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II. Modern Trends in application of knowledge of Science.
1. Crop Science in India; Characteristics of Plants - Crop plants, Forest species,
Medicinal Aromatic plants, Useful and Harmful plants and utility for mankind.
2. Concept of Biotechnology and application of genetic engineering and Stem Cell
Research. Biotechnology in Agriculture (bio-fertilizers, bio - pesticides, bio- fuels, tissue
culture, cloning) and Environment (Biotechnology in Environmental cleanup process)
3. Food bio-technology, Food safety and Food quality standards, Food Laws and
Regulations. Recent trends in organic farming and farm mechanization. Safe Drinking
Water – Defluoridation and other Techniques.
4. Microbial infections; Introduction to bacterial, viral, protozoal and fungal infections.
Basic knowledge of infections caused by different groups of micro organisms- diarrhoea,
dysentery, cholera, tuberculosis, malaria, viral infections like HIV, encephalitis,
chikungunya, bird flu- preventive measures during out breaks.
5. Vaccines: Introduction to immunity, Fundamental concepts in vaccination and
traditional methods of vaccine production ( production of DPT and Rabies vaccine),
Production of modern vaccines (production of Hepatitis Vaccine).

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 # .

Crop Science in India

Crop Science in India; Characteristics of Plants - Crop plants, Forest species, Medicinal Aromatic plants, Useful
and Harmful plants and utility for mankind.
Crop science is a branch of agricultural science that In recent years, there has been increasing focus on sustainable agriculture and
focuses on the study of crops, including their the use of integrated pest management strategies that minimize the use of
cultivation, genetics, physiology, and management. It harmful chemicals and promote the use of biocontrol agents and natural
involves understanding the interactions between crops, enemies. There has also been a growing emphasis on the development of
the environment, and the various agricultural practices climate-resilient crop varieties that can tolerate drought, floods, and other
that can be used to optimize crop growth and extreme weather events.
Despite these advances, there are still many challenges facing Indian
production.

in
agriculture, including declining soil fertility, water scarcity, and climate change.
Crop science will continue to play a critical role in addressing these challenges
and promoting sustainable agricultural growth and development in India.

#CAR
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an autonomous
organization under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare,
· Government of India. It is the apex body for coordinating, guiding, and managing
research and education in agriculture in India.
↑
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body responsible
for coordinating and promoting research and development in agriculture and

Gop Saince in India . allied fields in India. It was established in 1929 and is headquartered in New
Delhi. ICAR has established a network of national and regional research
institutions and agricultural universities across the country, which work to
India has a diverse range of agro-climatic
develop and disseminate new crop varieties, improved cultivation practices, and
zones, which support a wide variety of crops,
pest and disease management strategies.
including cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fruits,
vegetables, spices, and fibers. However, the
productivity of Indian agriculture has its Bureau -

historically been constrained by a range of

Hard
factors, including poor soil fertility, water 1. Bureau of Agricultural Research: Responsible for coordinating and promoting
scarcity, pest and disease pressure, and limited research in the field of agriculture and allied sciences.
access to modern agricultural technologies and
2. Bureau of Animal Genetics and Breeding: Responsible for research and
practices.
development in the field of animal genetics and breeding.
In response to these challenges, crop science 3. Bureau of Fisheries Education and Research: Responsible for research and
research and development has played a critical development in the field of fisheries science.
role in driving agricultural growth and 4. Bureau of Agricultural Extension Education: Responsible for developing and
productivity in India. The Indian Council of promoting agricultural extension services to farmers and rural communities.
Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body 5. Bureau of Agricultural Engineering: Responsible for research and
responsible for coordinating and promoting development in the field of agricultural engineering, including farm
research and development in agriculture and mechanization and post-harvest management.
allied fields, including crop science. The ICAR has 6. Bureau of Soil and Land Use Survey: Responsible for research and
established a network of national and regional
development in the field of soil science and land use planning.
research institutions and agricultural universities
7. Bureau of Plant Industry: Responsible for research and development in the
across the country, which work to develop and
field of crop science, including the development of new crop varieties and pest
disseminate new crop varieties, improved
and disease management strategies.
cultivation practices, and pest and disease
management strategies. Focus areas
.
1. Increasing crop productivity and production through the development of high-
One of the major success stories of crop yielding crop varieties and improved cultivation practices.
science in India has been the Green 2. Improving soil health and fertility through the development and dissemination of
Revolution, which began in the 1960s and sustainable soil management practices.
involved the widespread adoption of high- 3. Enhancing water use efficiency through the development and dissemination of
yielding varieties of wheat and rice, along efficient irrigation and water management technologies.
with improved cultivation practices and the 4. Developing and promoting sustainable agricultural practices that minimize negative
use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. environmental impacts and support long-term agricultural growth and development.
This initiative led to a significant increase 5. Developing and promoting integrated pest management strategies that minimize the
use of harmful chemicals and promote the use of biocontrol agents and natural
in crop yields and helped to transform
enemies.
India from a food-deficit country to a
6. Developing and promoting climate-resilient crop varieties that can tolerate drought,
self-sufficient one.
floods, and other extreme weather events.
7. Promoting the use of advanced agricultural technologies, such as precision
agriculture and digital farming, to optimize agricultural production and sustainability.
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ICAR has made significant achievements in various fields of
agriculture over the years.
The research and development activities of ICAR has enabled the
country to increase the production of food grains by 6 times,
horticultural crops by 11 times, fish by 17 times, milk by 10.5 times,
and eggs by 53 times between 1951 and 2021 leading to food and
nutritional security of the country.
It has played a major role in promoting excellence in higher
education in agriculture.
Some of the notable achievements of ICAR are:

1. High-yielding crop varieties:ICAR has developed several high-

yielding crop varieties that have helped farmers increase their crop
yields significantly. Some of the notable crop varieties developed by
ICAR are wheat varieties HD 2967 and HD 3086, rice varieties
Swarna and Pusa Basmati 1121, and soybean variety JS 9560.
2. Climate-resilient crop varieties: ICAR has developed several
climate-resilient crop varieties that can withstand extreme weather
conditions such as droughts, floods, and heatwaves. Some of the
notable climate-resilient crop varieties developed by ICAR are maize
variety Arjuna and chickpea variety JG 14.
3. Biofortified crops: ICAR has developed several biofortified crop
varieties that are rich in micronutrients, such as iron and zinc. Some
of the notable biofortified crop varieties developed by ICAR are
wheat variety DBW 187 and pearl millet variety HHB 67.
4. Livestock improvement: ICAR has made significant contributions to
improving the productivity of livestock in India. It has developed
several improved breeds of cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goat that have
higher milk and meat yields and are more disease- resistant.
5. Fisheries development: ICAR has played a critical role in the
development of India's fisheries sector. It has developed several new
technologies for fish farming, including cage farming, integrated fish
farming, and biofloc technology.
6. Agricultural education: ICAR manages several agricultural
universities and institutes in India and provides education and training
in various fields of agriculture. It has played a significant role in
producing a skilled workforce for the agriculture sector in India.
Overall, ICAR's achievements in agriculture research and education
have played a critical role in ensuring food security, improving the
livelihoods of farmers, and promoting sustainable agriculture practices
in India. With continued investment in research and development,
ICAR has the potential to further advance agriculture in India and
contribute to global food security.

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·
Overall, India's achievements in crop science have played a critical role in
IARI stands for the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, ensuring food security and improving the livelihoods of millions of farmers. With
which is an agricultural research institute located in New Delhi, continued investment in research and development, India has the potential to
India. It was established in 1905 and is considered to be one become a global leader in agriculture and help address some of the world's
of the premier institutes for agricultural research in the most pressing challenges, such as climate change and food insecurity.
country.

India has made significant achievements in crop science over the

years, including improvements in crop yields, disease resistance, and
overall food security.
The research and development activities of ICAR has enabled the
country to increase the production of food grains by 6 times,
horticultural crops by 11 times, fish by 17 times, milk by 10.5
times, and eggs by 53 times between 1951 and 2021 leading to
food and nutritional security of the country.

played a major role in promoting excellence in higher education in agriculture. of the notable achievements in Indian crop science are:
Green Revolution: In the 1960s, India launched the Green Revolution, which aimed to increase agricultural productivity by introducing
high-yielding varieties of crops, using modern farming techniques, and providing farmers with access to credit and other resources. This
program has been successful in increasing crop yields and ensuring food security for the country's growing population.
Hybrid Rice: India has developed several high-yielding hybrid rice varieties that have helped farmers increase their crop yields
significantly. Some of the notable hybrid rice varieties developed in India are Pusa RH10, Sahbhagi Dhan, and DRR Dhan 45.
Bt Cotton: India is the fourth largest producer of cotton in the world and has developed Bt cotton, which is genetically modified to
produce an insecticidal protein. This has reduced the need for chemical pesticides and helped farmers increase their yields significantly.
Biofortified Crops: Indian scientists have developed several biofortified crops that are rich in micronutrients, such as iron and zinc. These
crops can help address the issue of malnutrition and improve the health of millions of people.
Climate Resilient Crops: India has developed several climate-resilient crop varieties that can withstand extreme weather conditions such
as droughts and floods. These crops are vital for ensuring food security in a changing climate.
Seed Production: India has become one of the world's largest producers of seeds, including hybrid and genetically modified varieties.
This has helped the country achieve self-sufficiency in seed production and reduced dependence on imports.

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 Plants
FOREST SPECIES MEDICINAL & AEROMATIC -

Plants can be classified in various ways based on different criteria such Plants have been used for medicinal purposes for thousands of
as their structure, habitat, life cycle, economic value, etc. One such years, and many of the world's most important medicines are
classification is based on their economic importance, where plants are derived from plant sources. In addition to their medicinal
classified into three major categories: crop plants, forest species, and properties, many plants are also used for their aromatic
medicinal and aromatic plants. properties, which are used in perfumes, cosmetics, and other
Crop plants: Crop plants refer to those plants that are cultivated for products.
their economic value as food, fiber, fuel, or industrial products. Examples Here are some of the most important medicinal and aromatic
include cereals such as wheat, rice, and maize; vegetables such as plants and their uses for humans:
potatoes, tomatoes, and onions; fruits such as apples, bananas, and 1. Aloe Vera: Aloe Vera is a succulent plant that has been used for
oranges; and cash crops such as coffee, tea, and tobacco. Crop plants are centuries to treat burns, cuts, and other skin conditions. It is also
usually grown in monoculture or polyculture systems and require used in cosmetics and skin care products for its soothing and
intensive management practices such as fertilization, irrigation, pest moisturizing properties.
control, etc. 2. Chamomile: Chamomile is a flowering plant that is often used to
Forest species: Forest species refer to those plants that grow naturally make tea. It is known for its calming properties and is used to
in forest ecosystems and have economic value as timber, pulpwood, treat anxiety, insomnia, and digestive problems.
fuelwood, or non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Examples include 3. Echinacea: Echinacea is a flowering plant that is used to boost
hardwoods such as oak, teak, and mahogany; softwoods such as pine and the immune system and treat colds, flu, and other respiratory
spruce; and NTFPs such as wild mushrooms, berries, and medicinal plants. infections.
Forest species play an important role in sustaining ecosystem services
such as carbon sequestration, soil conservation, water regulation, and
biodiversity conservation. 4. Lavender: Lavender is a fragrant herb that is often used in
Medicinal and aromatic plants: Medicinal and aromatic plants refer to aromatherapy to promote relaxation and reduce anxiety. It is also
those plants that have medicinal or therapeutic properties and are used used in cosmetics and personal care products for its pleasant
in the preparation of traditional or modern medicines, herbal remedies, scent.
or fragrances. Examples include aloe vera, ginseng, echinacea, lavender, 5. Peppermint: Peppermint is a popular herb that is used to treat
and peppermint. Medicinal and aromatic plants are often grown as cash digestive problems, headaches, and other conditions. It is often
crops in specialized systems and require specific management practices consumed as a tea or used in aromatherapy.
such as cultivation, harvesting, drying, and processing. 6. Turmeric: Turmeric is a spice that is commonly used in Indian
Overall, the classification of plants in terms of crop plants, forest cuisine. It contains curcumin, a compound that has anti-
species, and medicinal and aromatic plants highlights their diverse inflammatory properties and may help reduce the risk of certain
economic values and ecological roles. Each category has its own set of diseases, such as cancer and Alzheimer's disease.
management practices, challenges, and opportunities, and requires 7. Ginseng: Ginseng is a root that is commonly used in traditional
sustainable and integrated approaches to ensure their long-term benefits Chinese medicine to treat fatigue, improve mental clarity, and
for humans and the environment. boost the immune system.
important medicinal and aromatic plants and their uses for human. These are just a few examples of the many important medicinal
Plants have been used for medicinal purposes for thousands of years, and aromatic plants that have been used for centuries to treat a
and many of the world's most important medicines are derived from variety of ailments and conditions. Plants continue to be an
plant sources. In addition to their medicinal properties, many plants are important source of medicine and aromatic compounds for humans
also used for their aromatic properties, which are used in perfumes, today, and ongoing research is helping us discover even more uses
cosmetics, and other products. for these amazing natural resources.
Here are some of the most important medicinal and aromatic plants and
their uses for humans:
1. Aloe Vera: Aloe Vera is a succulent plant that has been used for
centuries to treat burns, cuts, and other skin conditions. It is also used
in cosmetics and skin care products for its soothing and moisturizing
properties.
2. Chamomile: Chamomile is a flowering plant that is often used to make
tea. It is known for its calming properties and is used to treat anxiety,
insomnia, and digestive problems.
3. Echinacea: Echinacea is a flowering plant that is used to boost the
immune system and treat colds, flu, and other respiratory infections.

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 Essential oils are highly concentrated plant extracts obtained through
Aromatic plants are those that contain essential oils and other various methods such as steam distillation, cold pressing, or solvent
fragrant compounds. These plants have been used for centuries for extraction. They contain the volatile aromatic compounds from plants
their medicinal, cosmetic, and culinary properties, as well as for that give them their characteristic aroma and flavor. Essential oils are
their pleasant scents. Here are some of the most important aromatic used in a wide range of applications due to their therapeutic
plants and their uses for humans: properties, fragrance, and flavor. Some important uses of essential oils
1. Lavender: Lavender is one of the most popular and versatile include:
aromatic plants. Its essential oil is used in aromatherapy to promote 1. Aromatherapy: Essential oils are commonly used in aromatherapy, a
relaxation and reduce anxiety. It is also used in cosmetics and form of alternative medicine that utilizes the inhalation or topical
personal care products for its soothing properties and pleasant scent. application of essential oils to promote physical and emotional well-
2. Rosemary: Rosemary is an herb that is often used in cooking, but being. Different essential oils are believed to have various therapeutic
it also has medicinal properties. Its essential oil is used in effects, such as promoting relaxation, reducing stress, improving mood,
aromatherapy to improve memory and concentration, and it is also enhancing sleep, and supporting respiratory health.
used in cosmetics and personal care products for its invigorating 2. Personal care and beauty products: Essential oils are widely used in
scent. the formulation of personal care and beauty products such as soaps,
3. Peppermint: Peppermint is a refreshing and invigorating aromatic lotions, creams, perfumes, and hair care products. They provide natural
plant. Its essential oil is often used in aromatherapy to treat fragrances and can also possess beneficial properties for the skin and
digestive problems and headaches. It is also used in cosmetics and hair, such as moisturizing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging effects.
personal care products for its cooling and refreshing properties. 3. Cleaning and household products: Essential oils are used in many
4. Eucalyptus: Eucalyptus is an aromatic plant that is commonly used cleaning and household products as natural alternatives to synthetic
to treat respiratory problems. Its essential oil is often used in fragrances and chemicals. They can provide a pleasant scent and
aromatherapy to help relieve congestion and coughs. possess antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral properties, making them
5. Chamomile: Chamomile is an aromatic plant that is known for its useful for cleaning and disinfecting purposes.
calming properties. Its essential oil is used in aromatherapy to 4. Culinary uses: Some essential oils are used as flavorings in food and
promote relaxation and reduce anxiety. It is also used in cosmetics beverages due to their intense aroma and taste. They are used
and personal care products for its soothing properties. sparingly to add unique flavors to dishes, desserts, beverages, and
6. Jasmine: Jasmine is a fragrant flower that is often used in confectionery.
perfumes and cosmetics for its sweet and exotic scent. Its essential 5. Natural remedies: Essential oils are often used in natural remedies
oil is also used in aromatherapy to promote relaxation and reduce for various health conditions. For example, tea tree oil is used for its
anxiety. antiseptic properties, lavender oil for its calming effects, and
7. Sandalwood: Sandalwood is a fragrant wood that is used in peppermint oil for its digestive properties. However, it's important to
perfumes and cosmetics for its warm and exotic scent. Its essential note that the use of essential oils for medicinal purposes should be
oil is also used in aromatherapy to promote relaxation and reduce done with caution and under the guidance of a qualified healthcare
anxiety. professional.
These are just a few examples of the many important aromatic 6. Insect repellents: Essential oils such as citronella, lemongrass, and
plants and their uses for humans. Aromatic plants continue to play an eucalyptus are commonly used in natural insect repellents due to their
important role in aromatherapy, cosmetics, perfumes, and strong scent and insect-repelling properties. They are used in candles,
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 102 sprays, and diffusers to keep mosquitoes, flies, and other insects at
bay.
other industries. They are also valued for their medicinal properties 7. Emotional well-being: Essential oils are believed to have an impact on
and are used in many traditional and alternative medicine practices. emotional well- being and are used in practices such as meditation,
massage, and relaxation techniques. They are thought to help reduce
stress, anxiety, and promote relaxation and a positive mood.
8. DIY projects: Essential oils are popular in DIY (do-it-yourself)
projects for making homemade products such as candles, bath salts,
room sprays, and more. They provide natural scents and can be
customized to suit individual preferences and needs.

Fungi play a significant role in various fields such as medicine, agriculture, and industry. Some of the major contributions of fungi in these areas are as
follows:
1. Medicine: Fungi are a valuable source of many important drugs. For example, penicillin, the first antibiotic discovered, is produced by a fungus called
Penicillium. Other drugs derived from fungi include cyclosporine, used to prevent organ transplant rejection, and statins, used to lower cholesterol
levels. Fungi are also being studied for their potential use in treating cancer and other diseases.
2. Agriculture: Fungi play an important role in soil health and plant growth. Mycorrhizal fungi, for example, form a symbiotic relationship with plant
roots, helping them to absorb nutrients from the soil. Fungi also play a crucial role in decomposing organic matter, which releases nutrients back into
the soil. Some fungi, such as Trichoderma, are used as biocontrol agents to protect crops from plant pathogens.
3. Industry: Fungi are used in various industrial processes. For example, yeasts are used in the production of bread, beer, and wine. Fungi are also
used in the production of enzymes, which are used in a wide range of industrial processes, including the production of textiles, paper, and biofuels.
Fungi can also be used to produce biodegradable plastics and other sustainable materials.
In summary, fungi have many important roles in medicine, agriculture, and industry. Their contributions to these fields have been significant, and they
continue to be studied for their potential applications in new and emerging areas.
Note: Fungi are a distinct group of organisms that are different from plants in terms of their cell structure, nutrition, reproduction, and habitat.
Although they may share some similarities with plants, such as their ability to form large, visible structures, they are actually quite different from
each other.

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·
Harmful plants are those that can cause harm to humans or other Plants are essential to human life and well-being, providing
organisms through direct contact, ingestion, or inhalation. These a wide range of benefits that contribute to our physical,
harmful plants can cause a range of health effects, from mild skin social, and cultural needs. Some of the key uses of plants
irritation to severe poisoning or even death. It is important to be to mankind include:
aware of these plants and to take precautions when handling or 1. Food: Plants are the primary source of food for humans,
encountering them in the wild. providing essential nutrients such as carbohydrates,
Here are some examples of harmful plants from India divided into proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Common food plants
different categories (Allergics, Narcotics, and Weeds): include grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds.
Allergic plants: 2. Medicine: Many plants have medicinal properties and
1. Euphorbia hirta - It is commonly known as asthma weed or have been used for centuries to treat a wide range of
milkweed and can cause skin illnesses and health conditions. Examples include the use
rashes, itching, and respiratory problems in some people. of willow bark to produce aspirin, and the use of the
2. Calotropis gigantea - It is commonly known as giant milkweed and cinchona tree to produce quinine, which is used to treat
can cause skin irritation, itching, and respiratory problems in some malaria.
people. 3. Fiber and materials: Plants provide a wide range of
3. Nerium: Commonly called Erraganneru. All the plant parts contain fibers and materials that are used to make clothing, paper,
numerous toxins that are harmful to children and adults. building materials, and other products. Examples include
Narcotic plants: cotton, hemp, bamboo, and timber.
1. Cannabis sativa - It is commonly known as marijuana or ganja and 4. Energy: Plants are used as a source of energy, providing
is widely used as arecreational drug for its psychoactive effects. fuel for heating, cooking, and transportation. Biomass
energy and biofuels are derived from plant materials, such
as wood, corn, and soybeans.
2. Papaver somniferum - It is commonly known as opium poppy and 5. Aesthetics and cultural uses: Plants are often used for
is used to produce opium, a narcotic drug used for pain relief. their aesthetic and cultural value, such as in gardening,
3. Nicotiana tobacum: It is commonly called Tobacco. The leaves are landscaping, and art. They also play important roles in
used for smoking in the form of cigar, cigarette, beedi and hookah. It cultural practices, such as the use of flowers in religious
contains harmful alkaloid – Nicotine. Excessive consumption of ceremonies and the use of herbs in traditional medicine
nicotine leads to mouth and lung cancer. and cooking.
Weeds: Overall, plants are essential to human life and well-being,
1. Parthenium hysterophorus - It is commonly known as congress providing a wide range of benefits that contribute to our
grass or carrot grass and is a highly invasive weed that can cause physical, social, and cultural needs. Protecting and
respiratory problems and skin irritation in some people. conserving plant species and ecosystems is therefore
2. Eichhornia crassipes - It is commonly known as water hyacinth important for ensuring sustainable development and a
and is an invasive aquatic weed that can block waterways and reduce healthy planet,
biodiversity.
It is important to note that some plants may belong to multiple
categories, and their effects may vary depending on the individual
and the method of use.

Plants have been an integral part of human life since ancient times, serving not only as a source of oxygen and aesthetic beauty but also as a
significant food source. Humans have used plants for food in a variety of ways, ranging from raw consumption to culinary preparation.

Here are some examples of food uses of plants:

1. Fruits and Vegetables: Fruits and vegetables are the most common plant-based food sources consumed by humans. They are rich in essential
vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Fruits such as apples, bananas, and oranges are commonly eaten raw, while vegetables like carrots, broccoli, and
lettuce are often cooked or consumed raw in salads.
2. Grains: Grains such as wheat, rice, and corn are staple foods in many parts of the world. These plants provide a rich source of carbohydrates,
fiber, and essential nutrients.
3. Legumes: Legumes such as beans, peas, and lentils are a rich source of protein, fiber, and other essential nutrients. They are often used in
soups, stews, and salads.
4. Herbs and Spices: Herbs and spices are often used to add flavor to foods. Examples include basil, thyme, rosemary, cinnamon, and ginger.
5. Nuts and Seeds: Nuts and seeds such as almonds, walnuts, and sunflower seeds are a rich source of protein, healthy fats, and other essential
nutrients.
6. Edible Flowers: Edible flowers such as roses, violets, and nasturtiums are often used in salads, teas, and as garnishes.
In addition to these, many plants are also used to make beverages such as tea, coffee, and wine. Overall, the food uses of plants are numerous
and play a significant role in human health and well-being.

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 Plants have provided humans with a variety of resources for The indirect or non-consumptive uses of plants refer to the
thousands of years. Here are some of the main uses of plants
benefits that humans derive from plants that do not involve
as sources of wood, fiber, rubber, and beverages:
directly using them for food, medicine, or other purposes.
1. Wood: Wood from trees is one of the most important
These uses are often associated with ecosystem services,
natural resources used by humans. It is used to build homes,
which are the benefits that humans receive from the natural
furniture, tools, and paper. Some of the most commonly used
trees for wood include pine, oak, and maple.
environment.
2. Fiber: Plants are a rich source of fiber, which is used to Some examples of indirect or non-consumptive uses of plants
make textiles, paper, and rope. Cotton is one of the most include:
widely used plant fibers for textiles, while hemp and jute are 1. Oxygen production: Plants produce oxygen as a
commonly used for rope and paper. byproduct of photosynthesis, which is essential for human
3. Rubber: Rubber is a natural product that comes from the respiration and the functioning of many ecosystem.
sap of rubber trees. It is used to make a variety of products,
including tires, footwear, and gloves. Other plants, such as 2. Carbon sequestration: Plants absorb and store carbon
guayule and dandelion, are also used to produce natural dioxide from the atmosphere, helping to mitigate the impacts
rubber. of climate change.
4. Beverages: Plants have been used to make beverages for 3. Soil stabilization: Plant roots help to stabilize soil and
thousands of years. Tea and coffee are two of the most
prevent erosion, which is essential for maintaining healthy
widely consumed beverages in the world, and both are made
soil and preventing landslides and other natural disasters.
from plants. Other plants used to make beverages include
4. Water purification: Plants help to filter and purify water
cacao (for chocolate), hops (for beer), and grapes (for wine).
by absorbing nutrients and pollutants from the soil and
Overall, plants have provided humans with a wide range of
resources that have been essential to our development and
water.
survival. From building materials to food and beverages, plants 5. Habitat and biodiversity: Plants provide habitat and food
continue to play an important role in our daily lives. for a wide variety of animals, including insects, birds, and
mammals, which helps to maintain biodiversity and healthy
ecosystems.
Plant products like narcotics, dyes, and spices have been used by
Overall, the indirect or non-consumptive uses of plants are
humans for various purposes for centuries.
essential for human well-being and the functioning of
Narcotics are substances that are used to induce sleep or relieve pain, ecosystems. Protecting and conserving plant species and
and some are derived from plants. For example, opium is obtained from ecosystems is therefore important for ensuring sustainable
the opium poppy plant and is used to make drugs such as morphine and development and a healthy planet.
heroin. These substances are controlled substances and are illegal in
many countries due to their potential for addiction and abuse.
Dyes are substances that are used to color textiles, clothing, and other
materials. Many natural dyes are derived from plants, such as indigo,
which is obtained from the indigo plant and used to dye fabric blue.
Other plant-based dyes include saffron, madder, and henna.
Spices are plant products that are used to add flavor to food. Many
spices are derived from seeds, fruits, or roots of plants, such as black
pepper, cinnamon, and ginger. They have been used in cooking for
thousands of years and are also used in traditional medicine practices.
Overall, plant products like narcotics, dyes, and spices have had
significant impacts on human cultures and societies. While some have
been used responsibly and sustainably for centuries, others have been
associated with negative consequences such as addiction, exploitation,
and environmental degradation
-

just &
a
how empilation all

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2 .

of Biotech
Concepts
.

Biotechnology is the application of living organisms or their Tissue culture

parts to make technological advances and utilise those
technologies in various fields. The modern era of biotechnology Tissue culture is a biological research method that involves the
started with the discovery of the DNA structure as well as the growth of tissues or cells (plants or animals) in an artificial medium
development of genetic engineering techniques and the separate from the parent organism. In Plant Tissue Culture,
polymerase chain reaction. Biotechnology has many fragments of plant tissues are transferred to an artificial environment
applications, especially in medicine and agriculture including where they grow into a full plant, due to the property of totipotency
therapeutics, diagnostics, and genetically modified crops, etc. in plants.

In India, biotechnology is entering a new era of growth as it is • Plant Tissue culture has provided a way to propagate and
one of the key enablers for driving the bio-economy of the genetically improve commercially valuable plants.
country, which has grown to more than $137 billion in 2022 • It has been used to study characteristics of the growth,
from $35.5 billion in 2014. metabolism, reproduction, physiology, and nutritional
necessities of plants under controlled circumstances.
• Tissue culture has permitted significant biological discoveries,
Methods in Biotechnology including the identification of infections, enzyme deficiencies,
and chromosomal anomalies, as well as the classification of
The outstanding advances in biotechnology have been cancers and the development and testing of medications and
underpinned by the development and application of a range vaccines.
of biotechnological methods.

Genetic Engineering Bioinformatics

Genetic engineering is the process of altering an organism's Bioinformatics is a subfield of biology concerned with the
DNA using laboratory-based technologies. Recombinant acquisition, storage, analysis, and transmission of biological data.
DNA Technology and the Polymerase chain reaction are
• This interdisciplinary science harnesses mathematics,
common methods of gene cloning.
computer science, physics and biology to develop software
• Recombinant DNA Technology: The steps involved in tools and methods to understand large and complex biological
the RDT are as follows: data.
◦ Identification and isolation of genes of interest • High-throughput data-generating experiments, including
from a host organism: Restriction endonuclease genomic sequence determinations and measurements of gene
cuts the target sequence of these genes. expression patterns, are used in Bioinformatics.
◦ Insertion of the gene of interest into a vector: Again • The potential applications of these biological data are in drug
Restriction endonuclease is used to cut the discovery and development.
specific sequence in the vector (plasmids) that
matches with the sequence of the gene of interest.
◦ Gene cloning: The recombinant DNA (plasmid plus
foreign gene) is then transferred to a suitable host
which is kept to grow on a nutrient medium. The
host (bacteria) then expresses the gene, by
producing proteins.
• PCR: Unlike RDT, which is a cloning within a living cell,
PCR replicates DNA in vitro (outside the cell). It
amplifies DNA into millions to billions of copies in no
time.
◦ It involves using short DNA fragments (artificial)
called primers, to select a segment of the genome
to be amplified.
◦ Then, Taq polymerase enzyme is used to amplify
that segment in multiple cycles.
◦ PCR is used for the diagnosis of infectious
diseases.

RNA Interference (RNAi)

RNAi is a natural defence mechanism of plants and other

eukaryotic cells in which small pieces of RNA shut down
protein translation by binding with the messenger RNAs
that code for those proteins.

• RNAi is specifically designed to silence or deactivate

genes.
• Leveraging RNAi technology to silence genes has
become useful for investigating gene functions,
knocking down genes in diseases, and even
developing pest-resistant plants.

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Applications of Biotechnology Biotechnology in India
Biotechnology is applied in various fields at small as well as industrial The Indian biotechnology sector is one of the country's
scales for the betterment of humans. Some of these applications are: fastest-growing sectors and it is expected to play an important
role in shaping the country's rapidly developing economy.
• Medicinal Biotechnology (Red Biotechnology): Biotechnology is
applied in health care for diagnosis as well as treatment of diseases. • Bioeconomy: It is the economic activity driven by research
◦ Gene therapy: It is a method that employs genetics to treat, and innovation in biotechnology and life sciences, and
prevent, or cure an illness. It works by replacing a defective or enabled by technological advances in engineering as well
missing gene in a patient's cells with a healthier version. as in information sciences.
◦ CAR T cell therapy: CAR T cell therapy is a kind of cancer • Potential: India’s Bio-Economy is on its way to achieving
immunotherapy treatment in which immune cells called T cells the USD 150 bn target by 2025 and over 300 billion by
are genetically modified in a lab so they can more effectively 2030.
identify and eliminate cancer cells. ◦ India is one of the top 12 biotechnology destinations
◦ Genome sequencing: It refers to sequencing the entire genome in the world, and the third largest in Asia Pacific.
of an organism. Genomic sequencing is used for the diagnosis ◦ Biotechnology is the technology of tomorrow and
of diseases as well as identifying therapeutic targets of the can leverage the wealth of India’s bioresources, its
diseases. unique biodiversity, its 7,500 km-long coastline, and
For example, sequencing of the COVID-19 virus was vast agricultural residues.
extremely useful for the development of its vaccines. ◦ Biotechnology is a trending career option among
◦ Therapeutic proteins: Therapeutic proteins are medicines that youth, due to increased attention to tools like
are genetically engineered versions of naturally occurring Genome editing, Synthetic technology, Microbial
human proteins. These proteins are extensively used in the bioresources, enzyme and metabolic engineering,
treatment of cancer, HIV, and other diseases. etc.
Examples: Insulin (Humulin), Monoclonal antibodies etc. • Bio Startups: Because of the growing enabling ecosystem,
• Industrial biotechnology (White biotechnology): Biotechnological the number of biotech startups in the country has
processing makes use of enzymes and microorganisms to create increased from 50 to over 6,756 in the last ten years.
products that are useful in a variety of industries, to produce ◦ The government aims to increase the number of
chemicals, materials and fuels. biotech startups to 10,000+ by 2025.
◦ The food and beverage industry uses S. cerevisiae (yeast). • Subsectors of Biotechnology in India: According to the
◦ Microbial enzymes are used in washing detergents, food revised India BioEconomy Report 2023, India’s
processing, cosmetics etc. bioeconomy sector stands at $137 billion, contributing 4%
• Energy: In the energy industry, biofuels sourced from plant materials to the national GDP and employing over 2 million people.
such as corn stalks and grass are developed as renewable fuel
alternatives to reduce the carbon footprints of fossil fuel production.
◦ For example: The two most common types of biofuels in use
today are bioethanol and biodiesel.
• Agricultural Biotechnology (Green biotechnology): Biotechnology
gives farmers tools to make production more cost-effective and
manageable.
◦ For example, genetically modified (GM) crops like BT Cotton
have increased the productivity of crops.
• Environmental biotechnology: It uses biological processes to address
environmental issues, including pollution control and renewable
energy generation.
◦ Applications include genetic engineering, bioremediation,
biopesticides, biosensors, and biofuel development, which aim
to protect and restore the natural environment.
• Animal biotechnology: Biotechnology has helped to create many
beneficial genetically modified animals.
◦ The first transgenic animal was the Dolly sheep.

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 - It includes products/ chemicals produced using
recombinant DNA technology, such as industrial Institutional Facilities for Biotechnology in India
chemicals (industrial enzymes, acids, industrial
biotechnology, etc.), biofuels, biogas, bio-based • National Biotechnology Board (NBTB): In 1982, a
plastics, etc. National Biotechnology Board (NBTB) was constituted by
Bio- the Government to strengthen indigenous capabilities in
Industrials - The enzymes have applications in the alcoholic this newly emerging discipline.
beverages sector, baking, dairy, starch industry, • Department of Biotechnology (DBT): In 1986, DBT was
washing detergent, as well as feed enzymes for set up which acts as a nodal agency supporting research
shrimp, poultry, and laundry. and its applications in the Life Sciences and promotes &
accelerates the pace of development and large-scale
- It is a relatively new and emerging subsector. use of biotechnology in the country.
◦ DBT also supports Research and Development
- Market size: $58.97 bn innovations and manufacturing in advanced Biofuels
as well as ‘Waste to Energy’ technologies.
- Percentage share of total bioeconomy: 43%
• National Centre for Microbial Resource (NCMR): NCMR
- It includes medical products and services such as was established to conserve India's vast microbial
pharmaceuticals, devices, lab-grown organoids, diversity and explore its biotechnological potential for
diagnostic reagents and tests. industrial and health applications.
• Indian Biological Data Centre: The IBDC is India's first
Biopharma National repository for life science data, established at
or - Key areas: Cancer immunotherapy, Gene editing,
Regenerative medicine, Precision medicine, the Regional Centre of Biotechnology (RCB), an
Biomedical autonomous institute of DBT.
Biologics, Biosimilars, etc.
◦ IBDC adheres to the spirit of data sharing based on
- India is one of the world's largest suppliers of low- the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and
cost medications and vaccines. Reusable) principles.
Government Initiatives for Biotechnology in India
- Market size: $49.79 bn
The Indian Government’s increased focus on the country’s
- Percentage share: 36% biotechnology industry over the past decade. Some of the
initiatives taken by the Government to further promote the
- It includes the production of GM crops and animals,
sector are as follows:
precision agriculture technologies and bio-based
products. • National Biopharma Mission: It is a collaborative mission
Bio- between industry and academia to accelerate
agriculture - Focus areas: Biopesticides, biostimulants,
biopharmaceutical development in the country.
biofertilizers, and BT cotton.
◦ Innovate in India (i3) programme: The government
- India is one of the world's leading producers of BT- launched the Innovate in India (i3) programme as
Cotton and has the fifth-largest area of organic part of this Mission to create an enabling ecosystem
agriculture land. to foster entrepreneurship and indigenous
manufacturing in the sector.
- Market size: $11.47 bn ◦ The mission will be implemented by the
Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance
- Percentage share: 8% Council (BIRAC).
• Biotech KISAN: DBT launched a Biotech Krishi Innovation
- It includes Clinical research and trials, Contract Science Application Network (Biotech KISAN) in 2017.
Bio Research research, Drug discovery services, Biotechnology- ◦ Its goal is to bring science laboratories and farmers
and BioIT related software and databases, equipment and together to develop and apply innovative solutions
(BioServices) devices, Bioscience and technologies at the farm level.
• Atal Jai Anusandhan Biotech Mission: It was
patent lawyers and services, etc.
implemented by DBT and the purpose of this mission is
- Market size: $9.28 bn to address the challenges of maternal and child health,
antimicrobial resistance, vaccines for infectious disease,
- Percentage share: 7% food and nutrition, and clean technologies.
• One Health Consortium: In 2021, DBT established a 'One
- it includes COVID-19 vaccines, testing, and related Health' consortium to survey important bacterial, viral,
services. and parasitic infections of zoonotic and transboundary
Covid pathogens in the country.
Economy - Market size: $7.66 bn • Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council
(BIRAC): It was established by DBT and is aimed at
- Percentage share: 6% strengthening and empowering emerging biotechnology
enterprises to undertake strategic research and
innovation.
•

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Biotech Parks: The DBT establishes biotechnology parks and incubators
across the country to help translate research into products and services
by providing the necessary infrastructure support.
These biotechnology parks offer facilities to scientists, and SMEs
for technology incubation, technology demonstration, and pilot plant
studies to accelerate the commercial development of biotechnology.
• Startup Landscape: For the first time, the biotech sector in India
registered more than 1,000 new start-ups in a single calendar year in
FY22. BIRAC funding has helped more than 1,000 startups.

Challenges associated with Biotechnology

Despite the boom in the biotech industry, there are some grave
challenges faced by this domain.
• Ownership and equitable access: The ownership of biomaterials is
fundamental to many new technologies. However, the patent system, which
protects ownership rights in new biotechnologies, can also prevent many
people from benefiting, particularly in developing countries.
• Ethical concerns: Biotechnology can produce unanticipated
consequences that cause harm or dehumanise people.
For example, complementary DNA (cDNA) is a genetically designed
entity that can be patented. Obtaining such DNA and altered DNA
sequences that can be sold for profit raises numerous ethical concerns
about human life.
• Field of uncertainty: Emerging applications of biotechnology such
as new genomic techniques may give rise to new uncertainties and
uncertain risks.
Even in the early days of recombinant DNA technology, it was
acknowledged that there were inherent hazards in comprehending
biological mechanisms, because increased understanding may be utilised to
inflict harm.
• Security threats: Recent breakthroughs in synthetic biology, a
technology that may be used in laboratories to artificially produce
organisms, have raised concerns about the possibility of biological weapons
development.
• Impact on Environment: Concerns about potential negative
environmental and ecosystem function results of agricultural biotechnology
include pesticide use modifications, effects on non-target species,
development of pest and virus-resistant crops and impact on wild species
as well as pollinators.

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Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of an
organism's genome using advanced DNA technology. It involves Methods Used in Genetic Engineering
the introduction, deletion or modification of genes within an
organism's DNA to produce desirable traits. Genetic engineering There are different ways to artificially modify the traits and genomes
has revolutionised fields like agriculture, medicine and of organisms by adding, deleting or editing genes. Some of the
biotechnology enabling innovations like disease-resistant crops, most commonly used methods of genetic engineering are:
synthetic insulin production and gene therapy.

The field of genetic engineering has been propelled by

advancements in gene editing technologies such as CRISPR- • Recombinant DNA Technology: This method involves taking a
Cas9, in recent years. Gene editing technologies have gene, putting it into a vector like a virus or plasmid, and adding
revolutionized the ability to manipulate genes, allowing scientists it to the DNA of a target organism. This allows the transfer of
to precisely modify and control genetic material. desired genes between different species.
◦ For example, genes coding for drought tolerance from
resilient plant species can be transferred to susceptible
Objectives and Approaches of Genetic crop varieties to make them more drought-resistant.
Engineering ◦ Steps in recombinant DNA production:
Isolation of genetic material.
Genetic manipulation aims to achieve the following key Cutting of DNA at specific locations.
objectives: Joining of DNA fragments by ligation and
homopolymer tailing.
• Creating New Genes: Novel gene sequences for a Insertion of DNA into the host cell.
particular product (protein) may be synthesised and Selection and screening of transformed cells.
introduced into target organism genomes. • Gene editing: It is the precise modification of the genetic code
◦ Recombinant DNA technology is primarily used for to cure genetic diseases or provide advantageous
this objective. characteristics.
• Silencing Target Genes: The expression of specific ◦ CRISPR/Cas9 technology is a gene editing tool that allows
genes can be selectively silenced without altering DNA for the precise removal and addition of genes in an
itself, effectively abolishing their action (without organism's DNA.
knocking out the gene). For example, the gene causing sickle cell anaemia
◦ RNA interference and other Gene knockdown can be edited to rectify the mutation and restore
methods are used for this objective. normal haemoglobin function.
• Removing one or more specific genes: The expression ◦ Gene knockout is the deactivation or deletion of specific
of a gene can be removed completely by the use of genes by cutting DNA at targeted regions to research
genetic engineering. It is mainly used for studying and gene function.
modelling different types of diseases and their • Gene Silencing/ Gene Knockdown: This method involves
metabolic pathways. turning off specific genes using RNA interference, short
◦ Recombinant DNA technology and its most recent complementary nucleotide sequences like siRNA, miRNA and
innovations like CRISPR/Cas 9 technology is antisense RNA without editing the actual DNA code.
preferably used for this purpose. ◦ This is used to study the function of unknown genes and
• Editing Gene Function: Gene editing allows the precise develop treatments for diseases.
modification of a particular gene and thereby its ◦ For example, silencing genes that enable virus replication
expression to control subsequent biochemical in host plants can generate virus-resistant plant varieties.
processes. It is used for studying gene and gene • Protoplast fusion: This method involves fusing cell wall-free
therapy. plant protoplasts using chemical or electrical means.
◦ Nowadays, CRISPR/Cas 9 technology is used for ◦ The hybrid cell lines with mixed genomes are then
the gene editing objective. regenerated, which can introduce disease or stress
resistance, improve quality parameters in horticultural
species and are also used in synthetic seed production.
◦ Protoplast fusion has been used to produce fungus-
resistant potatoes, high-quality seedless grapes etc.

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Applications of Genetic Engineering Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering has thus resulted in different kinds of
Genetic engineering has the potential to address genetic
vaccines, antibodies and vitamins, drugs and hormones which are
disorders and climate change. However, ethical concerns
easily available in the market and are involved in the treatment of
arise from its unintended consequences and malicious use.
many diseases.
Some of these ethical considerations include:-
Therapeutics or Medicinal Applications of Genetic • Ethical dilemmas and social implications: The progress
Engineering of genetic engineering has led to ethical dilemmas that
require us to balance the desire for scientific
• Cancer therapeutics: New immunotherapy can be developed advancement with concerns about equity, consent,
using genetic editing that can treat cancer. Modification of T- and long-term consequences.
cells using CRISPR can locate and kill cancer cells. ◦ There is a debate about whether it is ethical to
• Drug research: Genetic makeup can potentially speed up the modify the human germline, create genetically
drug discovery process. Some of the drug makers are already modified organisms (GMOs), and the potential for
incorporating CRISPR technology in the drug research and genetic discrimination.
discovery phase. • Germline interventions: Genetic engineering can alter
• Gene therapy: Some genetic disorders caused by single-gene the genome of every cell in a person's body,
defects, such as cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, potentially impacting subsequent generations without
haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia and AIDS can be treated by their consent. This cross-generational impact raises
gene therapy approach. ethical issues and technical limitations.
• Synthesising hormones and enzymes: Through recombinant • For example, unintended mutations can occur,
DNA techniques, bacteria have been created that are capable resulting in permanent off-target edits and mosaicism.
of synthesising human insulin, human growth hormone, alpha • Moreover, there is a risk of creating "designer babies"
interferon, a hepatitis B vaccine, and other medically useful engineered for enhancement rather than therapy,
substances. which raises concerns about ethical boundaries.
• Plants breed improvement: Plants may be genetically adjusted • Ownership and access: There is a need to balance
to enable them to fix nitrogen and correct genetic diseases by innovation incentives and access when it comes to
replacing dysfunctional genes with the use of genetic genetically engineered organisms, genes, or cell lines.
technology. ◦ This requires appropriate licensing scopes and
regulatory structures that balance rapid,
widespread access with the ethics of informed
Industrial Application of Genetic Engineering consent for genetic testing and editing
interventions.
• Protein synthesis: Itincludes transforming microorganisms ◦ Privacy: Preventing discrimination based on
such as bacteria or yeast, or insect mammalian cells with a individuals' genomic data is crucial.
gene coding for a useful protein. • Ecological impacts:
◦ Mass quantities of the protein can be produced by ◦ Gene Flow is the transfer of genetically
growing the transformed organism in bioreactors using engineered genes between plant species through
fermentation. cross-pollination or horizontal gene transfer to
• Recombinant enzymes: Enzymes are involved in the soil microorganisms.
fermentation and digestion of foods. If herbicide resistance genes from GM crops
◦ This has led to the concept of the production of move to weed species, it can negatively
recombinant enzymes from genetically modified impact crop productivity and ecosystem
microbes such as chymosin and lipase for cheese balance.
production, and alpha-amylase for flavour enhancement ◦ Gene Drives can spread engineered genes
in the beer industry. quickly in wild populations. But using them to
Agriculture Applications eradicate invasive species is risky. Unanticipated
effects could permanently modify ecosystems.
• Transgenic Plants / Animals are designed as a result of Eliminating a keystone species could lead to
alteration of the genetic makeup of the organism to develop dependent organisms dying out and
desirable traits such as high yield variety, suppressing permanent biodiversity loss.
particular vulnerabilities or disease etc. ◦ Impact on wild variety: Uniform, high-yield crop
• Crop traits improvement: Genetic engineering is used in varieties can reduce genetic diversity in wild
agriculture to create genetically modified crops (GM crops) ancestral varieties via uncontrolled hybridization.
such as BT-cotton, which is resistant to pest attack. Loss of diversity weakens crop resilience.
In India, GM cotton hybrids left wild varieties
vulnerable. Conserving wild germplasm is
crucial for future crop enhancement.

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 ▪

Stem Cell lassification based on Stem cells ability to develop into

different specialized cells
Stem cells are the body's raw materials — cells from
which all other cells with specialized functions are There are 3 types under this classification
generated.
1. Totipotent stem cells
Under certain conditions in the body or a laboratory, stem
cells divide to form more cells called daughter cells.
◦ These daughter cells either become new stem cells These Stem Cells can transform into all kinds of cells
(self-renewal) or become specialized cells in the human body.
(differentiation) with a more specific function, such as
blood cells, brain cells, heart muscle cells or bone
1. Pluripotent stem cells
cells.
◦ No other cell in the body has the natural ability to
generate new cell types. These Stem Cells can transform themselves into any
type of cell in the human body except those kinds that
What is stem cell therapy?
are required to support and develop a fetus in the
◦ Stem cell therapy, also known as regenerative womb. ESC’s and iPSC’s are pluripotent stem cells.
medicine, promotes the repair response of diseased,
dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or
their derivatives. 1. Multipotent stem cells
◦ Stem cells can then be implanted into a person. For
example Mumbai baby boy was injected with 40 These can give rise to only a few distinct types of cells.
million stem cells and gradually the lungs began to
repair. In this case, doctors used mesenchymal stem-
cell therapy (these are adult stem cells and are Use of stem cells in the Medical field
different from Embryonic stem cells) on an The only stem cells currently used to treat disease
experimental basis are hematopoietic stem cells. These are blood cells
forming adult stem cells found in the bone marrow.
Classification based on Stem Cells formation at different times of
human lives Researchers believe that stem cells would be able to
treat a multitude of ailments like
There are 3 types under this classification
1 Heart disease
• Embryonic stem cells
2 Type 1 diabetes
These are the Stem cells that exist only during the earliest stage of
development. 3 Spinal cord injury
• Adult stem cells 4 Alzheimer’s disease
1 These are the cells that can multiply when there is a need to repair 5 Rheumatoid Arthritis
adult organs and tissues.
1. These cells are present in almost all organs of the human body.
2. They are multipotent i.e. they can give rise to a limited number of mature
cell types, usually corresponding to the tissues in which they reside. A Stem Cell Therapy in India
most well-known example is the blood-forming (hematopoietic) stem
cells from bone marrow that give rise to different blood cells in our body. There is no law to regulate the use of stem cells in India.
3. Some tissue-specific stem cells can only give rise to one or two mature The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has issued
cell types and are called unipotent and bipotent, respectively. Stem cells
found in the skin produce new skin cells and are an example of unipotent
guidelines that recognize stem cell therapies only for certain
stem cells. treatments and observes that other types of treatments are
• Induced pluripotent stem cells or iPSC’s unproven and should not be offered as therapy.
The Health Ministry had sought to change the rules by
1 These cells are not found in the body but made in the laboratory from
cells of the body.
amending the law.
2 The iPSC cells have properties similar to those of embryonic stem cells.
3 Human iPSC’s were generated in 2007.

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Role of Biotechnology in Agriculture Bio-Fertilizers and Their Use in Agriculture
The role of biotechnology in agriculture is multifaceted. • For a sustainable agriculture system, it is essential to
Some of the most prevalent benefits of biotechnology in use renewable inputs (fertilizer, pesticides, water etc.) which
agriculture include – can benefit the plant and cause no or minimal damage to the
1 Increase in Crop Production environment.
With better disease control and increased tolerance to • One of the energy efficient and pollution free method is
drought and flooding, biotechnology leads to a to exploit the ability of certain microorganisms like bacteria,
significant increase in crop production. This does not algae and fungi to fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubilize
just match the ever-growing demand for food but also phosphorus, decompose organic material or oxidize
helps farmers to lower losses. sulphur in the soil.
• When they are applied in the soil, they enhance growth
2 Better Crop Protection and yield of crops, improve soil fertility and reduce
The techniques of biotechnology serve as cost-effective pollution. They are known as “bio fertilizers”.
solutions to problems about pests. Farmers have been • Thus bio-fertilizers are living or biologically active
able to transform crops like cotton, corn, and potato to products or microbial inoculants of bacteria, algae and fungi
synthesize a protein that tackles issues of pests (separately or in combination) which are able to enrich the
effectively. soil with nitrogen, phosphorus, organic matter etc.
3 Increase in Nutrition Value • Following are some of the important types of bio
It has also enabled farmers to produce crops with a fertilizers which can be considered for agro based industries.
higher nutritional value and enhanced flavour and Rhizobium biofertilizer
texture. For instance, the technology has made it possible • Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacterium forming root
to cultivate soybeans with high protein content, beans nodules in legume plants.
with more amino acids, and potatoes with starch. • These nodules act as miniature nitrogen production
4 Fresher Produce and Better Taste factories in the fields.
It further helps to improve the taste and flavor of crops • The nodule bacteria fix more nitrogen (N2) than
by enhancing the activity of enzymes present in plants. needed by legume plant and the bacteria.
Also, it helps in keeping the yield fresh for longer. • The surplus fixed nitrogen is then secreted and
fertilizes the soil.
5 Chemical Tolerance • Rhizobium is more efficient than-free living nitrogen-
Most farmers rely on herbicides to control the growth of fixing bacteria.
weeds which often leads to soil erosion. However, Azotobacter biofertilizer
genetically engineered food is resistant to a variety of
chemicals, including herbicides; as a result, the scale of • Azotobacter are aerobic free living nitrogen fixers.
soil erosion is significantly low. • They grow in the rhizosphere (around the roots) and fix
atmospheric nitrogen non-symbiotically and make it
6 Disease Resistance available to the particular cereals.
Viral infections spread by insects are often difficult to • These bacteria produce growth promoting
contain, and also the use of insecticides tends to pose a hormones which helps in enhancing growth and yield of the
threat to both soil and the quality of produce. plant.
Nonetheless, genetically modified plants are less Azospirillium biofertilizer
susceptible to viral infection and make it easier for
farmers to contain crop damage. • These are aerobic free living nitrogen fixers which live
Though there is an array of benefits in applying in associative symbiosis.
biotechnology in agriculture, it is not entirely devoid of • In this type of association bacteria live on the root
flaws. To elaborate, there are some fears about health, surface of the host plant and do not form any nodule with
societal and environmental issues. roots of grasses.
For example, resistance to antibiotics, resistance to • It increases crop yield and its inoculation benefits crop.
insecticide, growth of superweed, and loss of • They also benefit the host plants by supplying growth
biodiversity are among the many fears that relate to the hormones and vitamins.
application of biotechnology in agriculture. However, • These bacteria are commonly used for the preparation
one can hope that with the advancement of technology, of commercial inoculants (vaccines, culture medium).
scientists will find practical solutions to tackle the fears Blue green algae
and associated risks effectively.
• Blue green algae (BGA or cyanobacteria)
like Nostoc and Anabaena are free living photosynthetic
organisms also capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
• In the flooded rice fields blue green algae serves as a
nitrogen biofertilizer.

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Azolla biofertilizers Bio char

• Azolla is a water fern inside which grows the • Bio char is found in soils around the world as a result of
vegetation fires and historic soil management practices.
nitrogen fixing blue green algae Anabaena.
• Intensive study of bio char-rich dark earths in the Amazon
• It contains 2-3% nitrogen when wet and also (terra preta), has led to a wider appreciation of bio char’s
produces organic matter in the soil. unique properties as a soil enhancer.
• The Azolla-Anabaena combination type • Bio char is charcoal that is used as soil amendment (minor
biofertilizer is used all over the world. improvement).
• The only constraint in Azolla is that it is an aquatic • It is created using a pyrolysis process (decomposition brought
plant and water becomes limiting factor in growing it about by high temperatures), heating biomass in a low oxygen
particularly in summer. environment.
Phosphorus solubilizing biofertilizer • Once the pyrolysis reaction has begun, it is self-sustaining,
requiring no outside energy input.
• Phosphorus is an important element required for • By-products of the process include syngas (H2 + CO), minor
plant growth. quantities of methane (CH4), organic acids and excess heat.
• Once it is produced, bio char is spread on agricultural fields
• This element is also needed for nodulation by
and incorporated into the top layer of soil.
rhizobium. • The syngas and excess heat can be used directly or employed
• Some microorganisms are capable of solubilizing to produce a variety of biofuels.
immobilized phosphorus making it available to plants Agricultural Benefits of Bio char
for absorption.
Mycorrhizal fungi biofertilizer • It increases crop yields, sometimes substantially if the soil is
in poor condition.
• Mycorrhizal fungi acts as biofertilizer and are • It helps to prevent fertilizer runoff and leeching, allowing the
known to occur naturally on roots of forest trees and use of less fertilizers.
crop plants. • It retains moisture, helping plants through periods of drought
more easily.
• Mycorrhizal fungi resist disease in plants. The
• Most importantly, it replenishes exhausted or marginal soils
plants also show drought and salinity resistance. Plants with organic carbon
can tolerate adverse soil, pH, high temperature and • It fosters the growth of soil microbes essential for nutrient
heavy metal toxicity. absorption, particularly mycorrhizal fungi.
• In soils low in available nutrients there is an • Bio char can increase soil fertility of acidic soils. (The most
increased absorption of nutrients by plants infected with fertile soils are slightly acidic)
Mycorrhiza. • Bio-char reduces the acidity of the soil, protects the plants
• The fungus has the ability to dissolve and absorb from diseases, promotes growth of friendly microorganisms,
phosphorus that plant roots cannot readily absorb. and reduces the loss of micro nutrients apart from increasing
water retain-ability.
Compost Tea Kollam, Kerala, is famous for fishing and fishery-related activities;
as an agricultural sector, it does not evoke any enthusiasm. Why?
• Compost Tea is a liquid fertilizer for flowers,
• With the prevailing soil and climatic conditions which
vegetables and houseplants. favours leaching and draining of soil nutrients into the Arabian
• Compost tea is an aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) sea and Ashtamudi Lake, the soil has high acidity making it
water solution that has extracted the microbe population unfit for cultivation of any kind (friendly microorganisms
from compost (dead and decaying matter) along with the don’t like acidic medium. They like slightly alkaline or basic
nutrients. medium).
• In simple terms, it is a concentrated liquid created by • Bio char can make a difference to the agriculture of the
a process to increase the numbers of beneficial region.
organisms as an organic approach to plant/soil care. Other Environmental Benefits
• Air is sent through the water to keep the water • Most carbon in the soil is lost as greenhouse gas (carbon
oxygenated, as this favours the beneficial bacteria and dioxide, CO2) into the atmosphere if natural ecosystems are
fungi over the pathogens. converted to agricultural land.
• At the end of the brewing cycle, what you have is a • Soils contain 3.3 times more carbon than the atmosphere.
concentrated liquid full of billions of • This makes soils an important source of greenhouse gases but
microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes) that also a potential sink if right management is applied.
can then be sprayed directly onto the leaf surface. • The use of crop residues for bio-energy production reduces
the carbon stocks in cropland.
• The liquid fertilizer occupies the infection sites on
• Further the dedication of cropland to bio-fuel production
the leaf surface and is held there by simple sugars that the increases the area of cultivated land and thus carbon loss from
plant puts out that work as a glue to keep the beneficial soils and vegetation.
microorganisms thriving and protecting the plant. • Bio char remains stable for millennia, providing a simple
means to sequester carbon emissions.
• If bio char is returned to agricultural land it can increase the
soil’s carbon content permanently and would establish a carbon
sink for atmospheric CO2.
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 Bio Pesticides .

Biopesticides are biologically based agents used for the

control of plant pests. They can be living organisms
(nematodes or micro-organisms) or naturally occurring
③ plant
↓
Incorporated protections
substances, such as plant extracts or insect pheromones.
pesticidal substances plants produce
Biopesticides are usually inherently less toxic than material that has been
conventional pesticides. from genetic
. added so the plant
-

TargetsSpecific post Cotton

effective in small quantities
.
Eg :
-Bi
-
.

killer
-

Bolwaun
-

decompose quickly
.

Types
.

Biochemical Pesticides
.
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g mechanisms.
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Interfer
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.

L various sented plant extracts to

hap
insects .

Bacillus
En' Neem , Citronella oil ,
towin
.

Thuringiensis
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Consist of
They
Micro
organism
Virus ete
(bacteria , Jungus,
as Active
an ingredient
bassiana
Beauveria
.

Eg' posts
that kills
Ljungicide
through parantic reproduction
Nosema locustar

jungus parasites
that

grass hopes
.

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 Bio-fuels .

Biofuel is a type of fuel that is generated naturally • Bio CNG: Bio CNG is a purified form of
or artificially from the biomass of plant or algae biogas, processed to produce 95% pure methane
material, and animal wastes. It is considered a gas, similar to commercially available natural gas.
renewable energy source because the feedstock ◦ The process residue is a high-quality
material can be replenished easily. They can be in concentrated liquid fertilizer, and CO2 is
solid, liquid, and gaseous forms but the liquid measured and packed for food-grade CO2.
biofuels have the most potential to replace ◦ Bio-CNG is profitable due to multiple
conventional transportation fuels. revenue streams for organic liquid and solid
fertilizers.
With rising crude oil prices, biofuels are seen as a
◦ It has a similar calorific value to Compressed
sustainable alternative to be used mainly as a
Natural Gas (CNG) and involves commercial
blending with petroleum-based fossil fuels. India
refining to increase methane content. The raw
also has set targets of 20% ethanol blending in
material is segregated biodegradable waste.
petrol and 5% biodiesel blending in diesel by
• Biobutanol: Biobutanol refers to butanol
2030 under the National Policy on Biofuels 2018.
produced from the fermentation of biomass
feedstocks such as starch.
Types ◦ It is unmixable in water and has a higher
energy content, It can be added to diesel to reduce
• Biodiesel: Biodiesel is a liquid fuel produced from emissions.
vegetable oils and animal fats through transesterification. ◦ The energy content in butanol is the highest
◦ It is used as a replacement or as a blending with among the other gasoline alternatives.
petroleum-based diesel in various combinations such as • Biojet fuel: Bio-jet fuel is aviation biofuel
B5, B20, B100, etc. derived from biomass through various conversion
◦ B20 (commonly used due to cost-effectiveness, low processes such as Fischer-Tropsch synthesis or
emissions and compatibility with conventional engines) is synthesized paraffinic kerosene (SPK)
a blend containing 20% biodiesel and 80% petroleum hydrotreating to yield a similar composition as
diesel. conventional jet fuel.
◦ B100 (less commonly used) is a pure biodiesel. ◦ Benefits include reduced particulate
• Bioethanol: Bioethanol is ethyl alcohol (Ethanol) emissions, carbon footprint and contrail formation
generated through microbial fermentation of plant with drop-in capability for existing aircraft fleets.
materials like corn, sugarcane or agricultural residues ◦ However, availability constraints have
using Saccharomyces cerevisiae. restricted adoption to minor demonstration flights
◦ It is mainly used as a blending agent with petrol to as of now.
increase octane and cut down carbon monoxide and other
harmful emissions. Renewable Diesel: Previously known as green
◦ E10 (10% ethanol mix) is the most commonly used diesel, chemically resembles petroleum diesel
blend, but other variations such as E-20 (blending target in but is made from biomass feedstocks.
India) are also used. ◦ It is produced by hydrotreating
◦ E100 is pure ethanol and many countries including vegetable oils and waste oils in the
India are working on projects to use it as a replacement for presence of catalysts and hydrogen under
petrol. high temperatures and pressure (similar to
◦ Flexible fuel vehicles can run on up to 85% ethanol grease oil).
blends (E85). ◦ This improves combustion efficiency
• Biogas: Biogas is a renewable fuel produced by compared to biodiesel while avoiding NOx
anaerobic digestion of organic matter, such as food or emissions.
animal waste, in an oxygen-free environment, either ◦ It has superior storage stability and
naturally occurring or intentionally created for industrial cold temperature operability than biodiesel
use. and can directly replace diesel without
◦ It mainly consists of methane, with trace amounts of engine modifications.
CO2 and H2S, etc.
◦ It is used for heating, power generation and vehicle
fuelpurposes providing an alternative to natural gas.
◦ Upgraded biogas can also displace transportation and
pipeline-quality natural gas.

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 • Biochar: It is the spectrum of black
carbon, produced by thecontrolled process -
pyrolysis of organic materials from forests
Advantages
-

and agricultural wastes. ① Energy security

◦ It resembles normal wood charcoal. $4 billion per year
burcain .
t
◦ The main objective for the production
of biochar is its use in carbon sequestration.
import
◦ It is speculated to have been used as a
② Rural
soil supplement in the Amazon basin Economy
gri resudves utilised
thousands of years ago, where the regions of
fertile soil known as "Terra Preta'" (dark ↑ Income of farmers
.
earth), were created by the indigenous
people. ③ Erro gains+ CO2 , ↓ pollution
L
• Bio-methanol: Bio-methanol or
renewable methanol is chemically identical L ↓ PM2 .
5 Sulphat
a 10 ↓

to conventional methanol but produced from Bio Char CarbonSequestration

syngas obtained from the gasification of

Compatability factor
renewable feedstocks like crop residues or
wood waste. Still in the demonstration phase ② Current
globally. - can
combined with
be
-

Other conceptual biofuel variants like bio- bied a used incuiting

dimethyl ether, bio-synthetic natural gas, and petrol ↑
a

biohydrogen may gain prominence in future. engines

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Disadvantages
-

debate Initiatives in Indie

① Food (Vs) fuel
② suboptimal Crop
residue Management . (2018)
Biofuels
↓
unsustainable removal of
resudve ① National policy on
↓

sent in crosion ,
water ↓
burdain 2022)
may
rentention ↓.
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Import Emmended)
gen .
biofuels
and
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Roundtable on
Sustainable Biomaterials
-

suskunataty
clification system forstandards .

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 ▪

TISSUE CULTURE
Tissue culture is a research tool that involves growing cells
or tissues in an artificial environment. It’s also called Challenges
micropropagation. Increasing power costs
Low efficiency levels of the skilled workforce in
the laboratories
Animal tissue culture
Contamination issues in the laboratories
This technique involves maintaining and growing isolated
cells, tissues, or organs in an artificial environment. It’s Cost of transportation of micro-propagated
used in biomedical research to study the causes of disease. planting material
Lack of harmonization in the HS code of Indian
planting material with other nations
Plant tissue culture
Objections raised by the forest and quarantine
This technique involves growing plant cells, tissues, or departments
organs in a sterile environment. It’s used to produce clones
of a plant. Under the right conditions, a single cell can be
used to regenerate an entire plant

lab" set
up
in Asola Bhatti Wildlife Scanctuary
.

To study the respiration and metabolism of

plants.
For the evaluation of organ functions in plants.
To study the various plant diseases and work out
methods-for their elimination.

i
Single cell clones are useful for genetic,
morphological and pathological studies.
Embryonic cell suspensions can be used for large
scale clonal propagation.
Somatic embryos from cell suspensions can be
stored for long term in germplasm banks.
In the production of variant clones with new
characteristics, a phenomenon referred to as
somaclonal variations.
Production of haploids (with a single set of
chromosomes) for improving crops.
Mutant cells can be selected from cultures and '
used for crop improvement.
Immature embryos can be cultured in vitro to
produce hybrids, a process referred to as embryo
rescue.
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CLONING
Issues
Cloning is a technique scientists use to make exact genetic
copies of living things. Genes, cells, tissues, and even •Many researchers think it is worthwhile to explore the
whole animals can all be cloned. use of embryonic stem cells as a path for treating human
diseases. However, some experts are concerned about the
Types: striking similarities between stem cells and cancer cells.
1. Therapeutic: In therapeutic cloning, the aim is to clone Both cell types have the ability to proliferate indefinitely
and some studies show that after 60 cycles of cell
cells that make particular organs or types of tissue
division, stem cells can accumulate mutations that could
2.Reproductive: In this we actually reproduce not organ but lead to cancer. Therefore, the relationship between stem
entire being(donor) from where we got genetic information cells and cancer cells needs to be more clearly
understood if stem cells are to be used to treat human
disease.
Methods: •Researchers have observed some adverse health effects
in sheep and other mammals that have been cloned.
1. Natural:This happens naturally when one embryo These include an increase in birth size and a variety of
spontaneously divides into two or more embryos, thus defects in vital organs, such as the liver, brain and heart.
creating identical twins or, sometimes, triplets or even more •Another potential problem centers on the relative age of
2.Artifical:An existing embryo is mechanically divided into the cloned cell’s chromosomes. As cells go through their
two or more embryos that are then allowed to develop normal rounds of division, the tips of the chromosomes,
naturally called telomeres, shrink. Over time, the telomeres
become so short that the cell can no longer divide and,
3.Artifical and Donor: Through use of somatic cell of consequently, the cell dies. This is part of the natural
Donor. aging process that seems to happen in all cell types. As a
Somatic cells are all the cells that make up an organism, but consequence, clones created from a cell taken from an
that are not sperm or egg cells. Sperm and egg cells contain adult might have chromosomes that are already shorter
than normal, which may condemn the clones’ cells to a
only one set of chromosomes, and when they join during
shorter life span. Indeed, Dolly, who was cloned from the
fertilization, the mother’s chromosomes merge with the
cell of a 6-year-old sheep, had chromosomes that were
father’s. Somatic cells, on the other hand, already contain shorter than those of other sheep her age. Dolly died
two full sets of chromosomes. To make a clone, scientists when she was six years old, about half the average
transfer the DNA from an animal’s somatic cell into an egg sheep’s 12-year lifespan.
cell that has had its nucleus and DNA removed. The egg •Reproductive cloning would present the potential of
develops into an embryo that contains the same genes as creating a human that is genetically identical to another
the cell donor. Then the embryo is implanted into an adult person who has previously existed or who still exists.
female’s uterus to grow. This may conflict with long-standing religious and
Significance societal values about human dignity, possibly infringing
upon principles of individual freedom, identity and
• An embryo made by cloning can be turned into a autonomy. However, some argue that reproductive
stem cell factory. Stem cells are an early form of cells cloning could help sterile couples fulfill their dream of
that can grow into many different types of cells and parenthood. Others see human cloning as a way to avoid
tissues. Scientists can turn them into nerve cells to fix a passing on a deleterious gene that runs in the family
damaged spinal cord or insulin-making cells to treat without having to undergo embryo screening or embryo
diabetes. selection.
• The cloning of animals has been used in a number •Therapeutic cloning, while offering the potential for
of different applications. Animals have been cloned to treating humans suffering from disease or injury, would
have gene mutations that help scientists study diseases require the destruction of human embryos in the test tube.
that develop in the animals. Consequently, opponents argue that using this technique
• Livestock like cows and pigs have been cloned to to collect embryonic stem cells is wrong, regardless of
produce more milk or meat.Example India is doing this whether such cells are used to benefit sick or injured
project on Indigenous breeds people
• Cloning might one day bring back extinct species
like the woolly mammoth or giant panda.
• It overcomes the problem of immune rejection
India does not have specific laws regarding cloning but has
which is major concern during organ transplantation
guidelines prohibiting whole human cloning or reproductive
• It can help in understanding process of ageing cloning. India allows therapeutic cloning and the use of
embryonic stem cells for research purposes

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 ENVIRONMENT -

Biotechnology in Environment: Environmental Biotechnology

involves utilizing biological systems, including cells, enzymes, Following are the types of bioremediations:
and cell compartments, to address environmental challenges
and enhance ecosystem health. This field encompasses the 1 Biotransformation: Refers to the conversion of complex
study and application of these biological tools for remediating compounds, mainly drugs and xenobiotics, into non-toxic
polluted environments such as land, water, air, and sediments. forms through biological processes, often utilized in
Additionally, Environmental Biotechnology focuses on pharmacology.
developing eco-friendly processes like green manufacturing 2 Phytoremediation: Involves the use of green plants and
technologies to promote sustainability. This definition, as microorganisms to reduce contamination in various
stated by the International Society for Environment environmental substrates such as soils, sludges,
Biotechnology (ISEB), underscores the multifaceted approach sediments, and water bodies, aiming to restore ecological
of Environmental Biotechnology in tackling environmental balance.
issues. 3 Microbial Remediation: Utilizes microorganisms to
degrade organic contaminants, with processes occurring
either aerobically or anaerobically, contributing to the
Bioenergy – Biotechnology in Environment
detoxification of polluted environments.
• Bioenergy sources include biogas, biomass, fills, and 4 Molecular Ecology: Applies methods such as population
hydrogen. genetics and phylogenetics to study evolutionary
• Environmental Biotechnology finds applications in relationships within ecosystems. DNA fingerprinting aids
domestic, industrial, and space programs. in understanding nature’s intricacies and assessing
• Clean energy is imperative considering the current state population diversity, notably in wild animals like cheetahs
of the nation, offering an alternative to exhaustible energy and polar bears.
sources. 5 Mycoremediation: Involves the use of fungi, particularly
• Processing waste collected from organic and biomass fungal mycelia, to decontaminate environments by
sources generates clean energy, exemplifying green breaking down organic substances into simpler forms.
energy initiatives. Fungal mycelia secrete enzymes and acids that facilitate
• Countries increasingly favor biomass energy due to its the decomposition of lignin and cellulose, contributing to
lesser environmental impact. ecosystem remediation.
Bioremediation – Biotechnology in Environment
• Bioremediation, a branch of biotechnology, employs living Benefits
organisms like microorganisms and fungi to remove • Preserving a safe and clean environment for
foreign substances, contaminants, and toxins from future generations is paramount.
various environments such as soil and water. • Observing how creatures and ecosystems
• It addresses environmental issues by utilizing bacteria adapt to environmental changes is invaluable
and fungi to clean pollutants from the environment. for maintaining cleanliness and sustainability.
• Vital microbes, including bacteria, decompose complex • Utilizing ecological biotechnology helps
dead organisms into useful organic matter and nutrients. prevent harmful toxins and waste from
However, certain contaminants like Lead (Pb) and contaminating our surroundings.
Cadmium (Cd) cannot be degraded by microorganisms. • Societal progress should prioritize
• Bioremediation can occur aerobically and anaerobically. In environmental protection and sustainability.
aerobic conditions, oxygen is required to break down • Environmental biotechnology plays a crucial
contaminants and toxins, yielding water and carbon. In role in purifying pollutants from the
anaerobic conditions, microbes decompose contaminants environment.
using chemical compounds present in the soil. • Scientists and environmentalists increasingly
• It is used to clean up oil spills and contaminated leverage biotechnology to transform waste
groundwater. For example, the Oil Zapper, developed by into reusable resources, enhancing
TERI, utilizes hydrocarbon compounds found in crude oil sustainability.
and oily sludge to convert them into harmless CO2 and
water.

The utilization of biotechnology in environmental contexts yields vast benefits, addressing and
mitigating a myriad of environmental challenges. Institutions such as the International Society for
Environmental Biotechnology (ISEB) spearhead research endeavors focused on harnessing
microorganisms to remediate ecosystems and pioneer sustainable energy sources. Their overarching
objective revolves around safeguarding natural ecosystems, encompassing land, water, air, soil, and
sediments. Given the escalating pressures from industrialization, urbanization, and human activities,
environmental degradation including resource depletion and pollution looms large. Biotechnological
applications offer promising avenues for tackling these issues in a manner that is both effective and
environmentally

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Food Biotechnology .

Food Biotechnology is the use of technology to

modify the genes of our food sources. Our food
sources are animals, plants, and microorganisms.
With food biotechnology, we create new species of
animals and plants, for example, specifically animals
and plants that we eat. These new species have
desired nutritional, production, and marketing
properties.

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Outstanding achievements

There have been significant achievements and

breakthroughs in food biotechnology over the last thirty
years. Below is a brief description of ten that stand out:
1 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) (1994
onwards)
Introduction of crops like Flavr Savr tomatoes,
improving yield, pest resistance, and nutritional
value.
2 Golden Rice (2000s)
Engineered to produce beta-carotene to combat
vitamin A deficiency in developing countries.
3 CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing (2012 onwards)
Precise DNA editing in crops for enhanced disease
resistance, drought tolerance, and nutrition.
4 Drought Tolerant Crops (2010s)
Crops modified to withstand drought, such as
DroughtGard corn, helping maintain yields in
variable climates.
5 Biofortification (2000s onwards)
Increasing the nutritional value of crops through
genetic engineering or breeding, targeting global
malnutrition.
6 Fermentation Technologies (2010s)
Use of fermentation to produce sustainable
alternative proteins and food ingredients.
7 Synthetic Biology for Flavor and Fragrance
Production (2010s)
Engineering microorganisms to produce flavors
and fragrances sustainably.
8 Plant-based Meat Alternatives (2010s)
Development of plant-based products mimicking
meat to offer sustainable dietary options.
9 Precision Fermentation (2010s)
Genetically engineered microbes produce specific
food ingredients, enabling animal-free dairy
products and novel foods.
10 Edible Vaccines (2000s onwards): Research
into genetically modifying plants to produce
vaccine antigens, aiming for innovative vaccine
delivery.

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FSSAI
▪ Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) Functions of FSSAI
is an autonomous statutory body established under the Food
Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act). ▪ Framing of regulations to lay down the standards
and guidelines of food safety.
▪ Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of
India is the administrative Ministry of FSSAI. ▪ Granting FSSAI food safety license and
certification for food businesses.
▪ Headquarters: Delhi.
▪ Laying down procedure and guidelines for
laboratories in food businesses.
▪ FSS Act, 2006 consolidates various acts & orders
that had earlier handled food related issues in various ▪ To provide suggestions to the government in
Ministries and Departments, such as– framing the policies.
◦ Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 ▪ To collect data regarding contaminants in foods
products, identification of emerging risks and
◦ Fruit Products Order, 1955 introduction of rapid alert system.
◦ Meat Food Products Order, 1973 ▪ Creating an information network across the
◦ Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947 country about food safety.
◦ Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) Order 1988 ▪ Promote general awareness about food safety
and food standards.
◦ Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992
▪ These were repealed after commencement of FSS
Act, 2006. ▪ Highlights of the Food Safety and
▪ FSSAI was consequently established in 2008 but Standard Act, 2006
work within the Food Authority effectively began in ◦ The Act aims to establish a single
2011 after its Rules and key Regulations were notified. reference point for all matters relating to
▪ This marked a shift from a multi-level to a single food safety and standards, by moving from
line of control with focus on self-compliance rather than multi- level, multi-departmental control to a
a pure regulatory regime. single line of command.
◦ The Act established FSSAI and the
7 Key Processes that FSSAI Follow State Food Safety Authorities for each State.
▪ Set standards of food products ▪ Highlights of Food Safety and
Standards Rule, 2011. The Rules provides
▪ Develop safe food practices for:
▪ License food businesses ◦ The Food Safety Appellate Tribunal
▪ Ensure compliance through inspections and the Registrar of the Appellate Tribunal,
for adjudication of food safety cases.
▪ Test food for standards
▪ Highlights of Food Safety and
▪ Train and build capacity
Standards Regulations 2011
▪ Citizens Outreach
◦ It covers Licensing and Registration,
Packaging and Labelling of Food
Businesses, Food Product Standards and
Structure of FSSAI Food Additives Regulation.
▪ The FSSAI comprises of a Chairperson and twenty ◦ It prohibits and restricts on sales or
two members out of which one – third are to be women. approval for Non-Specified Food and Food
▪ The Chairperson of FSSAI is appointed by the Central Ingredients, such ingredients may cause
Government. harm to human health.

▪ The Food Authority is assisted by Scientific ◦ It provides for Food Safety and
Committees and Panels in setting standards and the Central Standards on Organic Food and regulates
Advisory Committee in coordinating with enforcement Food Advertisin
agencies.
▪ The primary responsibility for enforcement is largely
with the State Food Safety Commissioners.

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Challenges and Shortcomings Faced by FSSAI
▪ Nestle India Limited Maggi Case: The maggi
▪ The “petty manufacturers, retailers and noodles were reported with excess lead unfit for
hawkers” are exempted from FSSAI ambit. human consumption and FSSAI prescribed for ban.
These segments greatly contributes to ▪ Cadbury India: It was reported that worms was
unorganised food sector and due to its low prices, found in Cadbury's Dairy Milk. The FSSAI declared
most of the population prefer food consumption packaging was not proper or airtight and made it
from these segments. mandatory to change the packaging.
▪ Lack of infrastructure such as food testing
laboratories. There are only 87 National
Accreditation Board for testing and calibration
Laboratories (NABL) accredited Labs, where as Initiatives of FSSAI
there are more than 1500 private labs in India.
▪ Heart Attack Rewind – It is the first mass media
▪ Shortage of qualified manpower and campaign of FSSAI. It is aimed to support FSSAI’s target
functional food testing equipment in state food of eliminating trans fat in India by the year 2022.
laboratories and referral laboratories resulted in
▪ FSSAI-CHIFSS – It is collaboration between FSSAI
deficient testing of food samples.
and CII-HUL Initiative on Food Safety Sciences to
▪ There is an acute shortage of licensing and promote collaborations between Industry, Scientific
enforcement officers in the states which severely Community, Academia for food safety.
affected food safety measures.
▪ State Food Safety Index (SFSI): The FSSAI
▪ The body has been only prescriptive in developed the State Food Safety Index (SFSI) index to
nature and failed to ensure safety, quality and measure the performance of states on five significant
hygiene in food industry. parameters of Food Safety.
▪ There are only 377 products mentioned in ◦ The parameters include Human Resources and
the FSSAI regulations – whereas other countries Institutional Data, Compliance, Food Testing –
have over 10,000 standards. Moreover, the list is Infrastructure and Surveillance, Training & Capacity
not regularly reviewed. Building and Consumer Empowerment.
▪ FSSAI is highly underfunded to monitor the ◦ SFSI was started from 2018-19 with the aim of
widening ambit of food laws. Also, there are no creating a competitive and positive change in the food
standard practices for food inspection, the safety ecosystem in the country.
process being mostly discretionary.
◦ The first State Food Safety Index for the year
▪ Cumbersome and lengthy approval 2018-19 was announced on the first-ever World Food
procedures have delayed the pre-launch Safety Day on 7th June 2019.
approvals for products from the FSSAI for over a
▪ Eat Right India Movement: It is an initiative of the
year.
Government of India and FSSAI to transform the
▪ Consignments of imported food products country’s food system in order to ensure safe, healthy and
often remain stuck at the ports awaiting clearance sustainable food for all Indians.
by the FSSAI – sometimes due to small issues
◦ It is aligned to the National Health Policy 2017 with
like labelling of the packages not conforming to
its focus on preventive and promotive healthcare and
arbitrary norms specified by the FSSAI, which
flagship programmes like Ayushman Bharat, POSHAN
differ from the widely accepted global standards.
Abhiyaan, Anemia Mukt Bharat and Swachh Bharat
▪ Differences of opinion between the food Mission.
regulator and the food processing ministry also
▪ Eat Right Station Certification: The certification is
handicap the FSSAI functioning.
awarded by FSSAI to railway stations that set
▪ According to a CAG Report, FSSAI is yet benchmarks (as per the Food Safety and Standards Act,
to frame regulations and guidelines to govern 2006) in providing safe and wholesome food to
different procedures. passengers.
▪ The CAG also found that "licenses were
issued on the basis of incomplete documents in
more than 50 per cent of cases, checked in Audit"

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Food Laws and Regulations
Food Safety- Food safety refers to the procedures,
practices, and regulations implemented to ensure
challenges
that food is safe for consumption. It encompasses 1. Rampant Adulteration- Widespread and
all measures taken to prevent foodborne rampant adulteration of food products which includes
illnesses, contamination, and other hazards that milk, spices, and edible oils, remains a grave challenge
to food safety in India. For ex- A 2012 study
may arise during the production, processing, conducted by the FSSAI across 33 states found that
storage, distribution, and preparation of food. milk in India was adulterated with diluted water,
detergent, fat and even urea.

Food Safety Regulations in India 2. Feeding of ’empty calories’- Major packed food
brand products contain items that have no nutritive
value like added sugar. These are major causes of
The act aims to diabetes, cardio vascular diseases and obesity in India.
establish a single
reference point for 3. Weak Enforcement and Accountability- The
all matters relating enforcement of food safety regulations is often lax in
Food
to food safety and India. Many food businesses operate without proper
standards, by licenses and continue to compromise on safety
Safet
moving from multi- standards.
y and
level, multi-
Stand
ard
departmental 4. Corrupt practices on part of FMCG players-
control to a single The Fast Moving Consumer Goods industry players
Act,
line of command. are often found to indulge in violation of the labelling
2006
The Act established
FSSAI and the State
requirements about the ingredients in their products.
Food Safety For ex- Maggi noodles ban due to high levels of lead
Authorities for and MSG.
each State.
5. Lack of Infrastructure and Resources- The
The act provides
food safety standards domain in India suffers from the
for Food Safety challenge of shortage of laboratories, trained
Appellate Tribunal personnel, and funds necessary for regular and
and the Registrar of stringent food inspections. For ex- Use of synthetic
the Appellate sweetener in cake leading to death of teenage girl in
Tribunal, food Punjab.
safety and
standards on 6. Limited Public Awareness- A significant
Organic Food and proportion of the Indian population remains unaware
regulates Food
Food of food safety practices, including proper food
Safet Advertising in
India. handling, storage, and hygiene. For ex- Over use of
y and pesticides and fruit ripening agents in agriculture
The rule prohibits
Stand
ards
and restrict sales or cause cancer.
approval for Non-
Rule, 7. Complex Regulatory Framework- The
Specified Food and
2011 complex regulatory framework for food safety makes
Food Ingredients.
It also covers it difficult for small and medium enterprises
Licensing and businesses, to adhere to the necessary standards.
Registration, These also lead to regulatory gaps and inconsistencies
Packaging and
Labelling of Food in enforcement.
Businesses, Food
Product Standards
and Food Additives
Regulation.

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Consequences
.
Deterioration of Public Health- Consumption
wayforeward
of contaminated or adulterated food leads to a 1. Strengthen Infrastructure and Resources-
range of public health issues like foodborne There must be an increase in the investment in food
illnesses, gastrointestinal disorders, cardiovascular safety infrastructure, including laboratories, training
diseases, obesity and diabetes. The impact is facilities, and regulatory bodies. Adequate funding and
particularly severe on vulnerable populations like resources are needed to conduct regular inspections and
children and the elderly. ensure compliance with safety standards.
2. Economic Implications- Contaminated and 2. Simplification of Regulations- The regulatory
unsafe food products often leads to massive product framework for food safety should be made more
recalls, loss of consumer trust, and damage to the accessible and business-friendly. Simplification and
reputation of the food brand. For ex- Recall of streamlining of regulations can encourage compliance,
Maggi after test results confirmed of high levels of especially among small and medium-sized enterprises.
lead and MSG. 3. Strict Enforcement and Accountability-
3. Undermining of ‘Make in India’ Initiative- Regulatory bodies must rigorously enforce food safety
The decline in food safety standards become a standards. This includes imposing stringent penalties
significant roadblock in India’s effort to promote for violations and taking legal action against non-
indigenous manufacturing and boost exports under compliant businesses. For ex- Specification of an upper
the ‘Make in India’ initiative. Safety concerns deter limit for added sugars.
both domestic and international consumers from 4. Enhancement of Public Awareness- A
embracing Indian products. For ex- Rejection of comprehensive public awareness campaign on food
Indian agricultural and food products from EU safety should be launched targeting both consumers and
markets on account of violation of food standards. producers regarding the importance of food safety.
Recent ban on MDH spices in Hong Kong.
5. Encouragement of Responsible Agricultural
4. Environmental Impact- The use of Practices- Promoting responsible and sustainable
substandard and unsafe agricultural practices harm agricultural practices can reduce contamination risks at
the environment through soil and water the source. Encouraging the use of organic farming,
contamination. The overuse of pesticides and the reducing pesticide usage, and implementing proper
mishandling of food waste contribute to ecological waste management are essential steps.
degradation.

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 Organic farming ganic Farming

India ranks 1st in number of organic farmers and According to FSSAI,’organic farming’ is a system of farm
9th in terms of area under organic farming. design and management to create an ecosystem of
agriculture production without the use of synthetic external
Indian Scenario Regarding Organic Farming inputs such as chemical fertilisers, pesticides and synthetic
hormones or genetically modified organisms.
◦ Sikkim became the first State in the world to
become fully organic in 2016. Organic farm produce means the produce obtained from
organic agriculture, while organic food means food products
◦ North East India has traditionally been organic
that have been produced in accordance with specified
and the consumption of chemicals is far less
standards for organic production.
than the rest of the country.
◦ Certification Schemes
◦ Similarly the tribal and island territories have
been traditionally practicing organic farming. • Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
(FSSAI) is the food regulator in the country and
◦ The major organic exports from India have been is also responsible for regulating organic food in
flax seeds, sesame, soybean, tea, medicinal the domestic market and imports.
plants, rice and pulses.
• Participatory Guarantee System (PGS): PGS is a
◦ There was an increase of nearly 50% in organic process of certifying organic products, which
exports in 2018-19, touching Rs. 5151 crore. ensures that their production takes place in
◦ Commencement of exports from Assam, accordance with laid-down quality standards.
Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland to UK, USA, PGS Green is given to chemical free produce
Eswatini and Italy have proved the potential by under transition to ‘organic’ which takes 3
increasing volumes and expanding to new years. It is mainly for domestic purpose.
destinations as the demand for health foods • National Program for Organic Production
increases. (NPOP): NPOP grants organic farming
certification through a process of third party
Government Initiatives to Promote Organic Farming certification for export purposes.
◦ Mission Organic Value Chain Development for • Soil Health Card Scheme has led to a decline of
North East Region (MOVCD) 8-10% in the use of chemical fertilizers and also
• Mission Organic Value Chain Development raised productivity by 5-6%.
for North East Region (MOVCD-NER) is a ◦ Agri-export Policy 2018
Central Sector Scheme, a sub-mission
• Focus on clusters and Marketing and promotion
under National Mission for Sustainable
of “Produce of India” have positively impacted
Agriculture (NMSA)
the organic farming in India
• It was launched by the Ministry of
◦ One District - One Product (ODOP)
Agriculture and Farmers Welfare in 2015 for
implementation in the states of Arunachal • The programme aims to encourage more
Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, visibility and sale of indigenous and specialized
Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. products/crafts of Uttar Pradesh, generating
employment at the district level.
• The scheme aims to develop certified
organic production in a value chain mode to • The presence of aggregators is imperative to
link growers with consumers and to bring about economies of scale for the small
support the development of the entire and marginal farmers.
value chain. ◦ PM Formalization of Micro Food Processing
◦ Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) Enterprises (PM FME)
• Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana, launched • The Ministry of Food Processing Industries
in 2015 is an elaborated component of Soil (MoFPI) launched the PM FME scheme as a part
Health Management (SHM) of major of ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan’.
project National Mission of Sustainable • It aims to bring in new technology, apart from
Agriculture (NMSA). affordable credit to help small entrepreneurs
• Under PKVY, Organic farming is promoted penetrate new markets.
through adoption of organic villages by ◦ Zero Budget Natural Farming
cluster approach and Participatory
Guarantee System (PGS) certification. • Zero budget natural farming is a method of
chemical-free agriculture drawing from
traditional Indian practices.
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 Natural farming is not a new concept in India, with
farmers having tilled their land without the use of Challenges:
chemicals - largely relying on organic residues, • Small landholding size: Mechanising small
cow dung, composts, etc. since time immemorial. and non-contiguous groups of farms is
This is also in sync with the Sustainable against ‘economies of scale’ especially in
Development Goal 2 targeting ‘end hunger, operations like land preparation and
achieve food security and improved nutrition and harvesting. As per the latest agricultural
promote sustainable agriculture’. census, the average land holding size in
Hence with greater awareness and capacity India is 1.08 hectares.
building of the producers in compliance with • High-procurement costs prevent most of
international standards, Indian organic farmers the small/marginal farmers from acquiring
will soon be reinforcing their rightful place in capital-intensive farm machinery.
global agri trade. • Cumbersome Credit Procedure to avail
agriculture term-loan, creates hindrance to
smooth disbursement of loans for
mechanisation. The procedure to avail

Mechanisation of Agriculture agriculture term loan is more cumbersome

than production credit. Availability of
suitable officer with required technical
appraisal skill is also key issue for the
Even though agriculture sector contributes only 16% of GVA banks, which is also creating hindrance for
and accounts for almost 45% of India's workforce, the smooth disbursement of term loan for
productivity remained very low. The major reason for such various activities helping farm
low productivity is lack of adequate mechanisation in Indian mechanization.
agriculture. • Lack of adequate awareness amongst
farmers about technology and Lack of
Benefits: Confidence about increasing productivity
due to mechanisation and market-volatility
• Efficient use of inputs: Mechanization improves the disincentives investment in farm-
precision in which the agricultural inputs like seeds, mechanisation.
pesticides and fertilizers are used in the field. This not • Dependent population: Over dependence
only reduces the input cost for the farmer but will also of family labour on agriculture due to lack
minimize the impact over environment. of alternate employment opportunities in
• Reduces labour cost: Increased mechanization may rural areas disincentivises many farmers to
reduce the labour costs involved in farming. invest in mechanisation.
• Improved land productivity: Helps in conversion of
uncultivable land to agricultural land through
advanced tilling techniques and in shifting land used
for feed and fodder cultivation by draught animals Government Initiatives:
towards food production.
• Social benefits: • Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization
◦ With increasing feminisation of agricultural (2014): Assistance to Farmers for
labour, mechanisation also helps in reducing the procurement of agricultural machineries;
burden on women. Demonstration of Newly Developed
◦ Helps in encouraging the youth to join farming Agricultural/ Horticultural Equipment.
and attract more people to work and live in rural • Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for
areas. in-situ Management of Crop residue:
As per Dalwai Committee, adoption of agricultural Implemented in Punjab, Haryana, UP, Delhi;
mechanisation can help reduce input costs by 25%, Setting of Custom hiring centres; Financial
enhance productivity by 20% and increase farmers’ Assistance to farmers for buying agricultural
income by 25-30%. machinery.
• FARMS (Farms Machinery Solutions) Mobile
App: Facilitates farmers to hire agricultural
machinery and tools.

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 ▪▪

Way forward:
• Ease of financing: Like KCC, procedures to avail term loan may be simplified with minimum
documentation. Capacity building of bank staff dealing with agriculture term loan products may be
ensured.
• Shared utility or Uberization: Development of Aggregating apps to aggregate agri-mechanised inputs
on rental basis. This enables the small and marginal farmers to mechanise their farms.
• Service facilities: It is important to ensure availability of repair and service facilities in close proximity,
so that operation & maintenance issues are addressed.

Causes of Poor Drinking Water Quality

Safe Drinking Water In the name of water purification, most of the
times water is chlorinated.
Nature of Water Crisis
◦ Chlorination only kills bacteria & other
According to NITI Aayog's Composite Water Management microorganisms but dissolved salts, alkalinity,
Index 2018, 21 major cities (Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, toxic metals in water can't be eliminated by
Hyderabad and others) are racing to reach zero groundwater chlorination.
levels by 2020, affecting access for 100 million people.
The pipes which carry the water, are old and
India ranks 120 among 122 countries on the Water Quality leaking. This leakages in pipes lead to
Index released by WaterAid. contamination of water.
The national capital region of India is facing a double ◦ Moreover, the water supply line & sewerage
whammy, not only it harbours poor standards of air (air line running side by side.
emergency) but poor water quality also.
In metropolitan cities, the demand for water is
higher than the supply. Therefore, this deficit in
the water supply is compensated by the mixing of
According to the data released by the World
surface water & groundwater.
Resources Institute, India is ranked 13th among the 17
most water-stressed countries of the world. ◦ However, groundwater is severely
contaminated by carcinogenic pollutants like
According to the Ministry of Urban Development,
Arsenic.
80% of India's surface water is polluted.
Water is a state subject. This lead to the problem
This signifies India is going through Water emergency.
of coordination between Union, State and Local
government.
Effects of Poor Drinking Water
Rapid urbanization has led the unequal distribution
Harmful health impacts: Nearly 70% of the diseases in of water, contamination/ depletion of local water
India are waterborne. Therefore, poor water quality is a bodies due to pollution.
great health hazard.
Sometimes the places from where water samples
Economic cost: Poor drinking water will lead to a are collected, may not reflect the true state of
reduction in tourist inflow. water quality.
Domino effect: Result of poor drinking water is the
prime reason for the sale of plastic bottled drinking
water. However, this bottled water gives rise to plastic
pollution.
Wasting resources: RO is expensive and for 1 litre of
RO or bottled water, many litres of water wasted.
◦ Also, the RO water is deprived of essential
minerals and salts.
Social effect: With the given condition of the water
crisis, it is less likely to fulfil the target of providing
everyone with safe drinking water (Sustainable
Development Goal number 6).

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 ▪

Way Forward Defluoridation

Defluoridation is the downward adjustment of the
Data based support system: Water quality
should be tested frequently and the findings level of fluoride in drinking water. Worldwide,
should be made public. fluoride is one of the most abundant anions
◦ This will increase involvement, present in groundwater. Fluoride is more present in
sensitization & awareness of citizens, groundwater than surface water mainly due to the
service providers and the government. leaching of minerals. Groundwater accounts for 98
Mandatory compliance: Compliance to percent of the earth's potable water. An excess of
Bureau of Indian Standards for water quality fluoride in drinking water causes dental fluorosis
should be made mandatory for local bodies. and skeletal fluorosis. The World Health
◦ This can make municipalities and other Organization has recommended a guideline value
local bodies accountable. of 1.5 mg/L as the concentration above which
Pricing for water: Water can be priced for dental fluorosis is likely. Fluorosis is endemic in
well-off sections of society so that proper more than 20 developed and developing nations.
maintenance cost should be recovered. Defluoridation of groundwater using brick powder
Better management: Long-distance as an adsorbent was studied in batch process.
pipelines of water should be discouraged Different parameters of adsorption, viz. effect of
and water treatment should be made more
pH, effect of dose and contact time were selected
localized.
and optimized for the study. Feasible optimum
◦ Also, efforts should be made to find out conditions were applied to two groundwater
the sites of continuation in the supply
line. samples of high fluoride concentration to study
the suitability of adsorbent in field conditions.
Technological solution: Up-gradation of the
Comparison of adsorption by brick powder was
water treatment plant to remove toxic
inorganic pollutants and dissolved solids. made with adsorption by commercially available
activated charcoal. In the optimum condition of pH
Rainwater harvesting: The reason why
Mumbai's water is relatively safer because it and dose of adsorbents, the percentage
is sourced from rainwater (the purest source defluoridation from synthetic sample, increased
of water). from 29.8 to 54.4% for brick powder and from
◦ Therefore, rainwater harvesting should 47.6 to 80.4% for commercially available activated
be encouraged to the maximum extent charcoal with increasing the contact time starting
possible. from 15 to 120 min. Fluoride removal was found to
Next step for Jal Jeevan mission: The be 48.73 and 56.4% from groundwater samples
government's effort to provide piped water having 3.14 and 1.21 mg I-1 fluoride, respectively,
to all rural households by 2024 under the Jal under the optimized conditions. Presence of other
Jeevan mission, is a step in the right
ions in samples did not significantly affect the
direction. However, providing quality piped
water will be a big challenge. deflouridation efficiency of brick powder. The
optimum pH range for brick powder was found to
be 6.0-8.0 and adsorption equilibrium was found
to be 60 min. These conditions make it very
suitable for use in drinking water treatment.
Deflouridation capacity of brick powder can be
explained on the basis of the chemical interaction
of fluoride with the metal oxides under suitable pH
conditions. The adsorption process was found to
follow first order rate mechanism as well as
Freundlich isotherm.

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Boiling
Distillation
Boiling water is the cheapest and satest method
Distillation is a water purification method that utilizes heat
of water purification. Water sources and or
to collect pure water in the form of vapor. This method is
channels of distribution may render your water
effective by the scientific fact that water has a lower
unsafe. For example, parasites and germs are
boiling point than other contaminants and disease-causing
things you may not see by bare eyes, but their elements found in water. Water is subjected to a heat
effects can be life threatening. source until it attains its boiling point. It is then left at the
In this method, clean water should be brought boiling point until it vaporizes. This vapor is directed into a
to boil and left at rolling-boil for 1-3 minutes. condenser to cool.
For people living in high altitude areas, it is Upon cooling, vapor is reversed into liquid water that is
recommended to boil your water for longer than clean and safe for drinking. Other substances that have a
water boiled at lower altitudes. This is because higher boiling point are left as sediments in the container.
water boils at lower temperatures in higher This method is effective in removing bacteria, germs, salts
altitudes. Boiled water should be covered and and other heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic.
left to cool before drinking. For water drawn Distillation is ideal for people who have access to raw,
from wells, leave it for compounds to settle untreated water. This method has both advantages and
before you filter out clean water for use. disadvantages. A notable disadvantage is that it is a slow
Filtration process of water purification. In addition, it requires a heat
source for the purification to work. Although cheap sources
Filtration is one of the effective ways of
of energy are being developed, distillation remains a costly
purifying water and when using the right
process of purifying water. It is only ideal (effective and
multimedia filters it's effective in ridding water
least costly) when purifying small quantities of water (It is
of the compounds. This method uses chemical
not ideal for large scale, commercial or industrial
and physical processes to purify water and make
purification).
it safe for human consumption. Filtration
Chlorination
eliminates both large compounds and small,
Chlorine is a powerful chemical that has been in use for
dangerous contaminants that cause diseases with
many years to treat water for home consumption. Chlorine is
a simple and quick filtration process.. Since
an effective water purification method that kills germs,
filtration does not deplete all the mineral salts, parasites and other disease-causing organisms found in
water that has been filtered is considered ground or tap water. Water can be purified using chlorine
healthier compared to water purified using other tablets or liquid chlorine. As an off-the-shelf water
methods. It's one of the effective water purification product, chlorine is cheap and effective.
purification methods that utilize chemical However, caution should be taken when using chlorine liquid
absorption process that effectively removes or tablets to treat drinking water. For example, people
unwanted compounds from water. suffering from thyroid problems should talk to a medical
Compared to reverse osmosis, filtration is practitioner before using this product. When using chlorine
considered effective when it comes to selective tablets, it is important to apply them in heated water, as
elimination of much smaller molecular compounds they dissolve well in water that is at 21 degree Celsius or
such as chlorine and pesticides. The other factor higher. Chlorine tablets kill all bacteria leaving your water
that makes filtration less costly is that it does clean and safe.
not require a lot of energy needed in distillation If you are looking for the best ways of treating your water,
and reverse osmosis. It is an economic method Schultz Soft Water is your best source of advice on best
water purification methods and custom solutions to your
of water purification because little water is lost
water purification needs.
during purification.
Reverse osmosis is the best option, whereas filtering is good
for basic water tasks such as sediment and chlorine removal.
Reverse osmosis covers a larger spectrum of contaminant
removal.

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3 .

Microbial Infection
.

Microorganisms [microbes] include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, some algae, viruses, viroids and also prions that
are proteinacious infectious agents. Viruses reproduce only inside the cells of the host organism, which may
be a bacterium, plant or animal.

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Bacteria

Bacteria are microscopic single-celled prokaryotic organisms that play a crucial role in the ecosystem
and have a significant impact on human health. Bacteria can be found all over the world, including the
top of the mountains or the deeper trenches in the oceans. They are also present in our bodies like in the
mouth, skin, digestive system, reproductive system and urinary tract. Bacteria can be both harmful and
useful for humans.

Diseases Caused By Bacteria

Skin disease that

occurs when hair
follicles become
clogged with dead
Acne vulgaris
skin cells and oil
(or simply acne Propionibacterium Direct contact/close Humans/
from the skin.
or pimples) acnes contact Adolescents
Causes == Genetics
+ Excessive growth
of the bacteria
Propionibacterium
acnes.

Causes skin
infections and
Gastrointestinal
(GI) infection that
Most animals
Anthrax Contact with are fatal.
Bacillus anthraces including
infected meat French scientist
humans
Louis Pasteur
developed the first
effective vaccine in
1881.

Effects small
intestine. The
classic symptom is
large amounts of
watery diarrhea
that lasts a few
days. Vomiting and
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Water/food Humans muscle cramps may
also occur. Diarrhea
can be so severe
that it leads within
hours to severe
dehydration and
electrolyte
imbalance.

Infection causes
lesions on the
Xanthomonas Citrus fruit
Citrus Canker Air leaves, stems, and
axonopodis plants
fruit of citrus
trees.

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 Symptoms: sore
throat and fever.
The neck may swell
in part due to large
lymph nodes.
Complications may
include myocarditis,
inflammation of
nerves, kidney
Diptheria Corynebacterium problems, and
Air/direct contact Humans
diphtheriae bleeding problems
due to low blood
platelets.
Myocarditis may
result in an
abnormal heart
rate and
inflammation of the
nerves may result
in paralysis.

Pneumonia is an
inflammatory
Pneumonia Streptococcus condition of the
[caused by pneumoniae and Air borne droplets lung affecting
Humans
bacteria or Haemophilus of sneeze primarily the
viruses] influenzae microscopic air sacs
known as alveoli.

Ulcers in the lining

of stomach and
Peptic ulcers Helicobacter pylori Humans
starting part of
small intestine

Unhygienic
conditions is the
main cause. [You
know why Surat is
one of the cleanest
cities in India?]
The symptoms of
plague depend on
Plague Yersinia pestis Air/ direct contact Humans the concentrated
areas of infection
in each person:
bubonic plague in
lymph nodes,
septicemic plague in
blood vessels,
pneumonic plague in
lungs.

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 Tuberculosis
generally
affects the
lungs, but can
also affect
other parts of
the body. Most
infections do not
have symptoms,
known as latent
tuberculosis.
About 10% of
latent infections
eventually
Mycobacterium
Tuberculosis Air Humans progresses to
tuberculosis
active disease
which, if left
untreated, kills
about half of
those infected.
The classic
symptoms of
active TB are a
chronic cough
with blood-
tinged sputum,
fever, night
sweats, and
weight loss.

Often there is a
gradual onset of
a high fever
over several
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Water Humans days. Weakness,
abdominal pain,
constipation, and
headaches also
commonly occur

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j
·i
Viruses are non-cellular entities with genetic material enclosed in a protein coat called capsid. The viral genome is
usually either RNA or DNA. Outside the host, viruses remain inert. But once inside host cells, they utilise the cell
machinery to make copies of themselves, often destroying the host cell.

Diseases Caused By Viruses

Severely weakens
Human immunity and
Humans and
AIDS Immunodeficiency Blood exchange makes way for a
primates
Virus (HIV) number of other
pathogens.

Chickenpox, also
known as
varicella, is a
highly contagious
disease. The
disease results in
a characteristic
varicella zoster
Chicken Pox Air/contact Humans skin rash that
virus (VZV)
forms small, itchy
blisters. Less
severe than small
pox. Almost
eradicated after
the invention of
vaccination.

One of the highly

dreaded diseases
that is highly
Variola
contagious.
Small Pox major and Variola Air/contact/water Humans
Almost eradicated
minor
after the
invention of
vaccination.

Causes severe
joint pains.
Animal reservoirs
Aedes mosquitoes,
of the virus
Chikungunya Chikungunya virus such as A. aegypti
include monkeys,
and A. albopictus
birds, cattle, and
rodents. This is in
co

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 Summer are hostile
Cold, influenza
Air borne droplets for the virus. Most
(flu) and most Rhino viruses Humans
of sneeze common during
coughs
winter months.

high fever,
headache, vomiting,
muscle and joint
pains, and a
characteristic skin
rash.
In a small
proportion of cases,
the disease
develops into the
life-threatening
Female Aedes
Dengue fever Flavivirus Humans dengue
mosquito
hemorrhagic fever,
resulting in
bleeding, low levels
of blood platelets
and blood plasma
leakage, or into
dengue shock
syndrome, where
dangerously low
blood pressure
occurs.

Ebola infection
shows a sudden
onset of the
disease resulting
initially in flu-like
symptoms: fever,
chills and malaise.
As the disease
Humans and progresses, it
Ebola Ebola virus Animal to man
Some Animals results in multi-
system involvements
indicated by the
person experiencing
lethargy, nausea,
vomiting, diarrhoea
and headache.

Close-contact Serious problem to

Foot and Picornavirus[genus
animal-to-animal Animals animal farming in
Mouth Disease Aphthovirus]
spread India.

Blood Exchange,
hepatitis B virus
Hepatitis B STD [Sexually Humans Affects the liver
(HBV)
transmitted disease]

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 Complications
occur in about
30% and may
include
diarrhea,
Measles measles virus Air Humans
blindness,
inflammation of
the brain, and
pneumonia
among others.

Polio or Weak muscles

Water/faecal-
Poliomyelitis Poliovirus Humans leading to
mouth
deformations.

Aedes
mosquitoes, such
Zika virus
Zika as A. aegypti Humans
and A.
albopictus

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 Protozoa .

Protozoa are unicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms. They are either free-living or parasites. There are around
65000 species of protozoans categorised in different groups. They lack a cell wall. There are many different cell
organelles, that perform various tasks performed by different organs in higher animals, e.g. mouth, anus, intestinal tract,
etc. Diseases Caused By Protozoans

Symptoms may
include abdominal
pain, mild
diarrhoea, bloody
diarrhea or
severe colitis
Amoebiasis with tissue death
Entamoeba Contaminated
(amoebic Humans and perforation.
histolytica Water/food
dysentery) This last
complication may
cause peritonitis.
People affected
may develop
anemia due to
loss of blood.

O Dysentery Leishmania

This disease is
the second-
largest parasitic
killer in the
world (after
malaria).
The parasite
migrates to the
internal organs
such as the liver,
spleen (hence
“visceral”), and
Kala-Azar or
bone marrow,
Visceral Leishmania genus Sandflies Humans
and, if left
leishmaniasis
untreated, will
almost always
result in the
death of the
host. Signs and
symptoms include
fever, weight
loss, fatigue,
anemia, and
substantial
swelling of the
liver and spleen

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 Malaria causes
symptoms that
typically include
Different species fever, fatigue,

e
Malaria
of Plasmodium (P.
vivax, P. malaria
Female Anopheles
mosquito
Humans
vomiting, and
headaches. In
and P. falciparum) severe cases it
can cause yellow
skin, seizures,
coma, or death.

Initially, in the
first stage of
the disease,
there are
fevers,
headaches,
itchiness, and
joint pains. This
begins one to
Sleeping Infected tsetse
Trypanosoma Humans three weeks
Sickness fly
after the bite.
Weeks to
months later the
second stage
begins with
confusion, poor
coordination,
numbness and
trouble sleeping.

Yellow Vein
Mosaic of Bhendi yellow
Insect Okra plant Okra are dw
Okra [Ladies vein mosaic virus
finger]

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J
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms, have a true nucleus enclosed in nuclear membrane and membrane bound
organelles. Fungal cells are surrounded by cell walls. Their cell wall is made up of chitin. Fungi undergo the
phenomenon of alternation of generation

Diseases Caused By Fungi

The fungi that

cause parasitic
infection,
Fungi belonging collectively
to the genera dermatophytes,
Ringworms Micr Skin-skin contact Humans feed on keratin,
Trichophyton and the material
Epidermophyton found in the
outer layer of
skin, hair, and
nails.

Wheat leaf rust

is a fungal
disease that
affects wheat,
barley and rye
stems, leaves
and grains. In
temperate zones
it is destructive
Rust of Puccinia rust Wheat and on winter wheat
Air/seeds
wheat fungus other crops because the
pathogen.
overwinters.
Infections can
lead up to 20%
yield loss
exacerbated by
dying leaves
which fertilize
the fungus.

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 Diarrhoea -

Treatment ↓
◦ Diarrhoea is defined as the passage of three or more ◦ Rehydration with Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS):
loose or liquid stools per day (or more frequent passage ORS is a mixture of clean water, salt and sugar. It
than is normal for the individual). costs a few cents per treatment. ORS is absorbed
in the small intestine and replaces the water and
◦ The most severe threat posed by diarrhoea is
electrolytes lost in the faeces.
dehydration.
◦ Zinc Supplements: Zinc supplements reduce the
• During a diarrhoeal episode, water and electrolytes
duration of a diarrhoea episode by 25% and are
(sodium, chloride, potassium and bicarbonate) are
associated with a 30% reduction in stool volume.
lost through liquid stools, vomit, sweat, urine and
breathing. ◦ Rehydration with Intravenous Fluids: This is done in
case of severe dehydration or shock.
• Dehydration occurs when these losses are not
replaced. ◦ Nutrient-rich Foods: The vicious circle of
malnutrition and diarrhoea can be broken by
continuing to give nutrient-rich foods – including
Statistics: breast milk – during an episode, and by giving a
nutritious diet – including exclusive breastfeeding
◦ Diarrhoeal disease is the second leading cause of
for the first six months of life – to children when
death in children under five years old.
they are well.
• Each year diarrhoea kills around 525,000
◦ Consulting a Health Professional: For management
children under five.
of persistent diarrhoea or when there is blood in
◦ Globally, there are nearly 1.7 billion cases of stool or if there are signs of dehydration.
childhood diarrhoeal disease every year.
INATIATIVES
Intensified Diarrhoea Control Fortnight (IDCF): To
Causes:
increase awareness about use of ORS and Zinc in
◦ Infection: Diarrhoea can be caused by bacterial diarrhoea, ICDF is being observed during pre-
infections such as cholera and typhoid, or by monsoon/ monsoon season, with the aim of ‘zero
viral and parasitic organisms, most of which are child deaths due to childhood diarrhoea’ since 2014.
spread by faeces-contaminated water.
Integrated Action Plan for Prevention and Control of
◦ Malnutrition: Children who die from diarrhoea Pneumonia and Diarrhoea (IAPPD): In 2014, India
often suffer from underlying malnutrition, which launched the Integrated Action Plan for Prevention
makes them more vulnerable to diarrhoea. and Control of Pneumonia and Diarrhoea (IAPPD) to
◦ Contaminated Food and Water: Contamination undertake collaborative efforts towards prevention of
with human faeces, for example, from sewage, diarrhoea and pneumonia-related under-five deaths.
septic tanks and latrines, is of particular Universal Immunization Programme (UIP): It was
concern. Animal faeces also contain launched by the government in 1985 and prevents
microorganisms that can cause diarrhoea. mortality and morbidity in children and pregnant
women against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases
including pneumonia and diarrhoea.
Prevention:
Social Awareness and Action to Neutralise
◦ Access to safe drinking-water;
Pneumonia Successfully (SAANS) Campaign: It seeks
◦ Use of improved sanitation; to reduce child mortality due to pneumonia, which
◦ Hand washing with soap; contributes to around 15% of deaths of children
under the age of five annually.
◦ Exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life;
Rotavirus Vaccine Drive: In 2019, the government of
◦ Good personal and food hygiene; India launched a rotavirus vaccine drive across all
◦ Health education about how infections spread; and states and Union Territories, which was an
unprecedented national scale-up of the rotavirus
◦ Rotavirus vaccination. vaccine.

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 Encephalitis
• AES is characterized by a sudden onset of
high-grade fever, convulsions, altered sensorium,
and multi-organ dysfunction. Other common
symptoms include vomiting, diarrhoea, and in
severe cases, respiratory failure with nasal bleeding.
• AES can be caused by a variety of pathogens,
including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, as
well as toxins and chemicals.
• Diagnosis challenges: The diagnosis of AES
can be challenging due to the similarity of
symptoms with other viral infections like
Chandipura Vesiculovirus (CHPV), Enterovirus,
Meningitis, and Japanese Encephalitis.
Symptoms:
It is characterized as acute-onset of fever and a change in mental
status (mental confusion, disorientation, delirium, or coma) and/
or new-onset of seizures in a person of any age at any time of the
year.
Cause of the disease:
Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) is considered a very
complex disease as it can be caused by various agents including
bacteria, fungi, virus and many other agents.
• Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the major cause of
AES in India (ranging from 5%-35%).
• Nipah virus, Zika virus are also found as causative
agents for AES.
How is it related to litchi fruits? How it affects?
In India, AES outbreaks in north and eastern India have been
linked to children eating unripe litchi fruit on empty stomachs.
Unripe fruit contain the toxins hypoglycin A and
methylenecyclopropylglycine (MCPG), which cause vomiting if
ingested in large quantities.
• Hypoglycin A is a naturally occurring amino acid found
in the unripened litchi that causes severe vomiting (Jamaican
vomiting sickness), while MCPG is a poisonous compound
found in litchi seeds.
Why it affects undernourished children?
Blood glucose falls sharply causing severe brain malfunction
(encephalopathy), leading to seizures and coma, and death in
many cases.
• This is because under-nourished children lack sufficient
glucose reserve in the form of glycogen and the production
of glucose from non-carbohydrate source is blocked midway
leading to low blood sugar level.
• This causes serious brain function derangement and
seizures.
Measures needed:
1 Increase access to safe drinking water and proper
sanitation facilities.
2 Improve nutritional status of children at risk of JE/AES.
3 Preparative measures to be in place before the possible
outbreaks.
4 Vector control.
5 Better awareness generation among children, parents
through Anganwadi workers etc.
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 Bird 7Iv :

H5N1 bird flu, a highly pathogenic virus, has been spreading globally, Preventive Measures and Recommendations:
posing a significant threat to birds and wildlife.
◦ WHO advises the public to avoid high-risk
What is H5B1 Bird Flu? environments like live animal markets and
practise good hand hygiene.
Background:
◦ Prompt reporting of sick animals and
◦ Avian influenza A(H5N1) or H5B1 Bird Flu is a avoiding consumption of sick poultry are
highly pathogenic virus that primarily circulates recommended.
among birds but can infect mammals.
◦ Individuals exposed to infected birds or
◦ H5N1 originated from a virus outbreak in China environments should seek medical care
in 1996 and rapidly evolved into a highly promptly.
pathogenic strain.
◦ Since 2020, it has spread across Europe,
Africa, Asia, North America, South America, and
even mainland Antarctica.
◦ India experienced the first H5N1 outbreak in the
State of Maharashtra and Gujarat in 2015.
Impact on Animals:
◦ Wild birds, including endangered species like
California condors, have been severely affected
by H5N1.
◦ The main species affected used to be chicken.
◦ Marine mammals, such as sea lions and
dolphins, have suffered mass deaths in regions
like Chile and Peru.
◦ Mammals like foxes, pumas, bears in North
America, and farmed minks in Spain and
Finland, have also been infected.

Human Risk and Spread Factors:

◦ While rare, humans can contract bird flu,
primarily through contact with infected
birds.
◦ Climate change may exacerbate the
spread of the virus, altering bird
behaviour and increasing interactions
between bird species.
World Health Organization (WHO) Risk
Assessment:
◦ While the virus does not easily infect
humans, sporadic cases continue to
occur, mainly linked to poultry exposure.
◦ Human-to-human transmission remains
rare, but the potential for further cases
exists, particularly in regions where the
virus is endemic in poultry.
◦ WHO assesses the overall risk to the
general population as low but
emphasises the importance of
surveillance and risk management

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http://www.youtube.com/@SadudamPada https://t.me/sadudampadakaka
 VACCINES
A vaccine is a biological preparation that offers active Immunity is the body's ability to fight off harmful sub-
acquired immunity to a specific disease. Generally, a stances, germs, and cell changes that could make you
vaccine comprises of an agent that has a resemblance to sick. The immune system is a network of organs, cells,
the disease-causing microbe and proteins that protects the body from infection and
keeps track of germs it has defeated
Different types of Vaccines
The different types of vaccines are as follows: PRINCIPLES OF IMMUNITY
Healthy immunity accomplishes four essential principles:
1.Inactivated Vaccine: Vaccines of this type are created by (1) ability to detect and fight off infection;
inactivating a pathogen, typically using heat or chemicals (2) ability to recognize a host's own cells as
such as formaldehyde or formalin. This destroys the "self," thereby protecting them from attack;
pathogen’s ability to replicate, but keeps it “intact” so that (SNS)
the immune system can still recognize it. (3) a memory from previous foreign infections;
and
2. Attenuated Vaccine: Attenuated vaccines can be made in
several different ways. Some of the most common methods (4) ability to limit the response after the pathogen has
involve passing the disease-causing virus through a series of been removed.
cell cultures or animal embryos (typically chick embryos).
When the resulting vaccine virus is given to a human, it will FUNCTIONS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
be unable to replicate enough to cause illness, but will still > Defense - immunologically mediated resistance to
provoke an immune response that can protect against future infection.
infection. > Surveillance - detects and destroys mutant cells.
> Homeostasis - removes
3. Toxoid Vaccine: Some bacterial diseases are not directly ì damaged
caused by a bacterium itself, but by a toxin produced by the components and promote repair
bacterium. Immunizations for this type of pathogen can be
made by inactivating the toxin that causes disease NOBLE PRIZES IN IMMUNOLOGY
• 1901- Emil Adolf von Behring, "for his serum therapy to treat
symptoms. As with organisms or viruses used in killed or
diphtheria"
inactivated vaccines, this can be done via treatment with a
TO
chemical such as formalin, or by using heat or other
• 2018- James P. Allison and Tasuku Honjo "for their discovery of
methods.
cancer therapy by inhibition of negative immune regulation."
4. Subunit Vaccine: Subunit vaccines use only part of a (13 TIMES)
target pathogen to provoke a response from the immune
system. This may be done by isolating a specific protein Significance of the Immune System
from a pathogen and presenting it as an antigen on its own. Beneficial:
• Protection from Invaders
5. Conjugate Vaccine: Conjugate vaccines are somewhat • Elimination of Altered Self
similar to recombinant vaccines: they’re made using a Detrimental:
combination of two different components. Conjugate • Discomfort (hypersensitivity)
vaccines, however, are made using pieces from the coats of • Damage to self (autoimmunity)
bacteria. These coats are chemically linked to a carrier Immunity types
protein, and the combination is used as a vaccine
– Innate Immunity
6. Valence Vaccine: Vaccines may be monovalent. A
– Acquired Immunity,
monovalent vaccine is designed to immunize against a
single antigen or single microorganism.A multivalent or Active – Passive Immunity.
polyvalent vaccine is designed to immunize against two or Innate immunity consist of four types of barriers. These are —
more strains of the same microorganism, or against two or
• Physical Barriers: Skin on our body is the main barrier which
more microorganisms. prevents entry of the micro-organisms. Mucus coating of the
epithelium lining the respiratory, gastrointestinal and
7. Heterotypic Vaccine: Heterologous vaccines also known urogenital tracts also help in trapping microbes entering our
as “Jennerian vaccines”, are vaccines that are pathogens of body.
other animals that either do not cause disease or cause mild • Physiological Barriers: Acid in the stomach, saliva in the
disease in the organism being treated. mouth, tears from eyes-all prevent microbial growth.
• Cellular Barriers: Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our
8. mRNA Vaccine: An mRNA vaccine (or RNA vaccine) is a body like polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL-
novel type of vaccine which is composed of the nucleic acid neutrophils) and monocytes and natural killer (type of
RNA, packaged within a vector such as lipid nanoparticles. lymphocytes) in the blood as well as macrophages in
tissues can phagocytose and destroy microbes.
• Cytokine Barriers: Virus-infected cells secrete proteins
called interferons which protect non-infected cells from
further viral infection.

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Acquired Immunity Active and Passive Immunity
• Acquired immunity is pathogen specific. It is • When a host is exposed to antigens [a substance
characterized by memory. This means that our body which the body recognizes as alien and which induces
when it encounters a pathogen for the first time an immune response], which may be in the form of
produces a response called primary response which is living or dead microbes or other proteins, antibodies
of low intensity. are produced in the host body. This type of immunity
• Subsequent encounter with the same pathogen is called active immunity.
elicits a highly intensified secondary or anamnestic • Active immunity is slow and takes time to give
response. This is ascribed to the fact that our body its full effective response. Injecting the microbes
appears to have memory of the first encounter. deliberately during immunization or infectious
• The primary and secondary immune responses organisms gaining access into body during natural
are carried out with the help of two special types of infection induce active immunity.
lymphocytes present in our blood, i.e., B-lymphocytes • When ready-made antibodies are directly given
and T-lymphocytes. to protect the body against foreign agents, it is called
• The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins passive immunity.
in response to pathogens into our blood to fight with • Do you know why mother’s milk is considered
them. These proteins are called Antibodies [a blood very essential for the newborn infant? The yellowish
protein produced by the body in response to and fluid colostrum secreted by mother during the initial
counteracting an antigen]. days of lactation has abundant antibodies (IgA) to
• The T-cells themselves do not secrete antibodies protect the infant.
but help B cells produce them. • The foetus also receives some antibodies from
• Each antibody molecule has four peptide chains, their mother, through the placenta during pregnancy.
two small called light chains and two longer called These are some examples of passive immunity.
heavy chains. Hence, an antibody is represented as
H2L2. Auto Immunity
• Different types of antibodies are produced in our
body. IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG are some of them. • Memory-based acquired immunity evolved in
• Because these antibodies are found in the blood, higher vertebrates based on the ability to
the response is also called as humoral immune differentiate foreign organisms (e.g., pathogens)
response. This is one of the two types of our acquired from self-cells.
immune response – antibody mediated. The second • While we still do not understand the basis of
type is called cell-mediated immune response or cell this, two corollaries of this ability have to be
mediated immunity (CMI). The T-lymphocytes understood.
mediate CMI. • One, higher vertebrates can distinguish
• Very often, when some human organs like heart, foreign molecules as well as foreign organisms.
eye, liver, kidney fail to function satisfactorily, Most of the experimental immunology deals with
transplantation is the only remedy to enable the this aspect.
patient to live a normal life. Then a search begins – to • Two, sometimes, due to genetic and other
find a suitable donor. Why is it that the organs cannot unknown reasons, the body attacks self-cells. This
be taken from just anybody? What is it that the results in damage to the body and is called auto-
doctors check? immune disease.
• Grafts from just any source – an animal, another • Rheumatoid arthritis which affects many
primate, or any human beings cannot be made since people in our society is an auto-immune disease.
the grafts would be rejected sooner or later. Tissue
matching, blood group matching are essential before
undertaking any graft/transplant and even after this
the patient has to take immuno-suppresants all his/her
life. The body is able to differentiate ‘self’ and
‘nonself’ and the cell-mediated immune response is
responsible for the graft rejection.

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 FundamentalConcepts in Vaccination
Vaccines
How Are Inactivated Vaccines Created?
Vaccines are made from weakened or dead germs that The common means to make a pathogen safe for
can cause disease, such as bacteria, viruses, or toxins. use in a vaccine is by treatment with heat or
They trigger the body's immune system to produce an chemicals. This kills the pathogen but still
immune response that's similar to what happens when allows it to induce an immune response to at
least some of the antigens contained within
the body is exposed to a disease. However, vaccines the organism.
don't cause the disease or put the recipient at risk of Heat inactivation is often unsatisfactory because
complications. a it causes extensive denaturation of proteins.
Immunization Chemical inactivation with formaldehyde or
various alkylating agents has been
Immunization is the process of becoming immune to a successful.
disease through vaccination. (e.g.: Salk Polio vaccine, Leptospirosis (2- and 4-
Vaccination serovar) vaccines, Some Borrelia burgdorferi
(canine Lyme disease) vaccines, Parenteral
Bordetella bronchiseptica vaccine
Vaccination is the act of introducing a vaccine into the
body to produce protection from a specific disease.
How is Ender's vaccine prepared ?
Vaccine administration
The enabling breakthrough for the vaccine came
Vaccines are usually administered through a needle with Enders' poliovirus propagation in cell
injection, but some can be taken orally or sprayed into cultures of nonneural tissue.
the nose. Trivalent killed Salk polio vaccine was prepared
using virus grown in Macaques monkey renal
Multiple doses
cell cultures and was licensed in 1955 which
faced many problems.
Children and adults may need multiple doses of a A new indigenous was contaminating Macaques
vaccine to develop a protective immune response. monkey polyoma virus, SV40 which was
Vaccine efficacy resistant to Salk vaccine.
Vaccine efficacy measures how well a vaccine protects Discovery of SV40 virus was derived to use kidneys
against a disease. for cell culture from Macaques monkeys that
Newer vaccines were not infected with the then ubiquitous
Newer vaccines contain the blueprint for producing presence of indigenous viruses.
Renal cells from African Cercopithecus monkey
antigens instead of the antigen itself.
were found to be highly!
Traditional Methods production
"
of Vaccine . permissive to
viral replication with
cytopathogenic change, and allowed to detect the
TYPES OF TRADITIONAL VACCINES
presence of hitherto undetectable agents.
Inactivated vaccine preparation
• Efforts to overcome the highly variable potency of
Live vaccine preparation
the killed vaccine led us to develop a purified
Toxoid vaccines
poliomyelitis vaccine but was ultimately
Subunit vaccines
discontinued for commercial reasons.
INACTIVATED VACCINE PREPARATION Disadvantages:
An inactivated vaccine is one that uses a dead or Even though the pathogens they contain are killed,
killed virus or bacteria to help your body develop inactivated whole-organism vaccines still carry
an immune response. certain risks.
An inactivated vaccine cannot cause the particular Large quantities of the infectious agent must be
disease (e.g. flu and others below) that it is handled prior to inactivation, and those exposed to
intended to prevent. the process are at risk of infection
Some inactivated vaccines (e.g. polio and pertussis) Inactivated vaccines are generally less immunogenic
require multiple doses and periodic boosters for and tend not to have an extended duration of
protection to continue. Live vaccines require only immunity (memory) compared to attenuated
one dose. vaccines
Inactivated vaccines often contain an adjuvant
intended to incite local inflammation and enhance
the immune response to the antigen.
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LIVE VACCINE PREPARATION Louis pasteur's work:
• Variolation, first brought to the UK from • The discovery of the Chicken cholera vaccine
Turkey by Lady Mary Wortley by Louis Pasteur revolutionized work in
was the first form of live vaccine. infectious diseases and canbe considered the
• Edward Jenner inoculated Phipps with material birth of immunology.
from a cow infected with cowpox, which • The notion of using a weakened form of the
resulted in a lesion indicating infection, and then disease to provide immunity was not new, but
seven weeks later with material from a smallpox Pasteur was the first to take the process to the
pustule. He was later cured. laboratory, impacting all virologists who followed
• Egg: measles, mumps vaccine, rubella vaccine, after him.
influenza vaccine, chicken pox, smallpox, oral • The microbe, weakened in the lab, had taught
polio the chicken immune system to fight the infection
vaccine. without causing any serious harm to the
chicken. This type of vaccine is calleda live,
Attenuation usually involves deletion of essential attenuated vaccine.
virulence factors or mutation of genes encoding
metabolic enzymes whose function is essential Research study:
for survival outside thelaboratory. • Live vaccines against measles, tuberculosis (BCG),
• Attenuated viruses produce infections that are polio (OPV) and smallpox reduce mortality more than
milder than the illnesses produced by the explainedby target-disease prevention.
virulent wild-typecounterparts from which they • It was hypothesised that revaccination in presence
are derived. of priorimmunity enhances beneficial non specific
• Attenuated OPV exhibits a different pattern of effects.
tropism than does wild-type poliovirus, since it • It might be beneficial to vaccinate women of
replicates well in the gastrointestinal tract but fertile age withlive vaccines to increase the amount
poorly in the central nervous system (CNS). In of maternal antibody.
contrast, wild-type virus replicates • It might be beneficial to give a live vaccine
robustly in both sites. together withantibody against the target disease.
• The hypothesis has generated testable deductions
Attenuated viruses used as vaccines depend for which if verified could lead to major changes in our
their efficacy on replication of the agent,
understanding ofvaccines and in the organisation of
which generates antibody and cellular
immunity, as well as innate immune vaccination programmes
IgG and IgA are secreted against OPV and
rotavirus.
Two current live attenuated vaccines are genetic
reassortants: influenza and one of the
rotavirus vaccines.
In the case of influenza, both live and
inactivated, the RNA segments coding for
hemagglutin and neuraminidase are
reassorted with RNA segments coding for
the six other viral proteins that are obtained
from attenuated strains.
Thus, the reassortant is attenuated but induces
antibody responses against the two viral
surface proteins.

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 • Both protein toxoids can be used to couple
haptens through any of the chemical
reactions described in this section. They
generate strong immunological responses in
VIVO.
• Toxoid vaccines are made from selected
toxins (proteins) that have been sufficiently
attenuated (rendered harmless) yet are able
to induce a humoral (antibody) immune
response.
• Toxoid vaccines tend not to have a
duration of immunity comparable to
attenuated viral vaccines; therefore,
multiple sequential initial doses may be
required to protect (especially among very
large and small breed dogs). Revaccination
(booster) may be required multiple times ina
Disadvantages: • single year depending on individual patient
Integration of the plasmid harbored by bacterial vaccine risk factors.
vehicles is a potential hazard.
• The route of administration of the vaccine may also be
SUBUNIT VACCINE
important when evaluating hazards. As live bacterial
• Many of the risks associated with
vaccines is fit for mucosal administration one must
attenuated or killed whole organism
remember that ingestion of foreign DNA does occur.
vaccines can be avoided with a strategy
• Peptides can be absorbed through the mucosa and
that uses only specific, purified
some may induce an allergic reaction.
macromolecules derived from the
• Vaccination using live bacterial vaccines or exposure to
pathogen.
the natural infections can lead to the formation of auto
• The three most common applications of
reactive antibodies
this strategy, referred to as a subunit
vaccine, are inactivated exotoxins or toxoids,
TOXOID VACCINE.. capsular polysaccharides or surface
• Toxoid proteins are biologically inactivated forms of glycoproteins,and key recombinant protein
toxins. antigens.
• The most often used toxoid is tetanus toxoid, but • Diphtheria and tetanus vaccines have
diphtheria-derived toxoids and other proteins are also been made by purifying the bacterial
used exotoxin and then inactivating it with
occasionally. formaldehyde to form a toxoid.
• Tetanus toxoid has 106 amine groups, 10 sulfhydryls, 81
tyrosine residues, and 14 histidines that may participate
in
conjugation reactions with hapten molecules.
• Diphtheria toxoid is derived from a protein secreted by
certain strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Its
molecular weight is approximately 63,000 Daltons.

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 -

Vaccination with the toxoid induces antitoxoid

antibodies, which are capable of binding to the
toxin and neutralizing itseffects.
• Conditions for the production of toxoid vaccines
must be closely controlled and balanced to avoid
excessive modification of the epitope structure
while alsoaccomplishing complete detoxification
• The virulence of some pathogenic bacteria
depends primarily on the antiphagocytic
properties of their hydrophilicpolysaccharide
capsule.
• These findings provide the rationale for
vaccines consistingof purified capsular
polysaccharides.

Streptococcus pneumoniae- 13 antigenically

distinctcapsular polysaccharides.
• Neisseria meningitidis- surface glycoproteins
DISADVANTAGES:
• One limitation of some subunit vaccines,
especially polysaccharide vaccines, is their
inability to activate T Helper cells. Instead, they
activate B cells in a thymus- independent type 2
(TI-2) manner, resulting in IgM production but
little class switching, no affinity maturation, and
little, if any,development of memory cells.

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Production of DPT/DTP Vaccine
For this reason, Tdap is much less likely than
• Diphtheria, Pertussis and Tetanus are potentially
DTaP to cause side effects such as pain, redness
serious bacterial diseases that can be safely
andtenderness in adolescents and
prevented in adults and children with vaccines.
adults.
• Diphtheria causes a thick membrane-like
• The Tdap vaccine is recommended-for most
covering in the back of the throat. It can lead
people 11 years and older who have not
to
previously received it.
breathing problems, paralysis, heart failure, and
• People due for a tetanus booster and
even death.
those with a wound that warrants
• Tetanus (also known as lockjaw) is a serious
tetanus vaccination can get Tdap or Td vaccine.
disease that causes painful tightening of the
• Td: The Td vaccine is the one people
muscles, usually all over the body.
commonly think of when they think of getting
• It can lead to “locking” of the jaw so the
their tetanus booster.
person cannot open their mouth or swallow.
• Like Tdap, it contains lesser quantities of
Tetanus leads to death in about 1 in 10 cases.
diphtheria protein to reduce the occurrence
• Pertussis (also known as whooping cough) is a
of side effects in adults.
highly contagious respiratory tract infection.
• Adults should get a dose of Tdap or Td
• Although it initially resembles an ordinary cold,
every 10 years as well as if they have a
whooping cough may eventually turn more
wound that warrants tetanus vaccination.
serious, particularly in infants.
• There are several different types of vaccines
that can safely prevent diphtheria, tetanus, and
pertussis. They are:
• DTaP (diphtheria, tetanus, and acellular How is the diphtheria vaccine made?
pertussis) vaccine, which is given to children • The bacteria that causes diphtheria makes
DT (diphtheria and tetanus) vaccine, which is given to a harmful protein, called a toxin. People
children, who
• Tdap (combined tetanus, diphtheria and acellular develop an immune response to this toxin are
pertussis) vaccine, which is given to protected against the disease.
adolescents and adults, • The diphtheria vaccine is made by taking
• Td (tetanus and diphtheria) vaccine, which is the diphtheria toxin and inactivating it with
given to adolescents and adults a chemical.
• The DTaP and Tdap vaccines both protect The inactivated toxin is called a "toxoid." Once
against three bacterial infections: diphtheria, injected, the toxoid causes an immune response
tetanus and to the toxin, but, unlike the toxin, it does not
pertussis, whereas the Td vaccine only protects cause disease.
against diphtheria and tetanus. • The diphtheria vaccine can cause mild side
• In addition, the vaccines vary in terms of who effects such as pain or soreness in the local
should receive them and the quantities of areaof the shot and occasionally a low-
vaccine grade fever.
proteins they contain:
• DTaP: The DTaP vaccine is given to infants and
young children in a series of five shots - at 2
months, 4 months, 6 months, 15 to 18 months, and
again at 4 to 6 years of age.
• Tdap: The Tdap vaccine is different from the
DTaP vaccine because it contains lesser
quantities of diphtheria and pertussis proteins.
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How is the diphtheria vaccine made?
Rabies is a preventable viral disease most often
• The bacteria that causes diphtheria makes a
transmitted through the bite of a rabid animal. The
harmful protein, called a toxin. People who
rabies virus infects the central nervous system of
develop an immune response to this toxin are
mammals, ultimately causing disease in the brain
protected against the disease.
and death.
• The diphtheria vaccine is made by taking the
• Rabies virus belongs to the order
diphtheria toxin and inactivating it with a
Mononegavirales, viruses with a non-segmented,
chemical.
negative-stranded RNA genomes.
The inactivated toxin is called a "toxoid." Once
• Within this group, viruses with a distinct “bullet”
injected, the toxoid causes an immune response
shape are classified in the Rhabdoviridae family,
to the toxin, but, unlike the toxin, it does not cause
which includes at least three genera of animal
disease.
viruses, Lyssavirus, Ephemerovirus, and
• The diphtheria vaccine can cause mild side
Vesiculovirus.
effects such as pain or soreness in the local
• The genus Lyssavirus includes rabies virus, Lagos
areaof the shot and occasionally a low-grade
bat, Mokola virus, Duvenhage virus, European bat
fever.
virus 1 & 2 and Australian bat virus.
How is the tetanus vaccine made?
• The bacteria that causes tetanus makes a
harmful protein, called a toxin. The name of Rabies vaccine is unique in that it is most often
the used after exposure to the disease. The only
tetanus toxin is tetanospasmin. people who typically get vaccinated as a
• The tetanus vaccine is made by taking the preventive measure (before exposure) are those
tetanus toxin and inactivating it with a who are at high risk for exposure, such as
chemical. The laboratory workers, veterinarians, animal
inactivated toxin is called a "toxoid." Once handlers, and travellers going to parts of the
injected, the toxoid elicits an immune response world where exposure to rabies is likely.
against the toxin, without causing the disease. • Once someone has been exposed, their
• Like the diphtheria vaccine, the tetanus vaccine dosing will vary depending upon their
can cause mild side effects such as pain or vaccination history:
soreness in the local area of the shot and • For those who have been exposed to rabies
occasionally a low-grade fever. without previous vaccination, the vaccine is
• The tetanus vaccine is also a rare cause of a given shortly after exposure to prevent the
severe allergic reaction. progressive, invariably fatal disease, rabies.
• In these situations, a total of four shots
are given in the shoulder muscle of adults
or the thigh of children.
In India, DTP vaccine was introduced • The first shot is given immediately after
in routine exposure to a rabid animal, then again
three days later, seven days later, and 14
immunization in 1978, resulting in days later. The person should also receive
substantial another shot called rabies immune globulin
decline in incidence in the paediatric (RIG).
populations.

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• On July 6, 1885, Louis Pasteur and his
How is the rabies vaccine made?
colleagues injected the first of 14 daily doses of
• The rabies vaccine is grown in cells in the
rabbit spinal cord suspensions containing
laboratory.
progressively inactivated rabies virus into 9-
• Three different kinds of cells are used:
year-old Joseph Meister,who had been severely
• Human cells obtained from a single elective
bitten by a rabid dog 2 days before.
abortion performed in the early 1960s
• This was the beginning of the modern era of
• Chick embryo cells
immunisation, which had been presaged by
• Foetal rhesus lung cells
Edward Jenner nearly 100 years earlier.
• After the virus is grown, it is purified away
• Pasteur's decision to treat the child followed 4
from the cells and treated with a chemical
years of intensive research, culminating in the
(called
development of a vaccine capable of protecting
beta-propiolactone) that completely kills the virus.
experimentally challenged rabbits and dogs.
• The rabies vaccine is, like influenza and
• The immunization was successful; and the
hepatitis A vaccines, a "killed" viral vaccine.
Pasteur rabies immunization procedure was rapidly
• The rabies vaccine works remarkably well.
adopted throughout the world.
Studies indicate that if the vaccine is given
immediately and appropriately to someone who
was bitten by a rabid animal, it is 100 percent
effective.
• Although the rabies vaccine used today does
have a fairly high rate of side effects, they are
generally mild like sore arms, headache, nausea
and vomiting.

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Modern vaccines: Subunit Vaccines Conjugate vaccines, a special type of subunit
Instead of the entire microbe, subunit vaccines vaccine, get around this problem. When making a
include only the antigens that best stimulate the conjugate vaccine, scientists link antigens or
immune system. In some cases, these vaccines use toxoids from a microbe that an infant's immune
epitopes-the very specific parts of the antigen system can recognize to the polysaccharides. The
that antibodies or Tcells recognize and bind to. linkage helps the immature immune system react
Because subunit vaccines contain only the to polysaccharide coatings and defend against the
essential antigens and not all the other molecules disease-causing bacterium.
that make up the microbe, the chances of E.g. The vaccine that protects against Haemophilus
adverse reactions to the vaccine are influenzae type B (Hib) and Pneumococcal
lower.Subunit vaccines can contain anywhere from Conjugate Vaccine (PCV).
1 to 20 or more antigens. Of course, identifying Recombinant Vector Vaccines
which antigens best stimulate the immune system Recombinant vector vaccines are experimental
is a tricky, time-consuming process. Once vaccines similar to DNA vaccines, but they use an
scientists do that, however, they can make subunit attenuated virus or bacterium to introduce
vaccines in one of two ways: microbial DNA to cells of the body.
"Vector" refers to the virus or bacterium used as
• They can grow the microbe in the laboratory the carrier.
and then use chemicals to break it apart and In nature, viruses latch on to cells and inject
gather the important antigens. their
• They can manufacture the antigen molecules genetic material into them. In the lab, scientists
from th microbe using recombinant DNA have taken advantage of this process. They have
technology. Vaccines produced this way are called figured out how to take the roomy genomes of
"recombinant subunit vaccines."
certain harmless or attenuated viruses and
A recombinant subunit vaccine has been made for insert portions of the genetic material from
the hepatitis B virus. Scientists inserted hepatitis other microbes into them. The carrier viruses
B then ferry that microbial DNA to cells.
genes that code for important antigens into Recombinant vector vaccines closely mimic a
common baker's yeast. The yeast then produced natural infection and therefore do a good job of
the stimulating the immune system. Attenuated
antigens, which the scientists collected and bacteria also can be used as vectors. In this
purified for use in the vaccine. Research is case, the inserted genetic material causes the
continuing on a bacteria to display the antigens of other
recombinant subunit vaccine against hepatitis C microbes on its surface. In effect, the harmless
virus. bacterium mimics a harmful microbe, provoking
E.g.: Botulism, Pneumonia, Meningitis, Rabies, an immune response.
Influenza, Hepatitis-B etc. Researchers are working on both bacterial and
Conjugate Vaccines viral- based recombinant vector vaccines for HIV,
If a bacterium possesses an outer coating of rabies, and measles.
sugar molecules called polysaccharides, as many
harmful
bacteria do, researchers may try making a
conjugate vaccine for it. Polysaccharide coatings
disguise a bacterium's antigens so that the
immature immune systems of infants and younger
children can't recognize or respond to them.

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 Production of a modern vaccine (Hepatitis B)
DNA Vaccines
Hepatitis B
Once the genes from a microbe have been
Hepatitis B is a potentially life-threatening liver
analyzed, scientists could attempt to create a
infection caused by the hepatitis Bvirus (HBV). It is a
DNA vaccine
major global health problem. It can cause chronic
against it.
infection and puts people at high risk of death from
Still in the experimental stages, these vaccines
cirrhosis and liver cancer. There is no specific
show great promise, and several types are
being tested in humans. DNA vaccines take treatment for acute hepatitis B. However, Hep Bcan
immunization to a new technological level. be prevented by currently available safe and
These vaccines dispense with both the whole effective vaccine. A vaccine against hepatitis B has
organism and its parts and get right down to been available since 1982. The vaccine is 95%
the essentials: the microbe's genetic material. effective in preventing infection and the
In particular, DNA vaccines use the genes that development of chronic disease and liver cancer
code for those all-important antigens. due to hepatitis B
Researchers have found that when the genes
for a microbe's antigens are introduced into
the body, some cells will take up that DNA.
The DNA then instructs those cells to make
the antigen molecules. The cells secrete the
antigens and display them on their surfaces. In
other words, the body's own cells become
vaccine-making factories, creating the antigens
necessary to stimulate the immune system. A
DNA vaccine against a microbe would evoke a
strong antibody response to the free-floating
antigen secreted by cells, and the vaccine also Steps in downstream processing:
would stimulate a strong cellular response • Cells are harvested by centrifugation.
against the • Filtration is performed to remove any
particulates.
microbial antigens displayed on cell surfaces.
• Cell lysis carried out to release intracellular
The DNA vaccine couldn't cause the disease
protein.
because it wouldn't contain the microbe, just
• Purification of the desired antigen is
copies of a few of its genes. In addition, DNA
performed by multiple chromatography steps
vaccines are relatively easy and inexpensive to
• Affinity Hydrophobic lon-exchange
design and produce. So-called naked DNA
• Efficacy and safety tests are carried out using
vaccines consist of DNA that is administered
lab animals. Product is packed and stored under
directly into the body. These vaccines
appropriate conditions.
can be administered with a needle and syringe
or with a needle-less device that uses high-
pressure gas to shoot microscopic gold
particles coated with DNA directly into cells.
Sometimes, the DNA is mixed with molecules
that facilitate its uptake by the body's cells.
Naked DNA
vaccines being tested in humans include those
against the viruses that cause influenza and
herpes.
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Dosage and administration
• Hepatitis B vaccines are available in liquid
single-dose glass vials.
• 0.5 ml dose is recommended to be
• administered using a disposable syringe. of
Route:- Intramuscular (IM) injection into the
right thigh. Schedule: 3 doses
ne
At birth 1 month 6-12 months T

dina
Hepatitis B Vaccine Adverse Reactions:
• Pain at injection site Fatigue

men
• Headache
• Temperature >99.9°F (37.7°C)
• Severe systemic reactions are very rare

with
-source us" I yo

Much a
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Notes

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Notes.

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 Thank you
kaka !!
Idi kuda cheppala ?? Manonve ga chesesthav le !!

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ingson
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