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 Network Routing
Algorithms, Protocols, and
Architectures

Second Edition
 Network Routing
Algorithms, Protocols, and
Architectures

Second Edition

Deep Medhi

Karthik Ramasamy
Morgan Kaufmann is an imprint of Elsevier
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To Karen: the distance cost is now infinite and yet does not feel so
To Deuta: the man who new infinity, probabilistically
To Maa: who has the indefinable ability to see infinity
To Neiloy & Robby: there are infinite paths – take the one you like
— Deep/Debu/Dad

To my wife, Monika, with love

— Karthik
CONTENTS

Foreword (1st Edition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv

Preface (2nd Edition) ........................................................... xxvii
Preface (1st Edition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . .. . . . .. xxxv

.

PART 1 ROUTING: BASICS ANO FOUNDATIONS

CHAPTER 1 Networking and Network Routing: An Introduction . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1 Addressing and Internet Service: An Over vie w . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Network Routing: An Overview . . . . . . . . • • . . . , . • • . . . • . . 5
1.3 IPv4 Addressing ................................. .. .... .. . . 7
1.3.1 Classful IPv4 Addressing Scheme ... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 8
l.3.2 SubnettinglNetmask in IPv4 ................................ 9
1.3.3 Classless Inter-Domain Routi ng (CIDR) ........ . lO
1.4 IPv6 Addressing . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II
1.5 On Architectures . . . .. . . . . . . . .... .
. . . . . . . . . . .. 1 I
1.6 Service .Ar chitecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . , . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . J2
1.7 Protocol Stack Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . • . . . • • . . . . . • . 14
1.7.1 as I Reference Model. ...... . . . ... .. ... . ... . .. .. . . ... .
. . . . . . . . . . J4
1.7.2 IP Protocol Stack Architecture . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . J5
1.8 Router Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. ... ... . .. .. . .
. . . . . .. . .. 20
1. 9 Network Topology Architecture ... .. . . . .. .... . .. . . ..
. . . . 21
1.10 Network Manageme nt A rc hitectur e . . . . . . . . • . . . . 22
1.11 Global Telephone Network......... . . . ..... .... . . . ...... . ... . . . . . . 22
1.12 Communication Technolog i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . 24
1.13 Standards Committees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . 25
1.\3.1 Internet
Engineering Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.13.2 fn ternational Telecommunication Union . . . . . . • • . . . , . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.14 Last Two Bits... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . 27
1.14.1 Type.Length. Value (TLV) . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . ... . 27
1.14.2 Network Protocol A nalyzer . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .... . .. ... . . ... .. 27
1 . 1 5 Summary 28
Further Lookup . . . .. . . . ... . . . . .... . . .. . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . ... .. . . . . . . 28
Exer ci ses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

CHAPTER 2 Routing Algorithms: Shortest Path, Widest Path, and Spanning Tree ........ 30
2.1 B ackg round . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Bellman-Ford Algorith m and the Di sta nce Vector A ppro ach . ..... . . . .... . . . 33
2.2.1 Centralized View: Bellman-Ford Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . 33
2.2 .2 Di stri buted View: A Distance Vector Approach . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 36

vii
....�
.. --------------------------------------------
VIII CONTENTS

2.3 Dijks tra's Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.3.1 Centralized Approach..................................... . 38
2.3.2 Distributed Approach . . . .. . . . .... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . 40
2.4 Compariso n of the Bellman-Ford Algorithm and Dijkstra's Algorithm. . . . • . . . 4J
2.5 Shortest Path Computation with Candidate Path Caching . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . 43
2.6 Widest Path Computation with Candidate Path Caching . . . . . _ . .. . . .. 45
2.7 Widest Path Algorithm .... . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .... .. .. . .... . . . ... . 47
2. 7.1 Dijkstra-Based Approach.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 47
2. 7 . 2 Distance Vector-Based Approa ch ...... . . . ... .. . . . 49
2.8 Shortest Widest Path and Widest Shortest Path ..... ... . . ....... . . 49
2.9 Tree, Spanning Tree, and Steiner Tree A lgorithms . . . ...... . . . 49
2. 9.1 Spanning Tree: B r ea dth First Search and Depth First Search ...... .... 50
2. 9.2 Minimum S panning Tree . . . . . . . ..... . . .. . . ..... . . . . . . . . ..... . . 53
2. 9.3 Steiner Tree ... . . ..... . . . . . . . ...... . . .. . . .. . . . . .. 55
2.10 k-Shortest Paths Algorithm . . . . . .... . .... . . . . . . . . . . .....
. . . . . . . • 57
2.11 Summary . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .... . . . . . . . . .. 59
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • .. . . 60
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

CHAPTER 3 Routing Protocols: Framework and Principles 64

3.1 Routing Protocol, Routing Algori thm, and Routing Table . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 65
3.2 Routing Information Representation and Protocol Messages, , . . . . . ... , , , , .. . 68
3.3 Distance Vector Routing Protocol . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . _ . . . • • . . . . . • • _ . 69
3.3.1 Conceptual Framework and lllustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . . . 69
3.3.2 Why Timers Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.3.3 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.3.4 Can We Avoid Loops? ......................................... . 8J
3.3.5 Distance Vector Protocol based on Diffuslng Computation with
Coordinated Updates (DUAL) . .... . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . 82
3. 3 . 6 B abe l Routing Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4 Link State Routing Protocol.. . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ...... . 90
3.4.1 Link State Protocol: In-Band Hop-by-Hop Dissemination ............ . 91
3.4. 2 Link State Protocol: In-Band Based on End-to-End Session . . . . . . .. .. . 98
3. 4.3 Route Computation. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 99
3.5 Path Vector Routing Prot ocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . • . . . . . JOO
3.5.1 Basic Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . JOl
3.5.2 Path Vec tor with Path Caching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J03
3.6 Link C ost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 108
3.6.1 ARPANET R ou tin g Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 108
3.6.2 Other Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 110
3.7 Threats to Routj ng Protocols . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . IlD
38 . Sum.mary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . • . . . III
Further Looku p . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 112
Exercises .. 112
-------------------------------------------- � ......
CONTENTS IX

CHAPTER 4 Network Flow Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. 114

4.1 Terminologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . • • . . • .I 15
. . • . . • . .

4.2 Single-Commodity Network Flow. . .. .. . . . .. . .

. .. . . . . . . .. ..
. .. .. . . . . .. .. 116
4.2.1 A Three-Node Illustration . ... .. . .. . .. . . . . .. ... . . .. . . .... 116
4.2.2 Formal Description and Minimum Cost Routin
g Objective . _ 1 17
4.2. 3 Variat
ion in Objective: Load Balancing . .. . . . . .. . . 120
4.2.4 Variat
ion in Objective: Average Delay. . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . 122
4.2.5 Summary and Applicability. . . . .... . ..
. 123
4.3 Multicommodity Network Flow: Three-Node Example........... .... 124
4.3.1 MinimuJU Cost Routing: Illustration.. .. . . . . .. . .... .. . . .. .. 124
4.3.2 Load Balancing: Illustration ........ .. .. ....... ..... ...... .. . 130
4.3.3 Minimulll Average Delay: Illustration ............ ... . ... .. ..... 1 33
4.4 Multicommodity Network Flow: Gen eral Lin k-Path Formulation. . . . . . . . . . • .
. ] 36
4.4.1 Background on Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 137
4.4.2 Minimum Cost Routing: Gen eral Link-Path Fonnu]atlon . . . . , , . . . . . .. 139
4.4. 3 Load Balancing: Link-Path Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . 141
4.4.4 Minimum Average Delay: Link-Path Formulation. . . . . . . . . • . . . .
. . • . . 142
4.4. 5 How Man y Nonzero Flows at O ptima l ity? ... . . ..... . . ..... . 143
4.5 Multicomillodity Network Flow Problem: Non-Splittablc Flow . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 145
4.6 Node-Link Formulation.. . . . .. . ..... . . .. . ... ..... . . . . . . .. ..... 147
4.6.1 Minimum Cost Single-Commodity Network Flow Problem ... 147
4.6.2 Minimum Cost Multicommodity Network Flow Problem.. .. 150
4.6.3 Load Balan cing Multicommodity Network Flow Problem .... 151
4.6.4 Shottest Path Routing. .... .. . . . ... . . . . ... .. . 15 2
4.6.5 Shortest Path Tree. ... .. .. ...... ...... .. . . ... .. .. ... .. 153
4.7 Gene rating Traffic Matrix.. . . .. . . . ............ . . .... ... .. .. .. .. 153
4.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • .
• . . . . . . . .
• 154
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .. . .
. . . .... ....
• 154
Exe rcises ....... . , .
. .
. . ISS

PART 2 INTERNET ROUTING

CHAPTER 5 IP Routing and Distance Vector Protocol Family. . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . .. . . ... 160
5.1 Routers, Networks, and Routing [nfonnation: Some Basics. . ... . . . ... . . .. . .. ]61
5.1.1 Routing Tab l e. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . ... . . ]61
5.1.2 Communication of Routing Informatjon . ... . . .. 1 64
5.2 Static Routes .... .. . . .. . ... . . ... . ... ..... ... . 164
5.3 Routing lnformato
i n Protocol, Version I (RIPv I). . . ... . .... .. . . 165
5.3.1 Communication and Message Format....... ....... .......... 165
5.3.2 Gen eraIOperation .................... ............... ......... 167
5.3.3 [s RIPvl Good to Use? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.4 Routing Information Protocol. Version 2 (RIPv2) . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • .. ..
. 168
5.5 Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . 171
5.5.1 PacketFormat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . • . . 171
....�
.. --------------------------------------------
X CONTENTS

5.5.2 Computing Composite Metric. .... ............ ... . ......... . ..... 172
5.6 Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) . .. . . . ... .... . .. . . . .. 175
5.6.1 Packet Format.. . . .. . . .. . . .... . . . . . . ... .... . . . ... . .. ... . . . . .. .. 175
5.7 Route Redistribution 177
5.8 Summary .. . 179
Further Loo kup . . . . . . . . . 181
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 182

CHAPTER 6 OSPF and Integrated IS-IS . . .. . . . ... . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . ... . . . .. 184

6.1 From a Protocol Family to an Instance of a Protocol 185
6.2 OSPF: Protocol Features . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . 186
6.2.1 Network Hierarchy ..................................... . 186
6.2.2 Router Classification ......... .. ....... .... . . . . ..... 186
6.2.3 Network Types .......................................... 187
6.2.4 Flooding.. .... . . .. ... ... . .. .. .. .. ... . 188
6.2.5 Link State Advertisement (LSA) Types ..................... . 189
6.2.6 Sub-Protocols ................................................. 189
6.2.7 Ro uting Comp u tation and Equal-Cost MuJtipa t h .................... 190
6.2.8 A dditional Feat ures . . . .. ... .... . . . . ... .. ... . . . . . ..... .... . . . ... 194
6.3 MuJtitopo1ogy Routing In OSPF . .. . ..... .. ...... . ........... .. ..... .. .. 195
6.4 OSPF Packet Format. . . .. . . ...... . . . .. .. ..... . . . . . ... ... . .. 195
6.5 Examples of Router LSA and Network LSA . . . . . . .. 202
6.6 Integrated IS-IS. . . ..... . . .... . . .. . . ... .... . . 203
6.6.1 Key Features. . . .. . .. .... .. .... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . . 204
6.7 Similarities and Differences Between IS-[S and OSPF 207
6.8 OSPFv3 an d IS-IS for IPv6 . . .. . ...... .. . . . .. ..... .. . . . .... .. . 209
6.9 Additiona l Extenso
i ns to OSPF and IS-IS. . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . ..... .. 210
6.10 Summary .. ............ ........... .. .......... ... ... 2 11
Further Lo ok up .. . . . ... . ... . . . . . . .... ... . . .. . . ... . . . . .... . . .. . . . ..... 211
Exercises .. 2 12

CHAPTER 7 IP Traffic Engineering. ............................. .... ............ 214

7.1 Traffic, Stochast icity, De l ay, and Utilization .............................. 215
7.1.1 What Is IP Network Traffic? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2'15
7.1.2 Traffic and Performance Measures ... . ... . . .. . ... . .... ... . . . . ..... 216
7.1.3 Characterizing Traffic. . . . .... .. . ... . ..... ... . .......... . .. ...... 216
7.1.4 Average Delay in a Single Link System. ......... ............. . . ... 217
7.1.5 Nonstationarity of Traffic. .. .... . . . .. ... .... . . .. ..... .... . 2J 9
7.2 Applications' View . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 220
7.2.1 TCP Throughput and Possible Bottlenecks. . . . . .. . . ...... 220
7.2.2 Bandwidth-Delay Product . . . . .. .... . . . ... ........ . 221
7.2.3 Router Buffer Size . .. .... .. ........ .. .. .... 222
7.3 Tra ffic Engine erin g: An Architectural Framework 222
7 .4 Traffic Engineer i ng; A Four-Node Illustration. ... .. . ..... . . .. .. . ...... . .. 224 .

7.4.1 Network Flow Optimization ..................................... 224

-------------------------------------------- � ......
CONTENTS XI

7.4.2 Shortest Path Routing and Network Flow ........... . 226

7.5 IGP Metric (Link Weight) Determination Problem for the Load Balan cing
Objective: Pre li minary Di sc ussion _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ _ . 231
7.6 Det ermining IGP Link Weigh ts via Duality of MCNF Problems ... . 233
7.6. 1 TIIustration of Duality Through a Thre e-Node Network for Minimu m
Cost Routing .... . _ . ..... . .. . . . . ... .. .. . . . .. .... . . . 233
7.6.2 Minimum Cost Routing, Duality. and Link Weights . . . . . . . . . 235
7.6.3 m ustrati on of D ual i ty Through a Three-Node Network for the Load
B alan cing Obje ctive . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.6.4 Load Balancing Prob lem, Duality, and Link Weights . . . . . . . . . 240
7.6.5 A Composite Objective Function, Duality, and Link Wei gh ts . 242
7.6.6 Minim.izatjon of Aver age Delay, D u ali t y, and Link We igh t s .. 243
7.7 Illustration of Link Wejght Determination Through Duality 247
7.7.1 Case Study: I .......................................... . 247
7.7.2 Case Study: 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 2 52
7.8 Link Weight Detennlnation: Large Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . 253
7.9 IP Traffic Engineering of PoP-ta-Datacenter Networks . . . . . . . . _ _ 256
7 . 1 0 Sumn1ary . .. . . , . , . . . . . , . . , . . , . . . . . . , , , , , , , . . . . . , , , , , , , • . . . • , , . , , , . , . 25 6
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Exercises . . . . , ' , . . . . . . . . • . " . , . . • . . . . . . . ' , . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • ' , . . . . . . . 257

CHAPTER 8 Multicast Routing _ . . . . _ . . . _ _ . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . • . _ . • . . _ _ . . . _ _ . . . . _ _ 260

8. 1 Multicast [P Addressi ng . . . . . . . _ . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 261
8.2 Internet Group Managem ent Protocol (IGMP) . .. _ . . . . . . . . . . • . 266
8.3 Multicast Listener Discovery Protocol (MLD) . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 267
8.4 Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . 268
8.5 Dista nc e Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 269
8.6 Mult icast OS PF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . 270
8.7 Core Based Trees.................................................. . 273
8.8 Protocol Independent Multicast (P[M) . . ... . . . . . . • . 274
8.8.1 PIM-Dense Mode . . .. .. . .. . . . . .. .. . .. . . . .. . . ... .. .. . . .. 275
8.8.2 PIM-Sparse Mode .................................... . 277
8.8.3 SeJectjng and Ad vertis in g Rendezvous Point for PIM Sparse Mode 279
8.8.4 Source Specific Multicast . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
8.9 Inter-Domain Multicast Routing .......................... . 280
8.9.1 Border Gateway Multicast Protocol (BGMP) .. 280
8.9.2 Multiprotocol Extension of BGP and a Composite Approach ... 2Sl
8. 1 0 Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) Multicasting.... . . . . . . . ...... . . 283
8 . 1 1 Summar y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . .. 284
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . .. 284
Exerci ses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 285

CHAPTER 9 BGP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

9.1 BGP: A Brief Over v iew . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . • . . .. . ... 287
9 2 . 8GP: B as ic Terminology . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .. 290
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XII CONTENTS

9.3 BOP Operations.................................................... . 291 .

9.3.1 Message Op erations . .. ..

. . . . .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . 291
9.3.2 BOP Timers .................................................. . 292
9.4 BGP Configur3tjon Initialization ....................................... . 293
9.5 Two Face s of BOP: External BOP (eBOP) and Internal BOP (iBOP) ......... . 295
9.6 Path Attributes... ... .... ..... . .. .... ..... . . .. .... .... .. 298
.

9.7 BGP Dec ision Process _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 302
9.7.1 BOP Path Selection Process 302
9.7.2 Roule Aggregation and Dissemination .. .... .. ... .. . ..... . . . 304
9.7.3 Recap. .. ... .... ... .. . .... . .. ... .. ...... .. ... . ..... 305
9.8 Internal BOP Sca labi lity ... .. ... .... ... ... .. .... ..... .. . ........ 306
9.8.1 Route R efle cti o n A ppr oach . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
9.8.2 Confederation Ap proac h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 309
9.9 Route Flap Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9.10 BOP Additional Features and Extensions........................... . 3'13
9.10.1 Communities................................................. . 3'13
9.10.2 BOP 4-byte Autonomous Systems Number Space ............ . 314
9.10.3 BOP Mulliprotocol Extension (MP-BOP) ......................... . 314
9.10.4 BOPforIPv6................................................. . 314
9.10.5 BOP/MPLS .. . . . . .. ...... . . .. . ... .. . . .. . . ..... . . .
. . 314
9.11 BOP Vulnerabilities ..... . .. ... .. 316
9.12 Securing BOP ... . . . .......... ... ......... .... . 317
9.12.1 Secure BOP (S-BOP) .... .. .......... .. . . . .. .... ...
. 317
9.12.2 Secure Origin BGP (soBGP). 318
9.12.3 Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI) Architecture 318
9.13 Fi nit e State Machine of A BGP Connection. ... . . . . . .... . . .... . . 320
9.14 BGP4 Protocol Message Fonna t .. . . . . ........ . . . .......... . . ..... 324
9.14.1 CommonHeader ...... ................... .. 324
9.14.2 Message Type: OPEN .................. . .. . . .. .. 324
9.14.3 Message Type: UPDATE. . . ... .. . .... . .. .... ... ..
. 326
9.14.4 Message Type: NOTIFICAT[ON ............................ 328
9.14.5 Message Type: KEEPALIVE .................................. . . 328
9.14.6 Message Type: ROUTE-REFRESH . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
9.14.7 Path Attribute in UPDATE message .............................. . 330
9.1 5 Summary . .. . . ....... .... . ........ .... . ..... .. . ............ . . ...... 331
.

Further Lookup . .. ... . ... . . . ... .. . . .. .. . . ... . . . . ... ....... . . . . .. .. .. 332

.

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER 10 Routing in the Global Internet ...................................... , 334

10.1 Internet Routing Evolution................ .................... 335
10.2 Addressing and Routing: Illustrations. ... ........ ............ 337
10.2.1 Scenari o A: Routi ng a Packet (Same S ub net ) . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 339
10.2.2 Scenari o B: Routing a Packet (Intra-Domain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
10.2.3 Sc enari o C: Routing a Packet (lnter-Domain) . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 343
-------------------------------------------- � ......
CONTENTS XIII

10.2.4 Scenario D: Ro uting a Packet (End-to-End R outing for Fix e dfMobi l e

Devices) . .... . . . ... ... .... . . .... . .... . ..... ...... . . ..
. . 345
10.3 Allocation ofIP Prefixes and AS N umbers....................... 34 8
10.4 Curren t Architectural View of the Internet....................... 349
10.4.1 Custo me rs and Providers. Peers and Tiers, and Internet Exchang e Points 350
10.4.2 An Illustration on Customer-Provider and Peers . . . . . . . . .. . . . ..... . . 353
10.4.3 A Representative Internet Connectivity . .. ....... .... 353
10.4.4 Customer Traffic Routing: A Geographic Perspective 356
10.5 Traffic En g ine erin g Implications . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 358
10.6 Point of Presen ce (PoP) for Large (SPs .. .. . . . . .... .. . .... . . ... ... . ... . 359
10.7 Pohcy-Based Routing ........................................ 361
10.7.1 BGPWedgies . ....... ............. ....... ........ 363
10.8 IP Prefix Hijacking .. .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 365
10.9 Detecting and Preventing (P Prefix Hijacking . .. ............ . . 368
10.10 Internet Routing Instability. . ... . .. .. . ... 369
10.11 Size and Growth of thelnternet R outing Architecture. . . . . . . . . .. . . 370
10.12 Addressi ng the Growth: LocatorflD Separation Protocol (LISP). .... 37 3
10.13 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Further Look up ..................................................... 375
Exercises.. . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..... . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . .... . . . ... . .. 37 6

CHAPTER 11 Routing and Traffic Engineering in Software Defined Networks. . . . .. . . . ... 378
11.1 Software Defined Networks: An Over view . . ... . ... . ... . ..... . . 379
11.2 OpenFlow .. .... . . .... . . . .. . . . . .... . . . . .. . . ..... .. . ... . .. . . . .. . . 382
11.3 Rou tin g D ecisi on s . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ . . . . • . _ _ . . . .
. 386
11.4 Traffic Engineering for Aggregated Flow Rou tin g. . . . . . . _ . .
. 388
J 1.4.1 Aggregation at Origin-Dest.ination Level .......................... 388
11.4.2 Traffic Engineering for Mul t iple Se rvices . . . ... ........ .... .... . 389
1 1.4.3 Traffic Engi neeri ng in the Presence of Flow Table Limits .......... 390
1.1.4.4 Remark: Using Optimization Models in Practice 392
11.5 Flow Management Approaches ..................................... . 392
11.6 Summary ...... ............ . ..... ........ .... ..... 394
Furrher Lookup .. ..... .. . . . . .... . . . . .. .. .. ..... 394
Exercises. . ...... ....... . 394

CHAPTER 12 Routing and Traffic Engineering in Data Center Networks . .. ............. 396
12.1 Cloud Services and Data Center Applications 397
12.2 Data Center Network: A Simple Illustration.. 39 8
12.3 Data Center Network: RoutingfForwarding Requirements . . ..... . .. 400
12.4 Fat-Tree Data Center Topology ......................... . 401
12.4.1 Addressi ng...... ...... ... ... . ...... ... ... ............. .. 402
12.4.2 Routing Table ... . . . .... . ... .. .... ... ... 404
12.4.3 Routing Paths ........................................ 40 5
12.5 Portland Approach for the Fat-Tree To pology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 405
12.6 Multipath Ro ut ing and Traffic Engine ering for Fat-Tree Topology . . . . . . . . . . . 40 7
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XIV CONTENTS

12.7 BCube ................................................... . 409

12.7.1 RoutiJlgPaths .... . .............. ............. ......... 411
12.7.2 Rou ting ProtocoL . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .
. . . . . . . . . . . .. 412
12.8 M ult ip a th Rou ting and Traffic Engineering for BCube Architecture. . . . . . . . .. 412
12.9 Border Ga te way ProtocoL (BGP) in Ultra Large Data Center Ne two rks . 413
12.9.1 5 -stage CLos Topology and eBGP for Rou tin g.. .............. ...... 414
12.10 Software-Defined Network.ing for Data Center Networks. . ... . . . . . . . . . .... 417 .

12.11 Convergence Time and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . • . . . . . . 4 19

12.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Further Lookup . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . • • . . • • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . 420
Exercises _ . 4 21

PART 3 ROUTER ARCHITECTURE & DESIGN

CHAPTER 13 Router Architectures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . .. . . . . .. . ... ..... .... 424
13.1 Functions of a Router . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . , . . . , . . • . . . • . . . . , , . . . . • . . . . . . 425
13. '1.1 Basic Forwar ding Functions . _ _ . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . 426
] 3.1.2 Complex FOlwardjng Functions . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 426
13.1.3 Rou ting Proce<s Functions. .. . . .
. . . . .. . . ...
. . . . 42 7
13.1.4 Routing TabLe Versus Forwarding Table . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . _ . _ . . . 428
13.1.5 Performance Indicator of Routers . . . . . . . . . . .. . 428
13.2 Types of Routers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
13.3 E1elnents of a Router . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . .. . . . 430
13.4 Packet FLow .............................................. . 433
13.4.1 Jngress Packet Processing . . . ,.,', .. ,. . . ., . . ,.,',. ," , . .,. 434
13.4.2 Egress Packet Processing. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
. . . ... . .
. . . . 435
13.5 Packet Processing: Fast Path Versus Slow P ath . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
13.5.1 Fas t Path Functions. .... ... ............ . 43 7
13.5.2 SLow Path Operations.................................. . 43 9
13.6 Rou ter A rchi tec tures . . . . , . . . ... . . , . . , . . . . . .. . , . . ., . . . .., . . . . . . . , . .. , , 4 41
13.6.1 Shared CPU Architectures............................... . 441
13.6.2 Shared Forwarding E ngine Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . 444
13.6.3 Shared Nothing Architectures. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . _ • • . . 447
] 3.6.4 Clustered Architectures . . . . ... . . . . . . . • . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . 4 49
13.7 Summary . . . . . . . . ....... . . ... . . .... . ...
. . . . 450
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . • _ . . . 451
Exercises . . 451

CHAPTER 14 IP Address Lookup Algorithms.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . .. . ... ..... .... 454

14.1 Impact of Addressing On Lookup. . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. 455
14.1.1 Address Aggregation . ..... ...... .. ..... .... ............. 457
14.2 Longest Prefix Matching. ..... ... .............. .. . 458
14.2.1 Trends, Observations, and Requirements . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . • _ . . . 459
14.3 NaIve Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .
. . . . • . 460
14.4 Binary Tries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 461
-------------------------------------------- � ......
CONTENTS XV

14.4.1 Search and Update Operations . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . 462

14.4.2 Path Compression. ...... . ...... .............. ............. ... . 464
1 4.5 Multibit Tries .................................................. 465
14.5.1 Prefix Transformations. 466
14.5.2 Fixed Stride Multibit Trie 468
14.5.3 Search Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . 468
14.5.4 Update Algorithm . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . • • . . . . . . . . 469
14.5.5 Implementation................ . . . , . . . .... . . . . . . . . 471
14.5.6 Choice of Strides . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 471
14.5.7 Variable Stride Multibit Trie 472
1 4.6 Compressing Multibit Tries ..... . . . . . .. ... . . .. . . . . . .... .. .. . 472
14.6. 1 Level Compressed Tries . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 473
14.6.2 Lulea Compressed Tries . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
14.6.3 Tree Bitmap................................................. . 480
1 4.7 Search by Length Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 484
14.7.1 Linear Search on Prefix Lengths ........... .... . 48 5
14.7.2 Binary Search on Prefix Lengths............ . ...... . ...... . 485
1 4.8 Search by Value Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • • . . . • . . . . . . . . 48 7
14.8.'1 Prefix Range Search.. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
1 4.9 Hardware A.lgorithl.ns . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . 490
14.9.1 RAM-Based Lookup. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • • . . • • . . . 490
14.9.2 Ternary CAM-Based Lookup . .. .... . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . 491
14.9.3 Multibit Tries in Hardware.. ... . . . . . . . ...... . . . ..... 494
14.9.4 Field-Programmable G ate Array (FPGA) . . . . • . . . • . .... . . . 495
1 4.10 Comparing Different Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .. 496
1 4.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 497
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 497
Exercises. _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ ... . . . . . . . _ . . .. . . ... . _ . . . . . . . . . 498

CHAPTER 1 5 IP Packet Filtering and Classification . . . . . • . • . . . . • . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500

1 5.1 Importance of Packet Classification.................................... . 501
1 5.2 Packet Classification Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 503
15.2.1 Expressing Rules....... ..... . 504
] 5.2.2 Performance Metrics . . . . . . .... . . . ... . ...... . . . . . . . .... .. . . 50 5
1 5.3 Packet Classification Algorithms 505
1 5.4 Nai've Solutions . .. ... . . . .. . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ . 506
1 5.5 Two-Dimensional Solutions, .. , . . . . . . , . ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
. . . . 507
15.5.1 Hierarchical Tries: Trading Time for Space ..................... . 507
15.5.2 Set Pruning Tries: Trading Space for Time ... , . , . , , , , . . . . , , . , , , , , . 510
1 5.5.3 Grid-of-Tries: Best of Both Worlds...................... . 511
1 5.6 Approaches for d Dimensions ................................. 5 14
15.6.1 Geometric View of Classification: Thinking DifFerently 5 14
15.6.2 Characteristics of Real Life Classifiers - Thinking Practically 517
1 5.7 Extending Two-Dimensional Solutions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 18
15.7.1 Naive Extensions ......................... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 518
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XVI CONTENTS

I S.7. 2 Native Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 19

15.8 Divide and Conquer Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 520
l S .8.1 Lucent Bit Vector . . . . ........ . . . ........ . . . . ..... 522
I S .8.2 Aggregated Bit Vector (ABV) . . . ..... . . 524
15.8.3 Cross-Producting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 25
1 5 .8.4 Recu rsive Flow Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
15.9 Tuple Space Approaches . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
IS.9.1 Tuple Space Search.. . .. . .. ... .... ... . .... ....... .... . 534
IS.9.2 Tuple Space Pruning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
15.10 Decision Tree Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 537
1 5 . 1 0 . 1 Hierarchical I ntel l ige nt Cuttings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
1 5 . 1 0.2 HyperCuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
15.11 Hardware-Based Solutions. . . . ..... . . ... . . . .... . . . ... . ...... . . . . .. ... . 542
1 5 . 1 1 . 1 Ternary Content Addressable Memory (TCAM) . . . . . . . . . . 542
15.12 Lessons Learned . . . ... . . .... . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . 543
15.13 Summary . . . .. . ...... . ....... ...... ....... .... .... . ......... .... . 544
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 545
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S46

CHAPTER 1 6 Switch Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548

16.1 Generic Switch Archilccture 549
16.2 Req ui relnents and Metrics . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 550
16.3 Shared Backp l ane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5S1
16.3. I Shared Bus . . . . . . .... . . 551
16.4 Switched Backp l ane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... ... . . . . .... 553
16.5 Shared Memory . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
16.5.1 Scal ing Memory Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 555
16.6 Crossbar . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . . . • . . . . . . . , , . . . . . • . . . . , , . . . . 556
1 6.6.1 Take-a-Ticket Scheduler . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
1 6.6.2 Factors That Limit Performance . .... . . . .... . ... .. . . ... 561
16.7 Head-of-Line (HOL) Blocking . ..... . . ... . . . .... . . .... . . ...... . . . 561
16.8 Output Queueing . . . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . ..... . 56 3
16.9 Virtual Output Queueing. .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . 56 5
1 6.9.1 Maximum B i partite M atc hi ng . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 6
16.9.2 Parallel Iterative M at ching . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . .... . . .. . 568
1 6.9.3 iSLIP Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . .. . . . ... . 573
1 6.9.4 Priorities and Multicast in iSLIP . ........ 577
16.10 Input and Output Blocking. . ... . . . .. .. . . .... . . . .. 578
1 6 .11 Scaling Switches to a Large Number of Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
16.12 Clos etworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
1 6. 1 2. 1 Complexity of Scheduling Algorithms . 583
1 6 .13 Torus Netw orks . . ... . . . .. . .. . .. . ...... .... . 585
16.1 3 . 1 Packaging Using Short Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
1 6 .14 Scaling Switches for High-Speed Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
16 14 1 Bit Slici ng
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 59 0
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CONTENTS XVII

1 6 . 1 4.2 Time S lici ng . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . 591

1 6 . 1 4.3 Dis trib uted Scheduling , , , . • , , , . , ' ' ' , , . . . . . . . , . , . . . . . . . . , ' ' ' ' ' ' 592
1 6 . 1 5 Concl usions . " " " , . . • ' , . . . . . ' , . . . . , ' , . , . . " . . . • . , ' , . . , . , 592
1 6 . 1 6 Summary " . . . . "" . . . " . . . ".. . . 593
Further Look up . . .. . . . ... . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . , .. . . . . . 593
Exerci ses . . _ . . 594

CHAPTER 1 7 Packet Queueing and Scheduling . . . . , , . . . , , , . . , • , . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . 596

17.1 Packet Scheduling , . ' , , , , , , ' , , , . . ' , , , , , , . ' , . . . . , • , , , , . . • . . . • . , 597
17,1.1 First-In, First-Out Queueing , , , , , , , , ,.,. .' . ' ' . , , , . , , , , , , 597
1 7 , 1 .2 Priority Qu euei ng . , . . . , . . . . . , , . , . . , . . ... . , . . . , . , . . . .. . , , . , . . . 598
1 7. 1 .3 Round-Robin and Fair Queueing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
]7,1.4 Weighted Round-Robin (WRR) and Weigh ted Fair Queueing (WFQ) , 600
] 7 , 1 .5 Deficit Round-Robin Queueing , . 60 l
1 7 . 1 .6 Modified Deficit Round-Robin Queueing . . . 604
17.2 TCP Congestion Control . . . . . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ . 604
1 7.2.1 Slow Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
1 7.2.2 Addit ive
Increase, M ultiplicative Decre as e . . . , . . . . .. . . . . 607
17,2.3 Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery , , , , , , . . , , , , . " . . . • . , , 607
17.3 Implicit Feedback Schemes " " , . . , " " " " , . • . . , ' " , ' , . . • " 608
17,3, I Drop P osi ti on " " " " , . . , " " " " , . . . . . • • " " ' . • . . • . . , " " 608
1 7,3.2 Proactive Versus Reactive Dropping , , , , . . . , • ' , . ' , , • ' . . • . ' 610
1 7 .4 Random Early Detection (RED) " " " " " " ".., .." .. " ".." " " " ,. 611
17.4.1 Computing Average Length of Queue , . . . , ' . " ' , . , ' , . . • , " " " " 613
1 7.4.2 Computing Drop Probability . . . . . . . . . . . 614
1 7.4.3 Selting Qmin and Qmax . . . . . . . . • • . . • • . . 615
17.5 Variations of RED , . , . . . . . . ., . 615
17,5.1 Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) " " " ' . ,..." " " ' " 615
]7,5.2 Adaptive Random Early Detection , , , , . . . . , , , , , , , ' . .... . . . 618
1 7 .6 Explicit Feedback Schemes " " " " " ...." """." 619
17.6.1 Choke Packets . . . . ". . . . .. . . . . ....... " . . . . , . , . . .... . . . . 620
]7,6.2 Explicit Congestion Notification , , , , , , , . . . . , • , , , , , • . . . " , ,, , ,," 620
17.7 New Class of Algorithms . . " " . . . " " " " , . . " . " " " ,, ,..., , , , , , , , , , 622
17.8 Analyzing System Behavior , , , . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . .. . . , , , , . . . . . . . , , ,.. 623
17.9 Summary . . " " " . " " . " " " . . • " . " , . " . • . . , • ' , . ' , , . ' . . • ' , . , , ,. " 624
Further Lookup " .. , ...... . . . ......." , . . ........,.. , . . ...... , .. " 624
Exercises , . . , , , , , , . , , , , . . ' , , , , . . • ' , . ' , , . ' , . • . . , • ' , . ' , , • . . . • ' , 625

CHAPTER 1 8 Traffic Conditioning . . . • . . . • • . . . . • • . " . . . , . , . . , . , • • • . . • • • . . . • • . . . • • 626

18.1 Service Level Agreements 627
18.2 Differentiated Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
18.3 Traffic Condi ti oning Mechani sms . . , , , . ' , , . ' , . • ' , • • ' , . ' , , • ' . , • . ' . ' , , 628
1 8.4 Traffic Shaping , , , . . , , , , . . , , , , . . . . , . . . , , . . . . . . . .. . . " , . . . . . . . . " , , , " 630
1 8.4.1 Leaky Bucket " .. , " ,..." .., ' , . , ....... ,. . , ' , ...." , . " .. , ' 63 I
1 8.4,2 Token Bucket. , . . , . . . . . . . . . , . . , , . . . . . . . .. . . , ' , . . . . . . . . , , , , , " 632
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XVIII CONTENTS

1 8.5 Traffic Policing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 636

18.5.1 Compari ng Traffic PoJ icing and Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 637
1 8.6 Packet Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
1 8 .6.1 Graded Profi les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
J8 .6.2 Single-Rate Tricolor Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
1 8 .6.3 Two-Rate Tricolor M arking . . . . . . . . . 642
1 8.7 Sununary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Exercises . , . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . . 644

PART 4 ROUTING IN RESERVATION-ORIENTED NETWORKS

CHAPTER 1 9 Circuit-Switching: Hierarchical and Dynamic Call Routing . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . 646
1 9. 1 Circuit Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . 647
1 9.2 Hierarchical Call Routin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . ... . . . .... . . .. . . . 647
19.2.1 Basic Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
1 9.2.2 A Simple TIIustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
] 9.2.3 Overall Hierarchjcal Routing Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
1 9 .2.4 Telephone Service Providers and Telephone Network Architecture . . . 652
1 9.3 The Road to Dynamic Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
1 9.3. 1 Limitation of Hierarchical Routing . 653
1 9 .3.2 Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . .... . . .. . . . 653
1 9.3.3 Call Control and Crankback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
1 9.3.4 Trunk Reservation (State Protection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
1 9.3.5 Where Does Dynamic Routing Fit with Hierarchical Routing . . . . 657
1 9.3.6 Mixing of acc and PCC . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. 657
1 9.3.7 Summary . . . . ... . . . . .... . . . 658
1 9.4 Dynamic Non-Hierarchical Routing (DNHR) . . . . . . .. 658
1 9.5 Dynamically Controlled Routing (OCR) . . . . . . . . .... . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . ... 660
1 9.6 Dynamic Alternate Routing (DAR) . .. ... . . . .... .. .. . . . . .. ... .. . . . . . .... 663
1 9.7 Real-Time Network Routing (RTNR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 664
1 9. 8 Classification of Dynamic Call Rou ting Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 666
1 9.9 Maximum Allowable Residual Capacity Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 667
1 9. 10 Dynamic Routing and Its Relation to Other Routing . . .. . . .. . .... 669
1 9 . 1 0 . 1 Dynamic Routing and Link State ProtocoJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
19.JO.2 Path Selection in Dynamic Routing in Telephone Networks and IP
Routing . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 669
1 9. 1 0.3 Relation to Constraint-Based Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
1 9. 1 1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . 670
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Exercises . , , , , , , , , . . . ., , . ,. ,,. . . . . ., . , ,,,. . . . , . , , . . , ,. . . . . ,,. ,, , , . . . 671

CHAPTER 20 Traffic Engineering for Circu it-Switched Networks . . . . . . . • . . . . • . • . . • • . . . 674

20.1 Why Traffic Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 675
20.2 Traffi c Load and Blocking . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 676
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CONTENTS XIX

20.2. 1 Computing Erlang-B Loss Formula . . . .. . . . . . • . . . . . .... . . 679

20.3 Grade-of-Service (GoS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . ... . 680
20.3.1 Circuit Occupancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 682
20.3.2 Offered Load Scaling and Blocking . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . 682
20.4 Centi-Call Seconds (CCS) and Determ ining Offered Load . . . .... . . . . 683
20.5 Economic CCS (ECCS) Method . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . 685
20 . 6 Network Controls for Traffic Engineering ......... . . . . . ..... . . . 687
20.6. '1 Guidelines on Detection of Congestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . 688
20.6.2 Examples of Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
20.6.3 Communication of Congestion Control Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
20.6.4 Congestion Manifestation . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . .. 692
20.7 State-Dependent Call Routing . . . . . . . ... . . . ..... . 693
20.8 Analysis of Dynamic Routing .. . . . . ......... . . . . ..... . . . 694
20.8.1 Three-Node Network . . .. . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . 694
20.8.2 N -Node Symmetric Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
20.8.3 N -Node Symmetric Network with State Protection . . . . . . . . . . . 698
20.8.4 Illustration Without and With State Protection . . . . . . . . . 700
20.9 Performance for Heterogeneous Services . . . . . ...... . .. . . . . ...... . . . .. . .. 70 I
20.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705

CHAPTER 2 1 Quality of Service Routing . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . .. 708

21.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
21.2 QoS Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
21.3 Adapting Shortest Path and Widest Path Routing: A Basic Framework 7 14
2 1 .3.1 Singl e Attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . . ... .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
2 1 .3.2 Multiple Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
2 1 .3.3 Additional Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
21.4 Update Frequency, Information Inaccuracy, and Impact on Rout ing . . . . . . . . . _ 716
21.5 Lessons from Dynamlc Call Routing in the Telephone Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
21.6 A General Framework for Source-Based QoS Routing with Path Caching . 720
2] .6.1 Routing Computation Framework . . . . . . . . . . . 721
2 1 .6.2 Routing Computation ......................... . 722
2 1 .6.3 Routing Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 723
21 .6.4 Results 724
21.7 Routing Protocols for QoS Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
2 1 .7.1 QOSPF: Extension to OSPF for QoS Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
2 1 .7.2 ATM PNNI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
21.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 l
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 l
Exercises . 732

CHAPTER 22 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. 734

22.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 735
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XX CONTENTS

22.2 Traffic Engineeling Extension to Routing Protocols . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . 736

22.3 Mul tiprotocoJ Label Switching (MPLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 737
22.3. J Labeled Packets and LSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
22.3.2 Label Distribution.......... ............. ............ 74J
22.3.3 RSVP·TE for MPLS.. . 742
22.3.4 Traffic Engineering Extensions to OSPF and IS-IS . . . . . . . . .. 747
22.3.5 Point-to-Multipoint LSP and Multipoint-to-Multipoint LSP . . . . . . . . . 748
22.4 Generalized MPLS (GMPLS) ........... .......... .......... .... 749
22.4.1 GMPLS Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
22.4.2 Label Stacking and Hierarchical LSPs: MPL SIGM PLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
22.4.3 RSVP-TE for GMPLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
22.4.4 Routing Protocols in GMPLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754 .

22.4.5 Control and Data Path Separallo n and Link Management Protocol , 756
22.5 MPLS Virtual Private Networks. . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . .. 758
22.5.1 BGPIMPLS IP V PN .......... ...... .. ..... ....... .. 758
22.5.2 Layer 2 VPN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
22.6 Multicast VPN with MPLS . . . . . . .... . . 762
22.7 Summ ary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
Further L ookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764

CHAPTER 23 Routing and Traffic Engineering using MPLS. . . . • . • .. . . . .. . .. .. . .. ..... 766

23.1 Traffic En gi neering of TPfMPLS Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
23.1.1 A Brisk Walk Back in History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
23.1.2 MPLS-B ased Approach for Traffic Engineering . . . . . . . . . . 768
23.2 V PN Traffic Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .... 771
23.2.] Problem lI1ustration: Layer 3 V PN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77]
23.2.2 LSP Path Determination: Constrained Shortest Path Approach. . 774
23.2.3 LSP Path Detennination: Network Flow Modeling Approach . . . . 776
23.2.4 Lay er 2 VPN traffic engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
23.2.5 Observations and General M o del ing Framework . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
23.3 Multicast VPN Traffic Engineering . . . . . ... . . ... 781
23.4 RoutinglTraffic Engin eeri n g for Voice Over MPLS . . . ..... ... . . . 782
23.5 Summary . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . .. . 784
Further Lookup .... ............... ............................... . . . 784
Exercise s . . . .. . . .. .. 785

CHAPTER 24 Routing in Optical Networks, Mu ltilayer Networks, and Overlay Networks . . . 786
24. 1 Optical Technology: Overview . .. . .. ..
. . . ..... . 787
24. 1 .1 SONET/SDH...... ............. ..... .. . . . . . . . . . 787
24. 1.2 OTN ............. .. ........... .. . .... ... .... . . ... ... 788
24.2 How Is Opt ical Routing Different? . . . . ..... . .. . ..... ... . 789
24.3 SONET/SDH and OTN Routing . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . . . . ... 790
24.3.' Routing in a SONET Ring. . ... . . .. .... .. .. . . . . ..... ... . .. . .... 790
24.3.2 Routing in SONET/SDH or OTN Transport Cross-Connect Networks 792
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CONTENTS XXI

24.4 WDM Routing and Wavelength Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794

24.4.1 WDM Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
24.4.2 Routing in WDM with Full Conversion: Transport Mode . . . . . . . . . 796
24.4.3 No Conversion Case . . . . . . .... . . . . .. . . . . ... . . . .. 797
24.4.4 On-Demand, Instantaneous Optical Services . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 797
24.5 Protection Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
24.5.1 Solution Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
24.6 Routing in Multilayer Networks . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 80 I
24.6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 I
24.6.2 IP O ver SONET: Combined Two-Layer ROUling De sign . . 804
24.6.3 Virtual Private Networks Over Substrate Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
24.7 Overlay Networks and Overlay Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 808
24.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 81 I
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812

CHAPTER 25 Call Routing in GSTN .. . . . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . ... . . . . . . . . .. 81 4

25.1 E. I64 Addressi ng for GSTN 815
25.2 National umbering Plan . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 7
25.3 Provider Identifier: Carrier Identifi cation Code, Mobile Courury Code, an d
Mobile Network Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
2 5.4 Signaling System: SS7 and Point Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
25.4.1 SS7 Network Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
25.4.2 Point Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. 823
25.4.3 Point Code Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
25.5 55? Protocol Stack . . . . . . .... . . . . 828
25.5.1 Lower Layer Protocols: MTP1, MTP2, MTP3 . . . . . . .. . . 828
25.5.2 Upper Layer Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . ... . . .. 83 1
25.6 SS7 .ISUP and Call Processing . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . ... . . . . .. 83 1
25.6.1 Called/Calling Party N umber Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 836
25.7 Call Routing: Sing1e Provider Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. . . 837
25.7.1 Handling Dialed Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. 837
25.7.2 Illustration of Call Routing . . .. . . . . . . . . 838
25.7.3 Some Observati on s . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 842
25.8 Call Routing with Multiple Service Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
25.9 Number Portability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 845
25.9.1 What Is Number Portability About' . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 845
25.9.2 Portab ility Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 847
2 5.1 0 Non-Geographic or Toll-Free Number Portability . . . . • . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 848
25. 1 0 . 1 SOO-Number Management Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
25.10.2 Message and Call Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 848
25.1 1 FixedIMobile Number Portability . . . . . . . . . . .. 850
2 5 . 1 LI Portabi lity Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
25. 1 1 . 2 Routing Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... . 853
25..1 l .3 Comparison of Routing Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
....�
.. --------------------------------------------
XXII CONTENTS

25. 1 1 .4 Imp act on TAM Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 858

25. 1 1 .5 Number Portability Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 858
25. 1 1 .6 Routing in the Presence of a Transit Network . . . . . . _ _ 859
25. 1 2 Multiple Provider Environment with Local Number P0I1ability . . . 86]
25. 1 3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 864
Exercises . . . . . . . _ . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . • . . . _ . . . . . . • . . • • . _ . . . . • . . . . . 865

CHAPTER 26 VolP C a ll Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866

26.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .

26.2 GSTN Call Routing Using Int ernet ........... . . ....... 868
26.2.1 Conceptual Requirement . . .. . . . . 868
. . . . . . . • . .

26.2.2 VoIP Adapter Functionality.. ...... . . ........ . 869

. . . • .

26.2.3 Addressing and Routing . . . . . . . 870

. . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • .

26.2.4 Serv ice Observations . . . . . . . _ 874

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . .

26.2.5 Traffic Engineeri ng . . . . . . . . . . . . 874

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.2.6 VoIP Adapter: An Alternative S eenario . . . . . . . . . . 877 . . . . . . . . .

26.3 GSTN Call Routing: Managed IP Approach . . 877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.4 IP-GSTN Tnterworking for VoIP .... . . .... . . .... 878 .

26.4.] Gateway Function . . . . . . . . . . . 879

. . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . .

26.4.2 SIP Addressing Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . , . 880 . . . . . .

26.4.3 SIP Phone to POTS Phone . . . . 880

. . . . • . . . • .

26.4.4 POTS Phone to SIP Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 .

26.4.5 GSTN-IP-GSTN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 .

26.4.6 Traffic Engineering.. ...... . . 886

.

26.5 IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) 887

26.5 . ] f M S Architecture 888
26.5.2 Call Routi ng Scenarios . . . . . . . 889
. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . • . . • . . .

26.6 Multiple Heterogeneous Providers Environ ment , , , , , , ,, , , , , 891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.6. 1 Via Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891

. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • .

26.6.2 Carrier Selection Alternative . _ 892

. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .

26.7 All-IP Environment for VoIP Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892

26.8 Addressing Revisited.... 893
26,9 SUllllnary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 895
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .

Further Lookup 895

Exercises . . 896

PART 5 A P PENDICES, BIB LIOGRAPHY, AND INDEX

APPENDIX A Notations, Conventions, and Symbols
A.1 On Notations and Conven tions 899
A.2 Symbols 900
APPENDIX B Miscellaneous Topics 9D2
B.1 Bi nary and Hexadecimal Numbers 903
B.2 Functions: Logarithm and Modulo 904
-------------------------------------------- ......
�
CONTENTS XXI I I

B.3 Fixed-Point Equation 904

B.4 Computational Complexity 906
B.5 Equivalence Classes 907
B.6 Solving Linear Programming Problems 908
B .6 . 1 Using CPLEX 908
B.6.2 Using Matlab 909
B.7 Exponential Weighted Moving Average (EWMA) 91 1
B.8 Linear Regression Fit 912
B.9 Non-Linear Regression Fit 913
B.l0 Computing Probability of Path Blocking or Loss 914
B.l l Four Factors j n Packet Delay 915
B.12 Exponent i al Dj stribution and Poisson Process 91 6
B.13 Generating Normal and Lognormal Distributions 918
B.14 Self-Similarity and Heavy-Tai led Distributions 918
B.15 M arkov Chain and the Birth-and-Death Process 920
B.15.1 Birth-and-Death Process 92 1
B . l 5.2 MIMll System 922
B.lS.3 Trunk Reservation Model for Circuit-Switched Networks 923
B.16 Average Network Delay 923
B.17 Packet Format: IPv4. IPv6, TCP. and UDP 924
APPENDIX C Solutions to Selected Exercises 928
Bibliography 932
Index 966
FOREWORD (1ST EDITION)

My involvement with computer networking started with TheoryNet (1977), an email system for theo-
retical computer scientists. Later (1981) I helped lead the CSNET (computer science network) project
which eventually connected most academic and many industrial computer research groups. In those
early days, our efforts were primarily focused on providing connectivity and being able to use ap-
plications such as email, ftp, and telnet. However, even in the simple (by today’s standards)
environment of the 1970s and early 1980s (Arpanet, CSNET, other experimental Internet networks),
getting routing “right” turned out to be quite challenging.
I was fortunate to be part of the NSFNET regional/backbone model development. This is when
I began to fully understand the significance of routing in a large-scale multi-domain network and, in
particular, the central role of policy issues in such a decentralized environment. As the Internet has
become global in scale and ubiquitous over the past decade, routing has become ever more important.
Packets must be forwarded efficiently from one end of the world to the other with minimal perception
of delay. This has required tremendous efforts on many fronts: how to evolve routing protocols for
large-scale loosely-coupled networking environments, how to engineer a network for efficient routing
from an operational point of view, how to do efficient packet processing at routers, and how to effec-
tively take into account the complexity of policy issues in the determination of routes. And while over
the past two decades there have been many exciting advances, much work remains to be done.
In parallel, we have seen tremendous advances in traditional telephony. The underlying telecommu-
nication system has changed from analog to digital and has incorporated the latest advances in optical
technologies and, more recently, voice over IP. Throughout these revolutionary changes, routing has
continued to play a critical role.
We are now at a crossroad. Various efforts are underway to determine a framework for next gener-
ation networks that allows seamless convergence of services and a platform to more easily create new
services. Among other things, this requires a fresh look at routing. To be successful, it is important that
we understand what has worked to date. To better understand the issues and complexities we should
look at this broadly, considering a variety of different network architectures, not just the for Internet.
For each such network architecture we can benefit from understanding its principles, protocols, algo-
rithms, and functions, with focus on routing. This will help give us perspective as we consider how to
design routing for the next-generation network.
In this regard, Deepankar Medhi and Karthikeyan Ramasamy’s book, Network Routing: Algo-
rithms, Protocols, and Architectures, is very timely. Departing from most other works, it is unique
in providing an in-depth understanding of routing in a wide variety of types of networks. It includes
extensive coverage of the evolution of routing over time. Particularly appealing is its in-depth coverage
across a spectrum of algorithmic, technical, experiential, and practical issues. In addition, the detailed
coverage of routers and switches is particularly valuable as it helps the reader to gain an understand-
ing of why different approaches and components are needed to address packet processing, especially
for scalability. In this regard, it is uniquely successful in drawing the important connection between
routing and routers.
xxv
XXVI FOREWORD (1ST EDITION)

Medhi and Ramasamy’s presentation is very clear and approachable, allowing a wide audience to
understand and gain an appreciation of network routing. I believe that it will become a core refer-
ence book on routing for router developers, network providers, students, and researchers, both today’s
practitioners and those who are interested in next generation routing.
Lawrence Landweber
Past John P. Morgridge Chair and Past Department Chairman,
Computer Science Department, University of Wisconsin–Madison
Fellow, Association for Computing Machinery
Recipient of IEEE Award on International Communication
Former President and Chair of the Board of Trustees, Internet Society
PREFACE (2ND EDITION)

It has been a decade since the first edition of this book was published. When we first wrote it, we
thought that would be it. To our pleasant surprise, the book picked up an audience from all over the
world. We received remarks such as the following:

“I was searching for particular information and I found it wonderfully explained in your routing
book. What a great book, every time I use it I am so glad to have it!” – Brunilde Sansò (Canada)
“I have found it really good: comprehensive, clear, precise, generic.” – Peter Soreanu (Israel)
“In my opinion, your book is an excellent source for introducing the IGP and EGP protocols.” – Don
Lanzinger (USA)
“It is a very good book, very recommended and it has been a great help for planning the course.”
– Eduardo Moreno (Chile)

We were pleased to get such nice responses and that our book struck a cord with a particular
audience.
Most recently, our publisher approached us to consider doing a second edition. Honestly, we did
not think this book was ever going to go for a second edition. It made us pause. Given our other com-
mitments, we also needed to think if we would have enough bandwidth to work on the second edition.
Finally, we decided to take the plunge. It turned out to be more challenging than we originally thought
for two reasons: 1) while on the surface, it might seem that not much has changed in routing since the
first edition, there has been a number of important developments due to software-defined networking,
data center networking, and more critical issues in regards to security with routing; 2) we faced per-
sonal situations that needed to take priority over working on the book. For the latter, we are thankful
that the publisher was able to accommodate us by giving us additional time to finish this project.
The book has gone through quite a bit of changes. In particular,

• The material in many chapters have been extensively updated with new discussions, based on feed-
back from students, educators, and professionals. New sections are added in many chapters covering
topics such as algorithms for trees in Chapter 2, node-link formulation for additional problems in
Chapter 4, OPSPFv3 in Chapter 6, BGP security in Chapter 9, and IP prefix hijacking in Chapter 10.
In particular, security issues with routing are now discussed throughout the book.
• New chapters have been added on multicast routing (Chapter 8) , on routing and traffic engineering
in data center networks (Chapter 12), and on routing in software defined networks (Chapter 11).
The chapter on optical, multilayer, and overlay routing (Chapter 24) is completely revamped.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Several students who took the course, Network Routing, from the first author, read the chapters care-
fully, especially the new chapters while the second edition was under preparation. For their comments
xxvii
XXVIII PREFACE (2ND EDITION)

as well as comments from students who took the course earlier, we like to thank Abdoh Jabbari, Ah-
mad Alhonainy, Akshay Reddy Gayam, Daehee Kim, Daroon Hassan, Diana Dasi, Driss Benhaddou,
Fathima James, Jebreel Khurmi, Jagannath Mangipudi, Mirza Mohd Shahriar Maswood, Md Tajul Is-
lam, Md Mainul Islam Mamun, Nitin George, Rahul Chaudhari, Rohit Abhishek, Saud Alqahtani, Sean
Baes, Seoung Jin Lee, Shuai Jack Zhao, Sheyda Kiani Mehr, Sravan Valluri, Subhash Methuku, Syed
Faraz Hussain, and Tejas Parab.
We also benefited from feedback by Aanand Ramachandran (Microsoft, India), Brunilde Sansò
(Polytechnique Montréal, Canada), Geoff Huston (APNIC, Australia), George Rouskas (North Car-
olina State University, USA), Javier Carmona Murillo (University of Extremadura, Spain), Jennifer
Rexford (Princeton University, USA), Jörg Liebeherr (University of Toronto, Canada), Lúcia Martins
(University of Coimbra, Portugal), María J. Verdú (University of Valladolid, Spain), Mario Baldi (Po-
litecnico di Torino, Italy), Nasir Ghani (University of South Florida, USA), Nelson Fonseca (University
of Campinas, Brazil), Steve Dispensa (Microsoft, USA), Peter Soreanu (ORT Braude College, Israel),
and Teresa Gomes (University of Coimbra, Portugal), at various stages of preparing the manuscript and
for comments on our 1st edition. We again thank Jane Zupan for identifying new quotes for use at the
beginning of the chapters.
Our external reviewers took time out of their busy schedules to review many of the chapters.
We thank Ítalu Cunha (Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil), Manav Bhatia (Nokia, In-
dia), T. Venkatesh (Indian Institute of Technology–Guwahati, India), and Stefano Secci (Université
Pierre et Marie Curie, France) for their detailed comments on the draft of many chapters. In addi-
tion, Sandeep Pisharody (Arizona State University, USA), Dallal Belabed (Thales Communications &
Security, France), and Steve Dispensa (Microsoft, USA) read chapters and provided helpful comments.
We thank the Elsevier team, Brian Romer, Ana Claudia A. Garcia (muito obrigado!), and Punitha-
vathy Govindaradjane, for their great support with the second edition. SkyLaTeX from VTEX made
it easy to make the final corrections online. Two persons stood out for their dedicated help in various
phases of this project. Xuan Liu (AT&T Labs-Research) read many chapters on a short notice, and
provided new references and much help when needed; her contributions were immeasurable. Nancy
Lorenz read the manuscript diligently one page at a time to find and fixed numerous typos—the only
person to have read the entire book! We thank them profoundly.
The first author thanks the National Science Foundation (NSF grant #s: 9422092, 9506652,
0831090, 0916505, 1029562, 1217736, 1526299), and the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
(DARPA AFRL agreement # F30602-97-1-0257) for their funding support that helped shape both the
first edition and the second edition of this book.
Finally, we thank our families for their support (you know who you are).
Deepankar (Deep) Medhi
Overland Park, KS, USA
Karthikeyan (Karthik) Ramasamy
Santa Clara, CA, USA
PREFACE (1ST EDITION)

In the span of a quarter-century, network routing in communication networks has evolved tremen-
dously. Just a quarter century ago, the public switched telephone network (PSTN) was running hierar-
chical routing, ARPANET routing was operational, and the telecommunication infrastructure had fixed
static transport routes. In the 1980s, we first saw the tremendous growth in routing: Internet routing was
deployed under the TCP/IP stack starting, first with the RIP protocol; the telephone network started de-
ploying dynamic call routing schemes; and the telecommunication transport network deployed SONET
transport mechanisms, which could re-route in a ring topology in 40 millisec in the event of a failure.
In the past fifteen years, we have seen the need for policy routing due to multiprovider setting, and
need to develop fast lookup algorithms for packet processing that enables efficient routing. We have
also seen inter-dependency between addressing and routing as first addressed through classless Inter-
domain Routing (CIDR) and more recently, due to number portability in the PSTN; more importantly,
we saw how the way an addressing scheme is deployed can impact routing and lookup algorithms.
Network routing can be broadly divided into three basic fundamental categories: packet routing,
circuit-switched routing, and transport routing; certainly, a combination is possible. The evolution over
the past quarter century has brought to the foreground the need to understand and examine where
and how different dimensions of routing, from algorithms to protocols to architectures, can differ for
different types of networks and where they intersect. Certainly, the goal is to see how we learn from
our past experiences and prepare ourselves for next generation networks and routing.
While numerous papers have been written on the subject of network routing, and several books
are now available on routing for specific networks, the field still lacks a comprehensive or systematic
guide that encompasses various routing paradigms. Secondly, even in discussions of a single routing
type (for example, either Internet or PSTN), the focus often appears to be either on protocols or on
algorithms without tying them together along with analysis and implementation; or, the work delves
more into router command-line for router configuration, or, being informational without explaining
the whys. Furthermore, how the addressing mechanism can affect routing decisions is yet another
important topic that is rarely discussed. For efficient routing, how routers are architectured, and why,
is yet another mystery. Finally, the relation between traffic engineering and efficient routing is also
another topic. In the end, one needs to be somewhat of an “expert” in different routing paradigms to
get a well-rounded view.
Lastly, after investigating about routing in different networks for a number of years, we have come
to the observation that network routing is like an economy. Similar to macroeconomics and microeco-
nomics, network routing also has macro- and micro-centric issues; in addition, seemingly different and
conflicting systems can and do co-exist. Not all of the issues are purely technical; business relations
and regulatory issues are also important to recognize and consider. Thus, this book is an attempt to
paint a broad picture that encompasses various aspects of network routing in one place.
xxix
XXX PREFACE (1ST EDITION)

AUDIENCE
Our goal has been to create a book that can be used by a diverse set of audiences, and with varied levels
of background. Specifically, we set out to create a book that can be used by professionals as well as
students and researchers. In general, this is intended as a self-study. We assume that the reader already
has some basic knowledge of networking. Among professionals, the intent has been to cover two broad
groups, router developers including protocol designers and router architects, and network designers and
operators, with the overall goal to bring out issues that one group might want to understand that the
other group faces. For students, this book is intended to help learn about routing in depth, along with
the big picture and lessons from operational and implementation experience. For researchers, who want
to know what has been done so far and what are critical issues to address for next generation routing,
this is intended as a helpful reference. In general, this book has been intended as a one-stop treatise for
all interested in network routing in different networks.

ORGANIZATION AND APPROACH

The book is organized into six parts. Each part starts with a chapter-level summary. We present below
a brief overview of each part:

• Part-I (four chapters): We cover the basic foundations of routing, from algorithms to protocols,
along with network flow modeling.
• Part-II (five chapters): This part is about IP network routing, from standardized protocols for both
intra- and inter-domain routing, to IP traffic engineering, to Internet routing architectures.
• Part-III (four chapters): This part covers PSTN routing, from hierarchical routing to dynamic rout-
ing, from addressing to traffic engineering, including the role of signaling in routing, along with the
impact of number portability in routing.
• Part-IV (three chapters): In this part, we cover router architectures for different scale routers for
efficient packet processing, along with address lookup algorithms, and packet filtering and classifi-
cation mechanisms.
• Part-V (four chapters): As impetuses for next generation routing, we present quality-of-service rout-
ing, multiprotocol label switching, generalized multiprotocol label switching, and routing at the
intersection of IP-PSTN for voice over IP.
• Part-VI (five chapters): This bonus material (available only on the CD-ROM) is made up of two
sub-parts: the first three chapters continue beyond Part-IV by delving more into routers by pre-
senting efficient switching, packet queueing and scheduling, and traffic conditioning; the remaining
two chapters extend Part-V by covering transport network routing, optical network routing, and
multilayer routing.

At the beginning of each chapter, a reading guideline is provided. This gives a brief description
on the background needed to read the chapter; it also discusses which other chapters this chapter is
connected to or has dependency on. In general, it is not necessary to read the chapters in the sequential
order presented. Furthermore, the chapters are organized in a way so that the reader who has famil-
iarity with a particular topic can move on and read other chapters of interest. Similarly, there are a
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 [762] Lansd. MSS. 70, ff. 55, 187.
[763] Harl. MSS., 306, f. 233, 3rd May 1594.
[764] 5 Eliz. c. 5.
[765] State Papers, Dom., cvii, 68.
[766] Ibid., cxlvii, 21, 22.
[767] Ibid., ccl, 33. This paper bears a note by Burghley, ‘Engl.
shippes allowed money for ther tonag sȳce 22 Eliz.’ It has been
shown that the custom, as a mark of royal approbation, was much
older than Elizabeth, but it may have been made a right from
about 1580.
[768] Ibid., cl, 96.
[769] State Papers, Dom., ccliv, 33.
[770] Ibid., cclxii, 126.
[771] The Admiralty Court.
[772] State Papers, Dom., cxxxvi, 35. When the Pelican, or as
she was afterwards called, the Golden Hind, returned from her
famous voyage round the world she was placed in a dock, filled in
with earth at Deptford, and remained there as one of the shows of
London for nearly a century. There is an estimate for works to the
amount of £370 for this purpose (Add. MSS. 9294, f. 68), but it
does not appear that this plan, which included a brick wall, roof,
etc., was ever fully carried out. In the Navy accounts only £67, 7s
10d for her repairs, £35, 8s 8d for a wall of earth round her, and
£14, 13s 4d for preparing the ship for the Queen’s visit are
entered.
[773] State Papers, Dom., ccxxxviii, 142.
[774] State Papers, Dom., cxxxi, 61.
[775] Ibid., cxlix, 58.
[776] Ibid., ccxxxiii, 13, and ccxxxix, 44.
[777] State Papers, Dom., lxxxiii, 37.
[778] State Papers, Dom., cxx, 54.
[779] Lansd. MSS. 142, f. 182.
[780] State Papers, Dom., cli, 6 (1581).
[781] Ibid., ccxlviii, 80.
 [782] Malyne, Lex Mercatoria p. 200, (ed. 1622).
[783] State Papers, Dom., xi, 27.
[784] Ibid., viii, 36. Eventually £100 was remitted.
[785] Ibid., xxxviii, 8.
[786] Ibid., xxviii, 3.
[787] Harl. MSS., 168, f. 248.
[788] State Papers, Dom., Eliz. Add. xxii.
[789] State Papers, Dom., xcvi, p. 267. London is described as,
‘The river of Thames wherein is contained Maulden, Colchester,
Bricklingsey, Lee, Feversham, Rochester, and the creekes
belonging.’
[790] State Papers, Dom., cvii, 68.
[791] Ibid., clvi, 45.
[792] Harl. MSS. 4228, f., 45.
[793] Cott. MSS., Otho. E. IX, f., 162.
[794] State Papers, Dom., ccxxii, 57.
[795] Lansd. MSS. 81, f. 88.
[796] State Papers, Dom., cclxii, 21.
[797] Ibid., xi, 27. This is a return of ‘mariners and sailors’ only,
and does not include fishermen. London is omitted, and from the
numbers, e.g., Norfolk 178, Northumberland (with Newcastle) 37,
is probably only of men at that time ashore.
[798] Ibid., xxxviii, 8, 9, 14, 23, 28; xxxix, 17. This is also
incomplete but includes fishermen.
[799] Ibid., lxxi, 74 1; lxxiii, 15 1, 48.
[800] Ibid., clvi, 45. Includes seamen, fishermen, and masters
of ships.
[801] And 311 at sea.
[802] Including Liverpool.
[803] Including 957 watermen.
[804] State Papers, Dom., cclxxiv, Feb.
[805] State Papers, Foreign, 29th Dec. 1568, and Ibid. 1573-
1279.
 [806] ‘Releasing them for bribes and billes of dette.’
[807] Acts of the Privy Council, 29th April 1576.
[808] State Papers, Dom., cxxxv, p. 240.
[809] State Papers, Dom. Add., xxix, 126.
[810] Lansd. MSS., 148, f. 13.
[811] Add. MSS., 11405, ff. 91, 103.
[812] Lansd. MSS. 148, f. 1 and State Papers, Dom., cv, 18.
[813] State Papers, Dom., cxxxix, 54. In 1603 these owners
were still patiently petitioning James I.
[814] State Papers, Dom., cclxv, 13.
[815] Near Vigo.
[816] Ibid., cxci, 7.
[817] Lansd. MSS., 115, f. 196.
[818] Appendix D.
[819] State Papers, Dom., cxxxiii, 7.
[820] State Papers, Dom., cclxxxvi, 11.
[821] Harl. MSS., 253, f. 10.
[822] Ibid., 253, f. 18, and Exch. War. for Issues, 17th Dec.
1597.
[823] State Papers, Dom., ccxxviii, 1.
[824] Cott. MSS., Otho E., VIII, f. 169.
[825] Lansd. MSS., 61, f. 184.
[826] State Papers, Dom., ccxxvii, 1.
[827] Breton.
[828] The last was of 12 barrels of 31½ gallons (old measure).
[829] State Papers, Dom., ccxx. Stow says that Hawkyns
introduced nettings. They went out of use for a time.
[830] Harl. MSS. 306, f. 68.
[831] Pipe Office Accounts, 2210, 2212.
[832] Ibid., 2232.
[833] The Jesus of Lubeck and the Revenge.
 [834] Ralegh, Discourse of Ships; Monson, Naval Tracts; Duro,
Disq. Nauticas.
[835] Monson says that in 1599 a fleet was prepared for sea in
twelve days, and ‘the Queen was never more dreaded abroad for
anything she ever did.’
[836] Add. MSS. 5752, f. 136.
[837] Add. MSS. 19889; The Jewell of Artes, 1604, f. 135 et
seq.
[838] Harl. MSS. 309-51.
[839] Add. MSS. 9294, Nov. 1610.
[840] State Papers, Dom., Jas. I., cl, 83, 84.
[841] Whole or partial external double planking.
[842] Harl. MSS. 2301.
[843] Paul Hentzner.
[844] On 20th July 1613 a warrant was issued to pay wages
owing since 1608.
[845] Add. MSS. 9302, f. 9.
[846] State Papers, Dom., cl, 20.
[847] Ibid., xl, f. 70.
[848] A Dialogical Discourse of Marine Affairs, by Nath. Boteler,
Harl. MSS. 1341. Partly printed in 1685 but of this period.
[849] Ibid.
[850] State Papers, Dom., clxxxii, 29.
[851] Rot. Pat., 26th April.
[852] State Papers, Dom., xc, 98.
[853] Ibid., xxii, 15.
[854] Ibid., cxii, 101.
[855] Ibid.
[856] State Papers, Dom., cxvi, 86.
[857] Ibid., ciii, 104.
[858] Ibid., lxxxix, 33.
[859] State Papers, Dom., xli, f. 17.
 [860] Ibid., xl, 87.
[861] Cott. MSS., Julius F. III, f, 15.
[862] State Papers, Dom., xli, f. 25. See also Bishop
Goodman’s description of Mansell’s temper in Court of King
James I, I, 56.
[863] State Papers, Dom., cxii, 101.
[864] Coke MSS., Cal. Hist. MSS., Com. Report, xii, App., pt. i,
41.
[865] Cott. MSS., Julius F., III, ff. 98, 249, 250, 252.
[866] The report of the commissioners will be found in State
Papers, Dom. Jas. I, xli; the sworn depositions on which that
report was based are preserved in Cott. MSS., Julius F., III. The
evidence in question is of value for to-day, and may be
instructively compared with the reports of the committee of
investigation of 1803-5 on the again astonishing condition of
naval administration. It is to be hoped that the Navy Records
Society will print the Cottonian MS.
[867] Gardiner, History of England, II, 11.
[868] Gardiner, History of England, III, 200.
[869] State Papers, Dom., clxxxii, 28.
[870] Pipe Office Accounts, 2257, 2259, 2260.
[871] The Commissioners acted by Letters Patent of 12th
February 1619. They were Sir Lionel Cranfield, Sir Thos. Weston,
Sir John Wolstenholme, Sir Thos. Smith, Nicholas Fortescue,
John Osborne, Francis Goston, Richard Sutton, Wm. Pitt, Sir
John Coke, Thos. Norreys, and Wm. Burrell.
[872] State Papers, Dom., c and ci, 3.
[873] State Papers, Dom., cli, 35.
[874] Ibid., clx, 43.
[875] State Papers, Dom., clvi, 12.
[876] There are few separate dockyard amounts for these
years.
[877] Includes £4734 for a naval pageant on the Thames at the
marriage of the Princess Elizabeth.
[878] Exclusive of Algiers fleet £6446.
 [879] Exclusive of Algiers fleet £17,665.
[880] Inclusive of £9667 repairs to Algiers fleet.
[881] A fleet was sent to Spain for Charles, and £9100, owing
from 1615, paid.
[882] State Papers, Dom., clxxv, 85, 3000 hammocks were to
be supplied in this fleet.
[883] Cott. MSS., Otho E, VIII, f, 316.
[884] Ibid.
[885] State Papers, Dom., lxxxvi, 101.
[886] Ibid., xc, 24.
[887] R. Playfair, The Scourge of Christendom, p. 34.
[888] Monson, Naval Tracts.
[889] State Papers, Dom., cli, 21.
[890] State Papers, Colonial, March 1620.
[891] State Papers, Dom., civ, 65.
[892] England’s Way to Win Wealth, Lond. 1614, and The
Trade’s Increase, Lond. 1615.
[893] The Dutch Company is said to have distributed in twenty-
one years, ending with 1622, dividends of 30,000,000 florins on a
capital of some 6,000,000 florins, (Irving, Commerce of India).
[894] Egerton MSS., 2100.
[895] State Papers, Dom., xxii, 22.
[896] Ibid., cxix, 118, 1 and 121.
[897] State Papers, Dom. Jas. I cxxxiii, 70; Ibid., clviii, 54; Ibid.,
Chas. I xiii, 56. Pipe Office Accounts; Add. MSS., 9294 p. 505;
Ibid., 9295, Pett’s Autobiography; Ibid., 9297, p. 359. As usual all
these dimensions, especially tonnage, differ somewhat in the
various papers.
[898] The Nonpareil rebuilt and renamed.
[899] The Hope rebuilt and renamed. These ships were not
completed till 1605.
[900] The Swiftsure rebuilt and renamed.
[901] The Ark Royal rebuilt and renamed.
 [902] The Golden Lion rebuilt and renamed.
[903] For convenience the Merhonour, Dreadnought, and
Defiance are placed under one date, but they were in hand from
1611 till 1614.
[904] Or Convertive. This was the Destiny built for Sir Walter
Ralegh before his last voyage, and afterwards bought or
confiscated into the Navy.
[905] The Rainbow and Antelope were in dry dock some three
years (Pipe Office Accounts).
[906] State Papers, Dom., clxxiv, 56.
[907] Cott, MSS. Julius F. III, f. 293.
[908] Ibid., Otho E., VII, f. 155. Letter, Pett to Baker, 10th April
1603.
[909] Coke MSS., Cal. I, 114.
[910] In the literal but not later sense of ‘three decker.’ She had
two full batteries besides an upper deck armed. In 1634 the
authorities of the Trinity House, who, through a long series of
years appear to have always chosen the wrong view, wrote, ‘The
art or wit of man cannot build a ship fit for service, with three tier
of ordnance.’ Three years later the first ‘three-decker’ was afloat.
[911] Add MSS., 9294, Nov. 1610.
[912] Pipe Office Accounts, 2249.
[913] State Papers, Dom., ci, 4.
[914] Pipe Office Accounts, 2248.
[915] State Papers, Dom., xli, f. 39.
[916] Ibid., clxi, 68. The classification is that of the State Paper.
[917] State Papers, Dom., clviii, 56.
[918] Ibid., and cviii, 58.
[919] Harl. MSS., 2301. About 1625 or earlier, and by Sir Hen.
Manwayring. It was printed in 1644 under the title of The Sea-
man’s Dictionary. There is another MS. copy among the State
Papers (S. P. Dom., Chas. I, cxxvii), called A Brief Abstract ... of
all Parts and Things belonging to a Ship. The three versions differ
but little from each other.
[920] Add. MSS., 9299, f. 48.
 [921] Pipe Office Accounts, 2248.
[922] Ibid., 2252.
[923] Pipe Office Accounts, 2261.
[924] Ibid., 2256.
[925] Ibid., 2257, 2258.
[926] Ibid., 2260.
[927] Ibid., 2258.
[928] Ibid., 2261, 2262.
[929] Pipe Office Accounts, 2262.
[930] Add. MSS., 9297, f. 25.
[931] Cott. MSS., Otho E. VII, ff. 219, 220.
[932] State Papers, Dom., cxxxvi.
[933] State Papers, Dom., cix, 139, 1.
[934] Ibid., cxxxiii, 70.
[935] State Papers, Dom., Eliz. ccxxxvii, f. 119. Although
calendared under Elizabeth many of the papers in this volume are
copies of documents relating to the reigns of James I and Charles
I. See also M. A. Lower, Contributions to Literature, for an article
on the Kent and Sussex gun foundries.
[936] Cott. MSS., Otho E, VII, f. 78.
[937] State Papers, Dom., Jas. I, cxxviii, 94.
[938] Yonge’s Diary, Camd. Soc.
[939] State Papers, Dom., xvii, 103.
[940] Ibid., cix, 139, I.
[941] Add. MSS., 9302. f. 9.
[942] Coke MSS., Cal. I, 105.
[943] Cott. MSS., Otho E. VII, f. 263.
[944] Cott. MSS., Otho E. VII, f. 263.
[945] Mr Del Mar (Hist. of the Precious Metals, p. 209), quoting
Tooke and D’Avenant, estimates the stock of gold and silver coin
in England and Wales in 1560 at £1,100,000 and in 1600 at
£4,000,000.
 [946] Martin, Hist. de la France, X, 446.
[947] Kolb, Condition of Nations, p. 209.
[948] Gardiner, Hist. of England, X, 222.
[949] Parl. Debates, 31st Aug. 1660.
[950] A writer of the reign of James I estimated that there were
37,000 Dutch seamen engaged in the North Sea fisheries alone;
Ralegh put the number at 50,000 men.
[951] State Papers, Dom., Charles I, vi, 23. The original
purpose had been to take 2000 English veterans in the service of
the States-General, leaving the recruits in their place; but the men
were sent before any arrangement had been come to with the
Dutch, who finally refused to assent to it. The proceeding was
characteristic of Buckingham’s hopeful belief in the immediate
acceptance of his measures.
[952] ‘The number of lame, impotent, and unable men unfitt for
actual service is very great.’ (Ogle to Conway, 18th June 1625.)
[953] Ibid., ix, 15, Blundell to Buckingham.
[954] There were twelve king’s ships in the fleet (Pipe Office
Accounts, 2425).
[955] State Papers, Dom., ix, 39, Cecil to Conway.
[956] Ibid., xi, 49.
[957] Levet’s Relation of Cadiz Voyage, Coke MSS.
[958] State Papers, Dom., viii, 41, Coke to Buckingham.
[959] Voyage to Cadiz in 1625 (Camden Society).
[960] Sir Allen Apsley, also lieutenant of the Tower, remained
victualler with Sir Sampson Darrell till 1630.
[961] State Papers, Dom., xviii, 63, 1.
[962] Ibid., 75.
[963] Ibid., xii, 81.
[964] Ibid., xx, 25. February 1626.
[965] State Papers, Dom., xxii. 33, and Coke MSS., 4th March
1626.
[966] Coke MSS., 27th February 1626.
[967] State Papers, Dom., xiii, 67 and 73.
 [968] Ibid., xxiv, 9, and Coke MSS., 12th April 1626.
[969] State Papers, Dom., xxiv, 24.
[970] Ibid., xxv, 45.
[971] Ibid., xxiv, 33. Pennington to Buckingham.
[972] State Papers, Dom., xxiv, 65.
[973] Ibid., cxcvi, 32.
[974] Proc., April, 1626.
[975] State Papers, Dom., xxxv, 19, and Add. MSS., 9339, f. 24.
Six rates of vessels are classified. All carry trumpeters, and the
first four drummers and fifers. Both lieutenants and corporals
were employed in 1588, but afterwards discontinued; the Lion had
a lieutenant in 1587, and perhaps it was not uncommon for a
large ship on war service to carry an officer of that rank.
[976] According to rate of ship.
[977] Only to 1st, 2nd, and 3rd rates—‘a place not formerly
allowed.’
[978] ‘Not formerly allowed’; his duties were akin to those of a
musketry instructor of to-day.
[979] Egerton MSS., 2541, f. 13.
[980] State Papers, Dom., xxx, 48.
[981] Ibid., 75.
[982] Ibid., xxxiii, 27; July 1626.
[983] Ibid., xxxv, 44.
[984] State Papers, Dom., xxxv, 102 and 109, 1, Willoughby to
Nicholas.
[985] Ibid., xxxvi, 60.
[986] Ibid., xxxvii, 57.
[987] Ibid., xxxix, 78.
[988] Ibid., xli, 56, (1626).
[989] State Papers, Dom., 8 and 77, Philpott to Nichols.
[990] Ibid., xlii, 100.
[991] 12th Dec. 1626.
[992] State Papers, Dom., xlii, 137.
 [993] State Papers, Dom., xlix, 68; January 1627.
[994] Ibid., liii, 9 and 10; February 1627.
[995] Ibid., lxiv, 76, Mervyn to Buckingham.
[996] Ibid., lxxxviii, 62; 1627.
[997] State Papers, Dom., lxxxv, 61.
[998] Ibid., lxxxvi, 42.
[999] Ibid., lxxxvii, 37; December 1627.
[1000] Ibid., lxxx, 83 and 86.
[1001] Coke MSS., 17th September 1627.
[1002] State Papers, Dom., xc, 38.
[1003] Ibid., 75.
[1004] Ibid., xcii, 73; February 1628.
[1005] State Papers, Dom., xcviii, 26.
[1006] Ibid., 29, March 1628, Gorges to Buckingham.
[1007] Ibid., cv, 80; 1628.
[1008] State Papers, Dom., cv, 85.
[1009] Ibid., cviii, 18.
[1010] Add. MSS., 9297, f. 118.
[1011] Coke MSS., 3rd June 1628.
[1012] State Papers, Dom., cxiv, 48.
[1013] State Papers, Dom., cxx, 27; November 1628.
[1014] Ibid., cxviii, 78.
[1015] Ibid., cxlix, 90; September.
[1016] Ibid., 92.
[1017] State Papers, Dom., clxxii, 42; August 1630.
[1018] Ibid., clxxv, 75.
[1019] Ibid., ccxviii, 52.
[1020] Ibid., ccxlvi, 85.
[1021] State Papers, Dom., cclxxii, 58; July 1634.
[1022] Ibid., cclxxix, 106, Advice of a Seaman, &c., by Nath.
Knott.
 [1023] State Papers, Dom., ccxcviii, 5; September 1635.
[1024] Add. MSS., 9301, f. 54.
[1025] State Papers, Dom., cccxxvi, 10.
[1026] Ibid., cccxxxvii, 15.
[1027] Ibid., cccxxxviii, 39.
[1028] Aud. Off. Dec. Accounts, s.v. ‘Navy.’
[1029] State Papers, Dom., cccliii, f. 95.
[1030] Ibid., ccclxv, 28.
[1031] The sale of gunpowder was at this time a crown
monopoly (Fœdera, xx, 107). Charles’s sad and picturesque
dignity of appearance did not imply such a delicate sense of
honour as to prevent him turning a penny by forcing contraband
of war through the fleet of a friendly power and supplying the
privateers who were the scourge of English commerce.
[1032] In the eighteenth century he would have had a hole-and-
corner trial, undefended and ignorant of the law, before the
associates, and perhaps friends, of the man whom he had
assaulted.
[1033] State Papers, Dom., lvi, 101, (1627), and ccccvii, 32,
(1638).
[1034] State Papers, Dom., ccccxxxi, 30.
[1035] With the exception of the Amboyna affair, a case once
more of the ‘prancing proconsul,’ the Dutch showed, throughout
this century, exemplary patience and moderation under a long
course of provocation, in affairs of salutes, right of search, and
seizures of ships, several instances of which there will be
occasion to mention. The rulers of the United Netherlands chose
to consider wider aims and more urgent needs than revenge for
insults to their flag, however flagrant, but when the Navigation Act
of 1651 brought matters to a crisis the Dutch must have felt that
they had a long score to settle.
[1036] State Papers, Dom., cccclxxxii, 13.
[1037] State Papers, Dom., ccccxciv, 2nd Jan. 1643.
[1038] Public Acts, 17th Charles I.
[1039] Preface to Calendar of State Papers, 1652-3, p. xii. In
other prefaces Mrs Green refers to the same point.
 [1040] The number eventually serving that year was nearer
20,000, but this included some thousands of soldiers.
[1041] Infra p. 244.
[1042] State Papers, Dom., cii, 72.
[1043] Ibid., cclxiv, f. 33.
[1044] Ibid., cccvi, 87; 1635. In another copy of this paper (Add.
MSS., 9301, f. 57), they suggest the sensible remedy of a register
at each custom house, in which agreements might be entered.
[1045] State Papers, Dom., cccxcviii, 23 and 40.
[1046] Fœdera, xx, 278; 25th November 1638.
[1047] State Papers, Dom., cclxxi, 12.
[1048] Digby’s Voyage (Camden Society), p. 9.
[1049] State Papers, Dom., clv, 31 and cclxxxii, 135.
 [1050] State Papers, Dom., xviii, 59.
[1051] But only applicable in port.
[1052] Add. MSS., 18772.
[1053] State Papers, Dom., ccclii, 78.
[1054] State Papers, Dom., cccxii, 90.
[1055] Ibid., ccclii, 78.
[1056] Ibid., 81.
[1057] Add. MSS., 9301, f. 156.
[1058] I am indebted to the courtesy of Admiral Sir R. Vesey
Hamilton, K.C.B., President of the Royal Naval College, for
permission to examine these books.
[1059] In receipt of yearly pensions.
[1060] For eight months ending 4th January 1644.
[1061] For three and a half months.
[1062] For a year.
[1063] State Papers, Dom., cclxxix, 106.
[1064] Reasons, &c., dated 17th June. The officers who sign
threaten, unless terms are made with the King, to blockade the
river.
[1065] Various authorities give 9, 10, and 11 ships; the
discrepancies may most probably be explained by supposing that
one or two of those which left the Downs turned back before
reaching Holland.
[1066] Clarendon, IV, 574, ed. 1888.
[1067] Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert, III, 262.
[1068] Supra p. 207. The Speedwell was lost in November
1624, after this list was drawn up. There were also some worn out
Elizabethan ships remaining, the Crane, Answer, Moon, and
Merlin, which the compiler did not consider of sufficient
importance to include.
[1069] Pipe Office Accounts, 2425.
[1070] State Papers, Dom., lxvii, 47.
 [1071] Pipe Office Accounts, 2428.
[1072] E.g. the Sovereign of the Seas, which, until she was cut
down, was the largest most ornate, and most useless ship afloat.
[1073] State Papers, Dom., lxxi, 65. These remarks must be
read in conjunction with those relating to the lack of victuals and
stores, and want of competent and willing service on the part of
officers and men, made in Part I, and for which Buckingham’s
incapacity was principally responsible. But his incapacity was, in
this matter, not the only nor even the main factor, since, when in
1627 he applied to Gyffard, Sir Sackville Trevor, and Hervey for
suggestions as to freeing the narrow seas from pirates, they
agreed that the existing vessels were too slow to catch any but
others of their own type (State Papers, Dom., liv, 9, 11-13). In
October 1625, the Channel squadron consisted of ten English
men-of-war and merchantmen and four Dutch ships, a larger
force than had probably ever been employed before for merely
protective duties. The conditions were as bad or worse, after his
death.
[1074] State Papers, Dom., cclxxvii, 43.
[1075] Ibid., xi, 62, 63. Assuming in these instances the rake,
fore and aft, to have been about three-eighths of the keel length.
[1076] Ibid., lvi, 56.
[1077] Ibid., lvii, 42.
[1078] Ibid., cccxxxviii, 39.
[1079] Other prizes, which were nominally King’s ships, but
which only served during one of the big expeditions or for a few
weeks in the Channel, were the Mary Roan, St George, St Peter,
Pelican, Mackerel, Nightingale, St James, Little Seahorse, and
Hope. Where special references are not given, the general
authorities are State Papers, Dom., ccxv, 108; ccxxviii, f, 38;
ccxliv, 23; ccclxviii, 121; Add. MSS., 9294, f, 505; 9300, f, 54;
9336, ff, 63, 64; 18,037 and 18,772. As in previous instances the
measurements frequently differ in these lists, and can only be
taken as approximately correct.
[1080] From greatest breadth to upper edge of keel.
[1081] State Papers, Dom., x, 25.
[1082] Ibid., xxiv, 4. The St Mary was given to Sir John
Chudleigh in 1629.
 [1083] State Papers, Dom., xxiv, 62.
[1084] Ibid., xxi, 72, and Aud. Off. Dec. Accounts, 1699, 64.
[1085] Ibid., xxxvii, 95.
[1086] Called the 1st, 2nd-10th whelps. Two differed slightly in
size from the others.
[1087] Aud. Off. Dec. Accounts, 1699, 66.
[1088] A Dutch-built ship bought for Richelieu’s newly created
fleet, but taken in the Texel (State Papers, Dom., lxxxiii, 20 and
lxxxvi, 64).
[1089] Captured Dunkirkers. The measurements of the
Nicodemus, Nonsuch, Phœnix, and Elizabeth, are from a paper in
the Pepys MSS., quoted in Derrick’s Memoirs of the Royal Navy.
The Swan was lost off Guernsey in October 1638.
[1090] Bought in 1642 (Aud. Off. Dec. Accounts, 1706, 89).
[1091] Built in 1646 as a privateer, and employed as such by
Warwick (half share), Pett, Swanley, and others; bought by the
Parliament from 20th Jan. 1649, when she was appraised at
£2081 (State Papers, Dom., Interreg., xxiii, 119). The dimensions
are from Harl. MSS., 4161. She is popularly said to have been the
first frigate built in an English yard, but it will be seen from the
above list that four others, of a still more pronounced frigate type,
were launched in the same year.
[1092] The first seven vessels were prizes captured during the
civil war and taken into the Navy, in which they remained long
enough to be included in the Commonwealth lists; the Globe, and
Hector were merchantmen bought into the service. For the names
of others see Aud. Off. Dec. Accounts, 1812, 443 A.
[1093] State Papers, Dom., xxi, 72.
[1094] Supra, p. 54. Mr R. C. Leslie (Old Sea Wings, Ways, and
Words, p. 49 et seq.) believes all the smaller craft of old, and
some large ones, to have been clinker-built.
[1095] State Papers, Dom., lviii, 25.
[1096] Ibid., cxxi, 41.
[1097] Ibid., ccclxv, 17; 1637.
[1098] State Papers, Dom., ccclxiii, 29. It is difficult even in
these days of mechanical appliances to keep the ports completely
water-tight in heavy weather. Ports were fastened by a bar of
wood passed through a ring on the inside; but this could not have
been very effectual, and it was usual to drive oakum into the
seams of the ports when bad weather was expected
(Nomenclator Navalis).
[1099] The Dutchman was probably Cornelius Drebbel, who
claimed to have solved the secret of perpetual motion, and to
have invented a submarine boat. His name occurs several times
in the State Papers as receiving rewards for various inventions
and appliances, and in 1628 he was employed in the preparation
of some especial fireships and ‘engines for fireworks.’
[1100] Aud. Off. Dec. Accounts, 1703, 73.
[1101] The original waistcloths of the Prince were of silk;
ordinary waistcloths, the precursors of the later boarding nettings,
were still of red kersey listed with canvas.
[1102] State Papers, Dom., ccliv, 25.
[1103] Ibid., ccxliv, 77, 78.
[1104] State Papers, Dom., cclxvii, 55. Pennington said nothing
about the crew; he was used to such crews. But Sir Hen.
Manwayring remarked that he had never seen a ship so
wretchedly manned; that, except the officers, there was scarcely a
seaman on board, and that they were ‘men of poor and wretched
person, without clothes or ability of body, tradesmen, some that
never were at sea, a fletcher, glover, or the like,’ (Add. MSS.,
9294, f. 489).
[1105] Ibid., cclxviii, 47.
[1106] Ibid., cclxxiii, 49, 1 and 50.
[1107] State Papers, Dom., ccxli, 16; 1633.
[1108] Ibid., ccxxviii, f. 63a.
[1109] Ibid., cclxxviii, 41, I.
[1110] A True Description of His Majesty’s Most Royal and
Stately Ship, etc., 2nd edit., London, 1638.
[1111] State Papers, Dom., cclxxiii, 25.
[1112] Ibid., cclxiv, ff. 67 a and 87 a.
[1113] Storekeeper at Deptford; one would suppose a most
unlikely person to be consulted on such a point.
 [1114] State Papers, Dom., cclxxxvi, 44.
[1115] Ibid., cclxxxvii, 73.
[1116] Aud. Off. Dec. Accounts, 1703-77.
[1117] State Papers, Dom., ccxcviii, 20.
[1118] Ibid., ccclxi, 73.
[1119] In the Leopard and Swallow he had himself ordered that
the ports should be eight feet apart (State Papers, Dom., cclx,
86,) although Pennington and other practical seamen urged that
nine feet was the minimum space that should be allowed.
[1120] State Papers, Dom., ccclxxiv, 30, and ccclxxxvii, 87.
[1121] Drakes were fired with full, periers with low, charges of
powder.
[1122] State Papers, Dom., ccclxxxvii, 87.
[1123] Add. MSS., 9297, f. 345.
[1124] State Papers, Dom., cclxxix, 27.
[1125] State Papers, Dom., cccxix, 4, 15. When ships were in
commission captains were in the habit of cutting windows and
scuttles in a vessel’s side if it suited their convenience.
[1126] Ibid., cclxxxiii, 1.
[1127] Aud. Off. Dec. Accounts, 1703, 78.
[1128] State Papers, Dom., ccccxcviii, 48 and 51.
[1129] Ibid., xxxiii, 108; 1626.
[1130] Ibid., 78.
[1131] State Papers, Dom., Elizabeth, ccxxxvii, f. 60 (list of
French and Spanish ships before Rochelle). There were thirty-six
Spaniards, and eleven of them were of 1000 tons apiece, the
others being nearly as large.
[1132] State Papers, Dom., Charles I, clxiv; 9th April 1630.
[1133] Ibid., cxcviii, 84.
[1134] Barbou, Hist. de la Marine Française.
[1135] State Papers, Dom., lv, 39; 1627. By John Wells. I
cannot profess to explain how all the figures here given are
obtained.
 [1136] I.e., 63½ x 26 ⅙ x 11 ÷ 100 = 182 burden and 243 ton
and tonnage (Cf. supra, p. 30, note 2, and p. 132.)
[1137] The planks on the inside of a ship’s frame on the floor.
[1138] This method was adopted during the Commonwealth.
[1139] State Papers, Dom., xxvii, 67.
[1140] State Papers, Dom., xxix, 7.
[1141] Floor, the bottom of a vessel on each side of the
keelson.
[1142] State Papers, Dom., xxix, 10.
[1143] Other papers relating to this question will be found in
State Papers, Dom., xxxii, 119-121; xxxviii, 30, 1; lv, 36; lvii, 92;
and lix, 75.
[1144] State Papers, Dom., ccxxvi, 74. By the old rule the
Sovereign was of 1367 net and 1823 gross tonnage (ibid., ccclxi,
71).
[1145] From outside to outside.
[1146] ‘Withinside the plank.’
[1147] Leaving out the false post, i.e., a piece bolted to the after
edge of the main stern post.
[1148] State Papers, Dom., xvi, and xvii.
[1149] State Papers, Dom., xxxi, 56; xxxii, 29, 71, 72, 1; xxxiii,
3, 1, 70, 1, 120, 129; xxxiv, 31, 98-110; xxxix, 28, 50, 1. North
Wales has nothing larger than thirty tons, and ‘not six persons
who can take charge of a barque as far as Dublin or the Land’s
End.’
[1150] State Papers, Dom., xcii, 45.
[1151] The East India Company possessed this year a fleet of
twenty-seven ships, of 12,250 tons (ibid., cxviii, 76).
[1152] Ibid., cxxxvii, Feb. 1629.
[1153] Ibid., cxxxii, 19, 20; cxxxviii, 4; cclxxxii, 135, (1634).
[1154] State Papers, Dom., xlvii, 22.
[1155] State Papers, Dom., liii, 62.
[1156] Ibid., lxi, 79, 81.
[1157] Ibid., 85, 1.
 [1158] Ibid., lxxx, 77, 1.
[1159] Harl. MSS., 1721, f. 642, and 7018, f. 24.
[1160] State Papers, Dom., cclvii, 29.
[1161] Ibid., cccliii, f. 116.
[1162] Add. MSS., 9302, f. 24.
[1163] State Papers, Dom., xciv, 1.
[1164] Meaning an order on the Treasurer of the Navy.
[1165] State Papers, Dom., iv, July 21.
[1166] Ibid., xxx, 53.
[1167] Specifications relating to Marine Propulsion. London,
1858.
[1168] Ibid.
[1169] Fœdera, xix, 257.
[1170] State Papers, Dom., cclxxii, 72. Perhaps the inventor
was a Mr Philip White (S. P. D. Interreg. May 25, 1658), in which
case it was patented for fourteen years from the 10th of Charles I.
[1171] State Papers, Dom., v, 6, 24, 36. As is well known,
several Englishmen of good family joined the Algerines and other
states. It must have been solely their guidance that brought the
Mediterranean corsairs so far north.
[1172] Ibid., xxv, 71.
[1173] Ibid., xxx, 17, (1626).
[1174] Ibid., xliii, 46, (1626).
[1175] State Papers, Dom., xxxiv, 85, (1626); and lvi, 66,
(1627). We have no figures which enable us to even guess at the
financial loss caused by the Dunkirkers during the first half of the
seventeenth century, but M. Vanderest (Hist. de Jean Bart. 1844),
himself a native of the town and having access to its archives,
estimates the pecuniary injury they caused to England during
forty years of warfare, from 1656, at 350,000,000 livres. Nor does
this computation appear to take into account the higher value of
money during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
[1176] State Papers, Dom., lxx, 8 and 9.
[1177] Ibid., clxii, 41, 82.
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