the most
commonly eaten parts
of plants. Three main
characteristics of leaves
affect whether they
attract or repel
herbivores: the physical
characteristics of the
leaves (size, thickness,
and hardness), the
amount of nutrients in
the leaves, and the
amount of defense
chemicals in the leaves.

Figure 2

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 Ochoa Alvarez and González Rodríguez

herbivores because bigger means more food. Likewise, thick, tough

leaves attract less attention because they are more difficult to chew
and digest.

Herbivores have managed to overcome some of these plant defenses

thanks to their own adaptations. For example, some insects have
ADAPTATIONS
developed mouth parts that penetrate thick, tough plant tissues.
Changes that Others have developed the ability to break down toxic compounds
organisms underwent
over time according to using strong digestive proteins, making the leaves edible.
what they need to
survive in their
natural environment.
WHAT ABOUT ROOTS, STEMS, AND FLOWERS?
Most herbivores eat leaves; however, some eat roots and stems and,
therefore, also decrease the plant’s growth. The absorption of water
and nutrients through the roots decreases, as does the amount of
nutrient reserves that are stored underground. Root-eating herbivores
are among the most damaging and dangerous pests. They reduce the
ability of plants to reproduce. Like leaves, roots produce a variety of
toxic and repellent compounds that scare off subterranean attackers.
In addition, plants react to root attacks by redirecting roots into
enemy-free space or storing nutrient reserves in undamaged root
tissues [5]. Thanks to these nutrient reserves, damaged roots can
sometimes be regenerated.

Herbivore attacks on stems are more dangerous than attacks on

leaves, because stems transport vital nutrients along the plant.
Stem-eating herbivores can eat the outer bark of the stem or suck out
the sap inside. When the stem is damaged, the passage of nutrients
from the root to the leaves is blocked, which can stop plant growth and
even kill the plant [6]. Stems defend themselves by producing lignin,
which makes the stem rigid and challenging to eat.

Flowers are delicious treats for herbivores. Flowers are crucial for the
reproduction of plants. When herbivores eat flowers, less pollen is
available for pollinators like bees, butterflies, hummingbirds, and bats.
Further, if many flowers are removed, the plant becomes less attractive
to pollinators, and they may stop visiting and fertilizing the plant. That
is why flowers have also developed strategies to protect themselves
from herbivore attacks. Flowers produce chemicals and toxins to repel
herbivores; some can close their petals to protect their reproductive
CONSTITUTIVE organs, and others release airborne compounds that attract the natural
Characteristic that is enemies of their herbivores [7].
part of a whole.

INDUCED TYPES OF RESISTANCE AND PROTECTION

Something that is
Past studies have shown that plant defenses can be of two main types:
produced thanks to an
external stimulus. constitutive or induced. Constitutive defenses are those that are
always in the plant and constantly protect it. These include thorns and

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 Ochoa Alvarez and González Rodríguez

plant hairs called trichomes, as well as various chemical compounds.

However, having these defenses around all the time, regardless of
whether they are needed, can use a lot of energy. In contrast, induced
defenses only develop or activate after an attack. Many plants only
invest resources in these defenses once they know an attack is
happening. This saves the plant energy.

Whether they are constitutive or induced, plant protection mechanisms

can be classified into two main methods: mechanical and chemical [4].
Plants use mechanical protection, such as thorns, hairs or trichomes,
as well as the firmness of their leaves, to resist wind, rain, and hail,
for example. Mechanical protection is also used to protect against
the attacks of some herbivores. Chemical protection involves the
production of compounds that kill microbes and fungi, or that can
poison an herbivore’s heart or cause it to hallucinate (Figure 3). These
chemical defenses include terpenes, tannins, phenols, and oils [4].
The concentrations of these chemicals can vary according to things
like the age of the leaves, soil quality, nutrient availability, sunlight,
and water.

Figure 3
Plant protection
mechanisms can be
mechanical or
chemical. Mechanical
defense mechanisms
include thorns and
trichomes (plant hairs).
Chemical defense
mechanisms are found
within the leaves. All
these mechanisms help
plants to protect and
defend themselves
from environmental
factors such as
drought, wind, rain,
temperature extremes,
microorganisms, and
herbivores.

Figure 3

IN CONCLUSION
This article has shown that plants are like a fortress, fighting to protect
themselves and stay alive when they are under attack by herbivores.
Now, it will be easier for you to understand how plants have dominated
the world for millions of years and, despite adversity, are still a major
component of our planet. In the end, plants may lose some battles,
but they will rarely lose a war.

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Ochoa Alvarez and González Rodríguez

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to María Fernanda Hernández Arroyo for her
help in the design of the figures. Funding for the article was provided
by IIES-UNAM through Presupuesto Operativo to AG.

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5. Johnson, S. N., Erb, M., and Hartley, S. E. 2016. Roots under attack: contrasting
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6. Stephens, A. E., and Westoby, M. 2015. Effects of insect attack to stems on plant
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SUBMITTED: 11 July 2022; ACCEPTED: 20 December 2023;

PUBLISHED ONLINE: 09 January 2024.

EDITOR: Becky Louize Thomas, University of London, United Kingdom

SCIENCE MENTORS: Santosh Kumar Gupta and Marcus Yee

CITATION: Ochoa Alvarez TC and González Rodríguez A (2024) How Do Plants

Protect Themselves Against Animal Attacks? Front. Young Minds 11:991723.
doi: 10.3389/frym.2023.991723

CONFLICT OF INTEREST: The authors declare that the research was conducted in
the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed
as a potential conflict of interest.

COPYRIGHT © 2024 Ochoa Alvarez and González Rodríguez. This is an

open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums
is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited

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Ochoa Alvarez and González Rodríguez

and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted
academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not
comply with these terms.

YOUNG REVIEWERS
ATHARV, AGE: 15
Atharv is a High School student at Amity International School Mayur Vihar, New Delhi,
India. He is curious to learn new areas of science. He is always happy to read and
interested in commenting on scientific articles and magazines.

OLIVE, AGE: 12
My name is Olive and I am a sixth grader. I love reading, science, biology, medicine,
and taking care of animals, and I hope to study veterinary medicine when I get
into university. Our family has one dog, one blue tongue skink, and one busy fish
tank. I do Aikido and Outschool online classes. My hobbies are: crocheting, reading
books, cooking, reading things on the computer, watching cartoons, and walking
our dog.

AUTHORS
TAMARA CITLALI OCHOA ALVAREZ
I am a biologist from the Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, in
Mexico. I earned my Master of Science degree in integrative ecology. My project
evaluated the chemical and nutritional content of the leaves of the oak Quercus
glaucoides, and its relationship with herbivory and environmental variables. I am
currently studying for my Ph.D. in biological sciences at the same University.
My doctoral research focuses on the response of the oak Quercus castanea to
drought, and I am analyzing the phenological and chemical variation of oak trees
as well as their interactions with herbivores. My academic interests are biotic
interactions and chemical ecology specially in trees of temperate ecosystems and
for conservation objectives.

ANTONIO GONZÁLEZ RODRÍGUEZ

Antonio obtained his bachelors degree in biology in 1997 and his Ph.D. in Ecology
in 2004, both from Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM). He was
a postdoctoral researcher at the Institut Nationale de la Recherche Agronomique
in Bordeaux, France (2005) and also at the Department of Ecology, Evolution and
Behavior of the University of Minnesota (2006). Since 2007, he has been a full-time
researcher at the Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad
(UNAM). He is broadly interested in molecular ecology and in the conservation of
Mexico’s forests. *[email protected]

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