Unit- I : Sensors & Transducer

Definition, Classification & selection of sensors, Measurement of displacement

using Potentiometer, LVDT & Optical Encoder, Measurement of force using
strain gauge, Measurement of pressure using LVDT based diaphragm &
piezoelectric sensor.
Sensor
It is defined as an element which produces signal relating to the quantity being
measured. Here, the output is usually an „electrical quantity‟ and measurand is a
„physical quantity, property or condition which is to be measured‟.

Typically sensor system: convert the desired parameter into an electrically

measurable signal
General Sensor system:
Sensor/ transducer: sense “real world” parameter and converted into a suitable
signal
Signal conditioning: converts the sensed signal into an analog or digital electrical
value.

The desirable features of sensors are Range /span Errors, accuracy, Non
linearity, Hysteresis, Dead band and Saturation, Output impedance,
Repeatability, Reliability, Sensitivity, Resolution, Frequency Response,
Response time calibration.

Let us consider a measurement system. It is composed of an input device which

senses the environment or surrounding to generate an output and, a signal
processing block which processes the signal from input device and an output
device which presents the signal to human or machine operator in a more readable
and usable form.

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The initial stage is input device which is mainly what we are going to discuss in
this chapter.

Sensor
A sensor is a device that responds to any change in physical phenomena or
environmental variables like heat, pressure, humidity, movement etc. This change
affects the physical, chemical or electromagnetic properties of the sensors which is
further processed to a more usable and readable form. Sensor is the heart of a
measurement system. It is the first element that comes in contact with
environmental variables to generate an output.

The signal produced by the sensor is equivalent to the quantity to be measured.

Sensors are used to measure a particular characteristic of any object or device. For
example a thermocouple, a thermocouple will sense heat energy (temperature) at
one of its junction and produce equivalent output voltage which can be measured
by a voltage read by the voltmeter. All sensors need to be calibrated with respect
to some reference value or standard for accurate measurement.

Note that a transducer and a sensor are not the same. In the above given example of
thermocouple. The thermocouple acts as a transducer but the additional circuits or
components needed like the voltmeter, a display etc together from a temperature
sensor.
Hence the transducer will just convert the energy from one form to another and all
the remaining work is done by the additional circuits connected. This whole device
forms a sensor. Sensors and transducers are closely related to each other.

Characteristics of Sensors
A good sensor should have the following characteristics

1. High Sensitivity: Sensitivity indicates how much the output of the device
changes with unit change in input (quantity to be measured). For example
the voltage of a temperature sensor changes by 1mV for every 1 oC change in
temperature than the sensitivity of the sensor is said to be 1mV/oC.
2. Linearity: The output should change linearly with the input.

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 3. High Resolution: Resolution is the smallest change in the input that the
device can detect.
4. Less Noise and Disturbance.
5. Less power consumption.

Types of Sensors
Sensor classification

Based on the quantity being measured

 Temperature: Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), Thermistor,

Thermocouple
 Pressure: Bourdon tube, manometer, diaphragms, pressure gauge
 Force/ torque: Strain gauge, load cell
 Speed/ position: Tachometer, encoder, LVDT
 Light: Photo-diode, Light dependent resistor
And so on.

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(2) Active and passive sensors: Based on power requirement sensors can be
classified as active and passive. Active sensors are those which do not require
external power source for their functioning. They generate power within
themselves to operate and hence called as self-generating type. The energy for
functioning is derived from the quantity being measured. For example piezoelectric
crystal generate electrical output (charge) when subjected to acceleration.
Passive sensors require external power source for their functioning. Most of the
resistive, inductive and capacitive sensors are passive (just as resistors, inductors
and capacitors are called passive devices).

(3) Analog and digital sensor: An analog sensor converts the physical quantity
being measured to analog form (continuous in time). Thermocouple, RTD, Strain
gauge are called analog sensors. A digital sensor produces output in the form of
pulse. Encoders are example of digital sensors.

(4) Inverse sensors: There are some sensors which are capable of sensing a
physical quantity to convert it to other form and also sense the output signal form
to get back the quantity in original form. For example a piezoelectric crystal when
subjected to vibration generates voltage. At the same time when a piezo crystal is
subjected to varying voltage they begin to vibrate. This property make them
suitable to use in microphone and speakers.

Transducer
Transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form i.e,.
the given non-electrical energy is converted into an electrical energy.

Types of Transducers

There are two types of transducers, they are:

1. Active transducers
2. Passive transducers

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Active transducers

Active transducer is a device which converts the given non-electrical energy into
electrical energy by itself. Thermocouple, Photovoltaic cell and more are the best
examples of the transducers
Passive transducers
Passive transducer is a device which converts the given non-electrical energy into
electrical energy by external force. Resistance strain gauge, Differential
Transformer are the examples for the Passive transducers.

Difference between Active & Passive Transducer:

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Requirements of a Good Transducers
 Smaller in size and weight.
 High sensitivity.
 Ability to withstand environmental conditions.
 Low cost.

Classification of Transducers

The classifications of transducers are made from the following basis:

1. Based on the physical phenomenon
 Primary transducer
 Secondary transducer

2. Based on the power type Classification

 Active transducer
 Passive transducer

3. Based on the type of output the classification of transducers are made

 Analog transducer
 Digital transducer

4. Based on the electrical phenomenon is a best Classification of Trasnducer

 Resistive transducer
 Capacitive transducer
 Inductive transducer
 Photoelectric transducer
 Photovoltaic transducer

5. Based on the non-electrical phenomenon Classification of transducer

 Linear displacement
 Rotary displacement

6. Based on the transduction phenomenon

 Transducer
 Inverse transducer.

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Factor to be considered while Selecting Transducer
 It should have high input impedance and low output impedance, to avoid
loading effect.
 It should have good resolution over is entire selected range.
 It must be highly sensitive to desired signal and insensitive to unwanted signal.
 Preferably small in size.
 It should be able to work n corrosive environment.
 It should be able to withstand pressure, shocks, vibrations etc.
 It must have high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
 Selected transducer must be free from errors.

Transducers
Basically, Transducer converts one form of energy into another form of energy.
The transducer, which converts non-electrical form of energy into electrical form
of energy is known as electrical transducer. The block diagram of electrical
transducer is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, electrical transducer will produce an output, which has
electrical energy. The output of electrical transducer is equivalent to the input,
which has non-electrical energy.
Types of Electrical Transducers
Mainly, the electrical transducers can be classified into the following two types.
 Active Transducers
 Passive Transducers

Active Transducers
The transducer, which can produce one of the electrical quantities such as voltage
and current is known as active transducer. It is also called self-generating
transducer, since it doesn‟t require any external power supply.
The block diagram of active transducer is shown in below figure.

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As shown in the figure, active transducer will produce an electrical quantity (or
signal), which is equivalent to the non-electrical input quantity (or signal).
Active transducer is a transducer, which converts the non-electrical quantity into
an electrical quantity. Let us consider the non-electrical quantities such as
pressure, illumination of light and temperature. Hence, we will get the following
three active transducers depending on the non-electrical quantity that we choose.

 Piezo Electric Transducer

 Photo Electric Transducer
 Thermo Electric Transducer
1. Piezo Electric Transducer
An active transducer is said to be piezo electric transducer, when it produces an
electrical quantity which is equivalent to the pressure input. The following three
substances exhibit piezo electric effect.
 Quartz
 Rochelle salts
 Tourmaline

The piezo-electric effect exhibited by these three substances is Tourmaline,

Quartz, and Rochelle salts, in this ascending order. The ascending order of
mechanical strength having by these three substances is Rochelle salts, Quartz,
Tourmaline.
Quartz is used as piezo electric transducer, as it exhibits the moderate piezo
electric effect and having moderate mechanical strength among those three piezo
electric substances.
Quartz Transducer
The circuit diagram of Quartz transducer is shown in below figure. As shown in
the figure, quartz crystal is placed between base and force summing member. The
output voltage can be measured across the metal electrodes, which are placed on
two sides of quartz crystal.

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The output voltage, V0 of above pressure transducer will be

2. Photo Electric Transducer

An active transducer is said to be photo electric transducer, when it produces an
electrical quantity which is equivalent to the illumination of light input.
The circuit diagram of photo electric transducer is shown in below figure.

The working of photo electric transducer is mentioned below.

 Step1 − The photo electric transducer releases electrons, when the light falls
on cathode of it.
 Step2 − The photo electric transducer produces a current, I in the circuit due
to the attraction of electrons towards anode.
We can find the sensitivity of photo electric transducer by using the following
formula.

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Where,
S: is the sensitivity of photo electric transducer
I: is the output current of photo electric transducer
i: is the illumination of the light input of photo electric transducer
3. Thermo Electric Transducer
An active transducer is said to be thermo electric transducer, when it produces
an electrical quantity which is equivalent to temperature input. The following two
transducers are the examples of thermo electric transducers.
 Thermistor Transducer
 Thermocouple Transducer

Thermistor Transducer:
The resistor, which depends on temperature is called thermal resistor. In short, it
is called Thermistor. The temperature coefficient of thermistor is negative. That
means, as temperature increases, the resistance of thermistor decreases.
Mathematically, the relation between resistance of thermistor and temperature
can be represented as

Where,
R1: is the resistance of thermistor at temperature T10K
R2: is the resistance of thermistor at temperature T20K
β: is the temperature constant
The advantage of Thermistor transducer is that it will produce a fast and stable
response.
Thermocouple Transducer:
Thermocouple transducer produces an output voltage for a corresponding change
of temperature at the input. If two wires of different metals are joined together in
order to create two junctions, then that entire configuration is
called Thermocouple. The circuit diagram of basic thermocouple is shown below

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The above thermocouple has two metals, A & B and two junctions, 1 & 2.
Consider a constant reference temperature, T2 at junction 2. Let the temperature at
junction, 1 is T1. Thermocouple generates an emf (electro motive force),
whenever the values of T1 and T2 are different.
That means, thermocouple generates an emf, whenever there is a temperature
difference between the two junctions, 1 & 2 and it is directly proportional to the
temperature difference between those two junctions. Mathematically, it can be
represented as

Where,
e : is the emf generated by thermocouple
The above thermocouple circuit can be represented as shown in below figure for
practical applications.

The part of the circuit, which lies between hot & cold junctions including those
two junctions is an equivalent model of basic thermocouple. A PMMC
galvanometer is connected across the cold junction and it deflects according to the
emf generated across cold junction. Thermocouple transducer is the most
commonly used thermoelectric transducer.

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 Passive Transducers
The transducer, which can‟t produce the electrical quantities such as voltage and
current is known as passive transducer. But, it produces the variation in one of
passive elements like resistor (R), inductor (L) and capacitor (C). Passive
transducer requires external power supply.
The block diagram of passive transducer is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, passive transducer will produce variation in the passive
element in accordance with the variation in the non-electrical input quantity (or
signal).

Passive transducer is a transducer, which produces the variation in passive

element. We will consider the passive elements like resistor, inductor and
capacitor. Hence, we will get the following three passive transducers depending
on the passive element that we choose.

 Resistive Transducer
 Inductive Transducer
 Capacitive Transducer
Resistive Transducer:
A passive transducer is said to be a resistive transducer, when it produces the
variation (change) in resistance value. the following formula for resistance, R of a
metal conductor.

Where,
ρ: is the resistivity of conductor
l: is the length of conductor
A: is the cross sectional area of the conductor

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The resistance value depends on the three parameters ρ, l & A. So, we can make
the resistive transducers based on the variation in one of the three parameters ρ,
l & A. The variation in any one of those three parameters changes the resistance
value.
 Resistance, R is directly proportional to the resistivity of conductor, ρ. So,
as resistivity of conductor, ρ increases the value of resistance, R also
increases. Similarly, as resistivity of conductor, ρ decreases the value of
resistance, R also decreases.
 Resistance, R is directly proportional to the length of conductor, l. So, as
length of conductor, l increases the value of resistance, R also increases.
Similarly, as length of conductor, l decreases the value of resistance, R also
decreases.
 Resistance, R is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the
conductor, A. So, as cross sectional area of the conductor, A increases the
value of resistance, R decreases. Similarly, as cross sectional area of the
conductor, A decreases the value of resistance, R increases.
Inductive Transducer:
A passive transducer is said to be an inductive transducer, when it produces the
variation (change) in inductance value. the following formula for inductance, L
of an inductor.

……………………….(1)
Where,
N: is the number of turns of coil
S: is the number of turns of coil
the following formula for reluctance, S of coil.

……………………(2)
Where,
l: is the length of magnetic circuit
μ: is the permeability of core
A: is the area of magnetic circuit through which flux flows
Substitute, equation 2 in equation 1:-

……………………………(3)
From Equation 1 & Equation 3, we can conclude that the inductance value
depends on the three parameters N, S & μ. So, we can make the inductive

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transducers based on the variation in one of the three parameters N, S & μ.
Because, the variation in any one of those three parameters changes the
inductance value.
 Inductance, L is directly proportional to square of the number of turns of
coil. So, as number of turns of coil, N increases the value of
inductance, L also increases. Similarly, as number of turns of
coil, N decreases the value of inductance, L also decreases.
 Inductance, L is inversely proportional to reluctance of coil, S. So, as
reluctance of coil, SS increases the value of inductance, L decreases.
Similarly, as reluctance of coil, S decreases the value of
inductance, L increases.
 Inductance, L is directly proportional to permeability of core, μ. So, as
permeability of core, μ increases the value of inductance, L also increases.
Similarly, as permeability of core, μ decreases the value of inductance, L
also decreases.
Capacitive Transducer:
A passive transducer is said to be a capacitive transducer, when it produces the
variation (change) in capacitance value. the following formula for capacitance, C
of a parallel plate capacitor.

Where,
ε: is the permittivity or the dielectric constant
A: is the effective area of two plates
D: is the effective area of two plates

The capacitance value depends on the three parameters ε, A & d. So, we can make
the capacitive transducers based on the variation in one of the three parameters
ε, A & d. Because, the variation in any one of those three parameters changes the
capacitance value.

 Capacitance, C is directly proportional to permittivity, ε. So, as

permittivity, ε increases the value of capacitance, C also increases.
Similarly, as permittivity, ε decreases the value of capacitance, C also
decreases.
 Capacitance, C is directly proportional to the effective area of two
plates, A. So, as effective area of two plates, A increases the value of

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 capacitance, C also increases. Similarly, as effective area of two
plates, A decreases the value of capacitance, C also decreases.
 Capacitance, C is inversely proportional to the distance between two
plates, d. So, as distance between two plates, d increases the value of
capacitance, C decreases. Similarly, as distance between two
plates, d decreases the value of capacitance, C increases.

Measurement of Displacement
The physical quantities such as displacement, velocity, force, temperature & etc.
are all non-electrical quantities. active transducer converts the physical quantity
into an electrical signal. Whereas, passive transducer converts the physical
quantity into the variation in passive element.
So, based on the requirement we can choose either active transducer or passive
transducer. Let us discuss how to measure displacement by using a passive
transducer. If a body that moves from one point to another point in a straight line,
then the length between those two points is called displacement.
We have the following three passive transducers

 Resistive Transducer
 Inductive Transducer
 Capacitive Transducer
Now, let us discuss about the measurement of displacement with these three
passive transducers one by one.
1. Measurement of Displacement using Resistive Transducer
The circuit diagram of resistive transducer, which is used to measure
displacement is shown in below figure.

The above circuit consists of a potentiometer and a voltage source, VS. We can
say that these two are connected in parallel with respect to the points A & B.

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Potentiometer has a sliding contact, which can be varied. So, the point C is a
variable one. In above circuit, the output voltage, V0 is measured across the
points A & C.
Mathematically, the relation between the voltages and distances can be
represented as

Therefore, we should connect the body whose displacement is to be measured to

the sliding contact. So, whenever the body moves in a straight line, the point C
also varies. Due to this, the output voltage, V0 also changes accordingly.
In this case, we can find the displacement by measuring the output voltage, V0.
2. Measurement of Displacement using Inductive Transducer
The circuit diagram of inductive transducer, which is used to measure
displacement is shown in below figure.

The transformer present in above circuit has a primary winding and two secondary
windings. Here, the ending points of two secondary windings are joined together.
So, we can say that these two secondary windings are connected in series
opposition.
The voltage, VP is applied across the primary winding of transformer. Let, the
voltage developed across each secondary winding is 𝑉𝑆1 and 𝑉𝑆2. The output
voltage, V0 is taken across the starting points of two secondary windings.
Mathematically, the output voltage, 𝑉0 can be written as
V0=VS1−VS2

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The transformer present in above circuit is called differential transformer, since
it produces an output voltage, which is the difference between VS1 and VS2.
 If the core is at central position, then the output voltage, V0 will be equal to
zero. Because, the respective magnitudes & phases of VS1 and VS2 are same.
 If the core is not at central position, then the output voltage, V0 will be
having some magnitude & phase. Because, the respective magnitudes &
phases of VS1 and VS2 are not equal.
Therefore, we should connect the body whose displacement is to be measured to
the central core. So, whenever the body moves in a straight line, the central
position of the core varies. Due to this, the output voltage, V0 also changes
accordingly.
In this case, we can find the displacement by measuring the output voltage, V0.
The magnitude & phase of output voltage, V0 represents the displacement of the
body & its direction respectively.
3. Measurement of Displacement using Capacitive Transducer
The circuit diagram of capacitive transducer, which is used to measure
displacement is shown in below figure.

The capacitor, which is present in above circuit has two parallel plates. Among
which, one plate is fixed and the other plate is a movable one. Due to this, the
spacing between these two plates will also vary. the value of capacitance changes
as the spacing between two plates of capacitor changes.
Therefore, we should connect the body whose displacement is to be measured to
the movable plate of a capacitor. So, whenever the body moves in a straight line,
the spacing between the two plates of capacitor varies. Due to this, the capacitance
value changes.

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 Measurement of displacement
using Potentiometer, LVDT & Optical Encoder
The potentiometer is also called as pots and it one of the most commonly used
devise for measuring the displacement of the body. The potentiometer is the
electrical type of transducer or sensor and it is of resistive type because it works on
the principle of change of resistance of the wire with its length. The resistance of
the wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire, thus as the length of the
wire changes the resistance of the wire also changes.

Principle of Working of Potentiometers:

The potentiometer is also called as pots and it one of the most commonly used
devise for measuring the displacement of the body. The potentiometer is the
electrical type of transducer or sensor and it is of resistive type because it works on
the principle of change of resistance of the wire with its length. The resistance of
the wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire, thus as the length of the
wire changes the resistance of the wire also changes.

What is Potentiometer?

The potentiometer is an electric circuit in which the resistance can be changed

manually by the sliding contacts. The typical potentiometer is shown in the figure
below. Here the voltage Vs is applied across the two points of the wire A and B. C
is the variable contact point between A and B and its position can be changed by
the sliding contact. The voltage Vo is measured between the points A and C.

As per the resistance law of the conductor, the resistance of the conductor AC
changes as the length of the wire AC changes. Accordingly the output voltage Vo

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between A and C also changes. The point C is the slider whose position is changed
by the operator or by the motion of the body whose displacement is to be
measured. The relationship between the length of the conductors and the voltage
across them can be expressed as:

Vo/Vs = AC/AB

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 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for
measurement of linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm
in general. It has non linearity error ± 0.25% of full range. It has three coils
symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is primary coil and
the other two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in series in such a
way that their output suppose each other. A magnetic core attached to the element
of which displacement is to be monitored is placed inside the insulated tube.

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  Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating
electromagnetic forces (emfs) are generated in secondary coils. When the
magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion in each of the
secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero.

• If the core is displaced from the central position more in secondary coil 1
than in coil 2, then more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the
other, and there is a resultant voltage from the coils. If the magnetic core is
further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in proportion
with the displacement With the help of signal processing devices such as
low pass filters and demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by
using LVDT sensors.

 A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the

measurement of rotation. Readers are suggested to prepare a report on
principle of working and construction of RVDT sensor.

Applications of LVDT sensors:

 Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications

 To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
 To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
 For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for
dispatch
 To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction
welding process
 To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
 To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM

Optical Encoder

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 Measurement of force using strain gauge

A strain gauge is a resistor used to measure strain on an object. When an external

force is applied on an object, due to which there is a deformation occurs in the
shape of the object. This deformation in the shape is both compressive or tensile is
called strain, and it is measured by the strain gauge. When an object deforms
within the limit of elasticity, either it becomes narrower and longer or it become
shorter and broadens. As a result of it, there is a change in resistance end-to-end.
The strain gauge is sensitive to that small changes occur in the geometry of an
object. By measuring the change in resistance of an object, the amount of induced
stress can be calculated.

The change in resistance normally has very small value, and to sense that small
change, strain gauge has a long thin metallic strip arrange in a zigzag pattern on a
non-conducting material called the carrier, as shown below, so that it can enlarge

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the small amount of stress in the group of parallel lines and could be measured
with high accuracy. The gauge is literally glued onto the device by an adhesive.

When an object shows physical deformation, its electrical resistance gets change
and that change is then measured by gage.

Strain Gauge Bridge Circuit

Strain gauge bridge circuit shows the measured stress by the degree of
discrepancy, and uses a voltmeter in the center of the bridge to provide an accurate
measurement of that imbalance:

In this circuit, R1 and R3are the ratio arms equal to each other, and R2 is the
rheostat arm has a value equal to the strain gage resistance. When the gauge is
unstrained, the bridge is balanced, and voltmeter shows zero value. As there is a
change in resistance of strain gauge, the bridge gets unbalanced and producing an
indication at the voltmeter. The output voltage from the bridge can be amplified
further by a differential amplifier.

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Variation of Temperature of Strain Gauge
One more factor that affects the resistance of the gauge is temperature. If the
temperature is more resistance will be more and if the temperature is less the
resistance will be less. This is a common property of all the conductors. We can
overcome this problem by using strain gauges that are self- temperature-
compensated or by a dummy strain gauge technique.

Most of the strain gauges are made of constantan alloy which cancel out the effect
of temperature on the resistance. But some strain gauges are not of an isoelastic
alloy. In such cases, dummy gauge is used in the place of R2 in the quarter bridge
strain gauge circuit which acts as a temperature compensation device.
Whenever temperature changes, the resistance will change in the same proportion
in the both arms of the rheostat, and the bridge remains in the state of balance.
Effect of temperature get nullifies. It is good to keep voltage low so that the self-
heating of strain gauge could be evaded. Self-heating of gauge depends upon its
mechanical behavior.

This arrangement is considered as quarter-bridge. There are two more

arrangements half-bridge and full-bridge configurations which give greater
sensitivity over the quarter-bridge circuit. Still the quarter-bridge circuit is widely
used in strain measurement systems.

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Use of Strain Gauge
 In the field of mechanical engineering development.
 To measure the stress generated by machinery.
 In the field of component testing of aircraft like; linkages, structural damage
etc.

Measurement
of pressure using LVDT based diaphragm

The pressure measurement using bourdon tube and LVDT is shown in above
figure. In this the, the bourdon tube act as primary transducer and LVDT which
follows the output of bourdon tube act as a secondary transducer. The bourdon
tube senses the pressure and converts it into a displacement. The free end of
bourdon tube shows this displacement. A cord is used to connect the free end of
bourdon tube to the core of LVDT as shown in figure. When the free end shows
the displacement, the core of LVDT also moves. This movement of core is
proportional to the displacement of free end, which is proportional to the applied
pressure. The LVDT gives analogues output which is a conversion of displacement
into respective emf. This set up is used for measurement of pressure which is
converted into electrical signal by LVDT.

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 Piezoelectric pressure sensors

Piezoelectricity is the charge created across certain materials when a mechanical

stress is applied.

Piezoelectric pressure sensors exploit this effect by measuring the voltage across a
piezoelectric element generated by the applied pressure. They are very robust and
are used in a wide range of industrial applications.

When force is applied to a piezoelectric diaphragm, a

voltage proportional to the pressure is generated

Working principle

When a force is applied to a piezoelectric material, an electric charge is generated

across the faces of the crystal. This can be measured as a voltage proportional to
the pressure (see diagram to the right).

There is also an inverse piezoelectric effect where applying a voltage to the

material will cause it to change shape.

A given static force results in a corresponding charge across the sensor. However,
this will leak away over time due to imperfect insulation, the internal sensor
resistance, the attached electronics, etc.

As a result, piezoelectric sensors are not normally suitable for measuring static
pressure. The output signal will gradually drop to zero, even in the presence of
constant pressure. They are, however, sensitive to dynamic changes in pressure
across a wide range of frequencies and pressures.

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This dynamic sensitivity means they are good at measuring small changes in
pressure, even in a very high-pressure environment.

Function

Unlike piezoresistive and capacitive transducers, piezoelectric sensor elements

require no external voltage or current source. They generate an output signal
directly from the applied strain.

The output from the piezoelectric element is a charge proportional to pressure.

Detecting this requires a charge amplifier to convert the signal to a voltage. Some
piezoelectric pressure sensors include an internal charge amplifier to simplify the
electrical interface by providing a voltage output. This requires power to be
supplied to the sensor.

An internal amplifier makes the sensor simpler to use. For example, it makes it
possible to use long signal cables to connect to the sensor. The amplifier can also
include signal-conditioning circuitry to filter the output, adjust for temperature and
compensate for the changing sensitivity of the sensing element.

The presence of the electronic components does, however, limit the operating
temperature to not much more than 120ºC.

For higher temperature environments, a charge-mode sensor can be used. This

provides the generated charge directly as the output signal. It therefore requires an
external charge amplifier to convert this to a voltage. Care is required in the design
and implementation of the external electronics. The high impedance output of the
sensor means the circuit is sensitive to noise caused by poor connections, cable
movement, electromagnetic and RF interference.

The low frequency response of the sensor is determined by the discharge time of
the amplifier.

Construction
The piezoelectric effect requires materials with a specific asymmetry in the crystal
structure. This includes some natural crystals, such as quartz or tourmaline.

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In addition, specially formulated ceramics can be created with a suitable
polarisation to make them piezoelectric. These ceramics have higher sensitivities
than natural crystals. A useful output can be generated with as little as 0.1%
deformation.

Because the piezoelectric materials are rigid, only a very small deflection of the
material is required to get a usable output signal. This makes the sensors very
robust and tolerant of over-pressure conditions. It also means they respond rapidly
to changes in pressure.

The pressure sensor can be affected by any external force on the piezoelectric
element, for example, by forces caused by acceleration or noise.

Microsensors can be constructed using thin films. Zinc oxide was one of the first
materials used. This has largely been replaced by ceramics made from materials
such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT) because of their larger piezoelectric effect.

Micoelectromechanical systems (MEMS) can be created by combining

piezoelectric thin films with micromachined silicon membranes.

Piezoelectric materials are also used in some other types of MEMS sensors. For
example, the inverse piezoelectric effect is used to generate surface acoustic waves
through a diaphragm. The distortion of the surface under pressure can then be
detected by the changes it causes in the waves that are received by another
piezoelectric element.

Design

Piezoelectric pressure sensors are often constructed in a threaded tube (as shown in
the diagram below) to make it easy to mount them in equipment where pressure is
to be monitored. Care is needed when installing these because over-tightening can
affect the output sensitivity.

In some of the typical applications of piezoelectric sensors, they may be exposed to

thermal shock (a sudden change in temperature) caused by either radiant heat or
the flow of hot gases or liquids past the sensor.

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This can cause changes to the output due to heating of the crystal, the diaphragm or
the casing of the sensor. Note that this is not the same as the static temperature
sensitivity of the sensor.

The effects of thermal shock can be minimised by the design of the enclosure and
mounting the sensor to provide isolation.

A cross-section of a piezoelectric presure sensor construction

Sensitivity

The output is linear over a wide range, typically 0.7 KPa to 70 MPa (0.1 to 10000
psi) with an accuracy of about 1%.

Ceramic sensors are subject to a loss of sensitivity over time. But this is usually
quite small; typically less than 1% per year.

There may also be a small loss in sensitivity when first exposed to high pressure
and temperature. The effects of this can be avoided by cycling the sensor through
the maximum expected pressure and temperature before deploying them.

The frequency response of a piezoelectric sensor drops off at low frequencies

because the generated charge cannot be retained.

At high frequencies there is a peak corresponding to the resonant frequency of the

piezoelectric element. The sensor is normally used within the flat region of the
response curve between these two extremes (see below).

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 The frequency response of a piezoelectric sensor

Applications

The robustness, high frequency and rapid response time of piezoelectric pressure
sensors means they can be used in a wide range of industrial and aerospace
applications where they‟ll be exposed to high temperatures and pressures.

They are often used for measuring dynamic pressure, for example in turbulence,
blast, and engine combustion. These all require fast response, ruggedness and a
wide range of operation.

Their sensitivity and low power consumption also makes them useful for some
medical applications. For example, a thin-film plastic sensor can be attached to the
skin and used for real-time monitoring of the arterial pulse.

Advantages and disadvantages

One of the main advantages of piezoelectric pressure sensors is their ruggedness.

This makes them suitable for use in a variety of harsh environments.

Apart from the associated electronics, piezoelectric sensors can be used at high
temperatures. Some materials will work at up to 1,000ºC. The sensitivity may
change with temperature but this can be minimised by appropriate choice of
materials.

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The output signal is generated by the piezoelectric element itself, so they are
inherently low-power devices.

The sensing element itself is insensitive to electromagnetic interference and

radiation. The charge amplifier and other electronics need to be carefully designed
and positioned as close as possible to the sensor to reduce noise and other signal
errors.

Piezoelectric sensors can be easily made using inexpensive materials (for example
quartz or tourmaline), so they can provide a low cost solution for industrial
pressure measurement.

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