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Electrical
circuits
 Electrical circuits 153

Current electricity Key facts

Unlike static electricity, which can stay in one place, ✓ Current electricity depends on
current electricity is always moving. All the electric the movement of free electrons
devices we use rely on flowing electric current. Some, in materials such as metals.
such as headphones and mobile phones, use only a ✓ When pushed by an electrical voltage,
small current, but appliances such as stoves and free electrons move in one direction.
electric heaters use a much larger current. This is an electric current.
✓ Materials that let electricity flow
through them are called conductors.
Moving electrons
✓ Materials that block the flow of
Current electricity depends on the movement of electrons—the
electricity are called insulators.
tiny, negatively charged particles that form the outer parts of
atoms. In metals, some of the electrons are free to move around.
These free electrons normally move around randomly, but when
a circuit is switched on, they all move in the same direction. The
electrons themselves move slowly, but all the electrons in a wire
are affected at once, causing electromagnetic energy to flow
through a circuit at close to the speed of light.

Current not flowing Current flowing

Electrons move
around randomly. When a current flows,
electrons move in the
same direction.

Metal atom

Conductors and insulators Conductors Insulators

Materials that allow electricity to flow through

them are called conductors. Metals are
good conductors because their atoms have
outer electrons that can separate from the Copper Gold Ceramic Wool
atoms and move freely. Solutions containing
dissolved ions (charged particles) can also
conduct electricity. Materials with no free
charged particles are called insulators
because they block the flow of electricity.
Silver Lemon juice Rubber Wood
154 Electrical circuits

Electrical circuits Key facts

Much of modern life is dependent on electricity and ✓ All electrical circuits need a source
electrical circuits. Some circuits are simple, like the one of energy, such as a cell.
shown below. Others are much more complex, like those ✓ Two or more cells used together
in mobile phones, computers, and many other gadgets. make up a battery.
✓ Electric current will only flow
through a circuit if there is an
Two cells unbroken conducting path.
combined to
form a battery ✓ Many electrical circuits have
components such as bulbs or
motors, which transfer energy
to do useful jobs.
Wires provide
a path for current
to flow through.

Switch

A simple circuit
A flashlight uses Circuit diagram
a simple electrical
Cells provide a
circuit that includes a source of power.
source of power (such Bulb
as electrochemical cells),
a switch, and a bulb.
These can all be shown by
Connecting wires
symbols on a circuit diagram,
with straight lines representing
the wires. The source of power in Closing the
this circuit is a pair of cells. Although switch creates an
these are called batteries in everyday unbroken path.
life, the scientific meaning of battery
is a group of cells. An electric current
can only flow in a circuit when the The bulb transfers
switch is closed, creating an electrical energy to
unbroken path. light and heat.

Voltage

The voltage of a cell is a measure of how

powerfully it pushes current around a
circuit. Adding an extra cell creates twice
the voltage, making twice as much current
Brighter with
flow. As a result, the bulb glows brighter.
two cells
 Electrical circuits 155

Series and Key facts

parallel circuits ✓ Electrical circuits can be connected in series

or in parallel.
✓ In a series circuit, the components are connected
Circuits can be connected in two basic
in a single loop and can all be switched on or
ways. If all the components are connected in
off together.
a single loop, they are said to be connected
✓ In a parallel circuit, the circuit divides so that
in series. If the circuit splits into branches,
components are on different branches. If one
they are said to be connected in parallel. branch breaks, the other can continue working.

Series circuit
In a series circuit, the components are connected one
after another in a single loop. The two bulbs here are Battery with
two cells
connected in series. If one bulb breaks, the current
cannot flow through and the other bulb stops working,
too. If extra bulbs are added, they will all be dimmer
because each bulb reduces the flow of current through
the circuit.

Switch closed
(circuit switched on)
Battery with two cells

Closed
Two bulbs switch
in series

Two bulbs
in series

Parallel circuit
In a parallel circuit, the components are on separate
Battery with two cells
branches. There’s more than one path for the current
to take, so if one bulb breaks, the other continues Closed switch
working. In each branch, the electric current only
has to flow through a single bulb, which means more
current can flow than in the series circuit. As a result,
the bulbs are brighter. The wiring in homes is arranged
as parallel circuits.

Battery with two cells

Closed
switch

Two bulbs Bulbs in parallel circuits

in parallel glow brighter than bulbs
in series circuits.
156 Electrical circuits

Measuring Key facts

electricity ✓ Current is the rate of flow of electric charge.

We measure it in units called amps (A).

Measuring electricity is a bit like measuring ✓ Current is measured by an ammeter, which is

connected in series.
the way water from a tank flows through
✓ Voltage (potential difference) is a measure of
pipes. The rate at which electric charge
how strongly charge is pushed through a circuit.
flows through a circuit is called current, and
We measure it in volts (V).
we measure it in units called amps. The size
✓ Voltage is measured by a voltmeter, which is
of the current depends on two main things:
connected in parallel.
the strength of the driving force (called
✓ Resistance is anything that uses up electrical
voltage or potential difference) that pushes
energy, reducing the flow of electric current.
electricity along, and how much resistance We measure resistance in ohms (Ω).
the electricity meets in the circuit.

Current
Current is the rate at which charge
flows through a circuit. Like water flowing
through a pipe, a large current means
a lot of electric charge is flowing past
every second, transferring lots of energy,
whereas a small current means the
charge is trickling by, transferring
less energy.

Large current Small current

Measuring current

We measure current in units known as amps

or amperes (A), using a device called an
ammeter. An ammeter has to be connected
in series wherever we want to measure the A 0.02 amps A 0.02 amps
current. It doesn’t matter where you put it in a
series circuit, as the current is the same in every
part of the circuit. The symbol for an ammeter
on a circuit diagram is the letter A in a circle. Ammeter
 Electrical circuits 157

Voltage (potential difference)

A current can’t flow unless something pushes
it. The push comes from the difference in
electric potential energy at the start and
end of the circuit, which we call voltage or High
potential difference. It works a bit like water voltage
Low
pressure. When a water storage tank is up voltage
high, the force of gravity creates a higher
pressure, making the rate of flow of water
through the tap bigger.

Large current Small current

Measuring voltage

We measure voltage in units called

volts (V), using a device called a voltmeter.
The voltmeter must be connected in V
parallel with the component. The symbol
for a voltmeter on a circuit diagram is
the letter V in a circle.
Voltmeter

Resistance
Anything in a circuit that uses up electrical
energy reduces the flow of electric current.
We call this resistance. Just as a narrow pipe
reduces the flow of water, a thin wire creates
resistance and reduces the current. Longer
wires also increase resistance. We measure
High
resistance in units called ohms (Ω). resistance

Low
resistance

Large
current Small current

Resistors
The bulb is
In some circuits, a component brighter in the
called a resistor is added to circuit without
ensure the current doesn’t a resistor
become high enough to damage because more
other components. The symbol Resistor current flows.
for a resistor in circuit diagrams
is a rectangle. Resistor
158 Electrical circuits

Series and parallel Key facts

circuit rules ✓ The sum of currents flowing toward

any point in a circuit is equal to the
sum of currents flowing away from
Here are the main rules that you need to know about it (current in equals current out).
currents and voltages in series and parallel circuits.
✓ The voltages across components in
series add up to the voltage of the
Rule 1: Current in equals current out power supply.
The sum of currents flowing toward any point in a circuit ✓ Components connected in parallel
is always equal to the sum of currents flowing away from it. have the same voltage across them.
In the circuit below, a current of 250 mA (milliamps) flows
toward A, where it splits into two. The two currents flowing
away from A, 150 mA and 100 mA, add up to 250 mA.

Itotal = I1 + I2

The symbol for current

is the capital letter I.

Circuit 1
Itotal = 250 mA
A
A

I1 = 150 mA A A I2 = 100 mA

A resistor reduces the

6V Bulb X Bulb Y current through the bulb
on the right.

Resistor

Calculating current

Question 1 Answer 1
In circuit 1, what’s the size of the current Current in equals current out, so the answer is 250 mA.
flowing away from B?
 Electrical circuits 159

Rule 2: Voltages in series add up

When components are connected Circuit 2
in series, such as the two bulbs
and the resistor shown here, the
voltages across each component
add up to the voltage of the Resistor V V1 = 3 V
power supply.

Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 V Vtotal = 15 V V V2 = 6 V

V V3 = 6 V

Rule 3: Voltages in parallel

are the same Circuit 3
In a parallel circuit, each parallel C
branch has the same voltage
across it. In the example shown Resistor
here, the two bulbs have the
same voltage across them.

15 V V 6V V 6V

Calculating voltage

Question 2 Question 3
In circuit 3, what’s the voltage across the resistor? The voltage across the resistor in circuit 1 is 4 V.
What is the voltage across bulb Y?

Answer 2 Answer 3
The circuit has a total voltage of 15 V, and the voltage The voltage across each branch of the circuit is 6 V. In
between C and D is 6 V. The voltage across the resistor the right branch, 6 V is divided between bulb Y and the
must therefore be 15 V − 6 V, which is 9 V. resistor, so the voltage across bulb Y is 6 V − 4 V = 2 V.
160 Electrical circuits

Charge Key facts

Electrons all have negative charge. When a circuit is switched on, ✓ The unit of electric charge
the moving electrons cause an electric charge to flow through it. is the coulomb (C).
We measure charge in units called coulombs. Electric current is ✓ A current of 1 amp means
the rate of flow of charge: a current of 1 amp means 1 coulomb of 1 coulomb of charge
charge flows past every second. The equations on this page show passes through a circuit
how charge, current, voltage, and energy are related. each second.
✓ When 1 coulomb of charge
moves through a potential
difference of 1 volt, it
Ammeter transfers 1 joule of energy.
A
2A

12 V Calculating charge
and energy

Questions
1. A flashlight bulb uses a
3 V battery and a current
of 0.25 A flows through
Charge and current
the bulb. The flashlight is
The size of an electric current tells you how much charge moves
turned on for 5 minutes.
past any point in a circuit each second. In this circuit, the reading
How much charge
of 2 amps on the ammeter shows that 2 coulombs of charge pass
passes through the
through the cell and the bulb every second. This relationship between
flashlight bulb?
charge, current, and time is summed up in the equation below.
2. How much energy is
transferred from the
battery to the bulb in
charge (C) = current (A) × time (s) that time?

Q=I×t
Answers
1. First, work out the time
Charge and energy in seconds:
Electrical devices do useful jobs by transferring energy. For instance, 5 minutes = 300 seconds
the circuit above transfers energy from the cell to light. If you know Q=I×t
how much charge flows through a component and the size of the = 0.25 A × 300 s
voltage (potential difference) pushing the charge, you can calculate = 75 C
how much energy the circuit transfers using the equation below. 2. Use the second equation to
calculate energy transferred:
E =Q×V
= 75 C × 3 V
energy transferred ( J) = charge (C) × voltage (V) = 225 J

E=Q×V
 Electrical circuits 161

Changing resistance Key facts

Sometimes it’s useful to change the resistance in a ✓ A variable resistor

circuit to control how much current can flow. This consists of a resistance
makes it possible to change the brightness of a lamp, coil and a sliding contact.
the speed of a motor, or the loudness of a radio. ✓ The current, voltage,
and resistance of a
circuit are linked by
Variable resistor the equation voltage =
The component used to change resistance is called a variable current × resistance.
resistor. It consists of a long, coiled wire that creates resistance
and a sliding contact that can be moved to vary how much coil
the current flows through.
With the slider near the left end of the coil,
the current does not have to pass through
many turns of wire and the resistance is low.

Variable resistor

When resistance is
low, the bulb in this
circuit is bright.

With the slider near the right end,

the current has to pass through most
of the coil and the resistance is high.

When resistance
is high, the bulb
is dim.

Calculating current, voltage, Question

A current of 0.5 A flows through a bulb when there is a
and resistance voltage of 6 V across it. Calculate the resistance of the bulb.

The current, voltage, and resistance in a circuit or

component are linked by the equation below, which Answer
is known as Ohm’s law. Rearrange the equation to make resistance the subject:
V
R=
I
voltage (V) = current (A) × resistance (Ω)
6V
V=I×R R=
0.5 A
R = 12 Ω
162 Electrical circuits

Investigating Key facts

resistance in wires ✓ The resistance of a

wire increases with
the wire’s length.
The resistance of a component depends on many factors.
✓ Resistance can be
This experiment investigates how the resistance of a wire
calculated by dividing
varies with the wire’s length. voltage by current.

The circuit
The two crocodile clips in this circuit allow you to vary the length
of a piece of wire through which the current flows. The voltmeter
measures the voltage (potential difference) across this wire, and the
ammeter measures the current flowing through the whole circuit. Meter rule

Wire being tested V

Crocodile
clip
Voltmeter

A Switch

Ammeter Power supply

!
Teacher supervision
required

Method

1. With help from a teacher, set up a circuit as shown above. 6. Move the crocodile clip to 40 cm and repeat steps 4 and 5.
2. Fasten one crocodile clip to the wire at the zero mark on the 7. Repeat every 10 cm up to 100 cm.
ruler. Fasten the other crocodile clip at 30 cm.
Warning
3. Set the power supply to a low voltage (3–4 V) or use a cell. Your teacher will provide a special kind of wire (Constantan or
Eureka wire with a diameter of about 0.5 mm) that is safe to be
4. Turn on and note the readings on the ammeter and voltmeter. used as a resistor in this experiment. Do not use ordinary wire.
Turn off again as soon as you’ve done this to stop the wire The wire should either be raised or supported on a heat-resistant
from becoming hot. mat made of a material that does not conduct electricity. Take
readings quickly and then disconnect the power to prevent
5. Write your results in a table with column headings for wire the wire from heating up. Do not touch the naked wire when the
length, current, and voltage. circuit is turned on.
 Electrical circuits 163

Results

1. Use Ohm’s law (below) to calculate the resistance for each

length of wire, and record the answers in a new table. Wire
length 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(cm)

voltage (V) Calculated

resistance (Ω) = resistance 44 53 71 88 95 112 127 138
current (A)
(Ω)

2. Draw a graph of resistance against length of wire, and join

the points with a line of best fit. The points should be on a
straight line that passes through the origin (0, 0). This shows
that the resistance of the wire is proportional to its length. 120

Resistance (Ω)
In other words, if its length doubles, its resistance doubles.
80
3. You may find that the straight line on your graph doesn’t
pass through the origin. This is caused by what’s known as a 40
systematic error—an error that affects all your readings. In
this case, it could be that one crocodile clip was not exactly
at the zero point on the ruler, so all your measurements of 0
length are incorrect by the same amount. Another possible 0 20 40 60 80 100
cause of systematic error is resistance from the other wires Length (cm)
in the circuit, especially if they are long.

Resistance is useful
Resistance is caused by collisions between
the free electrons in a wire and the lattice
of fixed metal ions. The collisions transfer
energy to the ions, increasing their store of
thermal energy. Electric heaters and electric
light bulbs exploit this process to generate
heat and light. The filament in a light bulb
gets so hot that it glows white hot, flooding
its surroundings with light.
164 Electrical circuits

Resistance Key facts

in wires ✓ Resistance in metals happens because free

electrons collide with metal ions as they move
through the wire.
Why do some substances make it difficult for
✓ Short wires have less resistance than long wires.
electricity to pass through them? Insulators
✓ Thick wires have less resistance than thin wires.
have huge resistance because there are no free
electrons to carry charge, but metals have lots ✓ Some metals conduct better than others.
of free electrons. However, electricity flows
more easily through some wires than others.
Short wire
Wire length
Wires create resistance because the free
electrons bump into the fixed metal ions
as they move, transferring some of their Collisions between electrons
and metal ions cause resistance.
energy to the ions. The longer the wire, Long wire
the greater the resistance. Resistance
is proportional to the length of the wire.

Longer wires cause greater resistance (like

placing resistors in series; see page 165).

Wire thickness Thin wire

In thicker wires, there are more
electrons to flow, allowing a greater
current and therefore lower resistance.
Resistance is inversely proportional
to the cross-sectional area of a wire. If Thick wire
the cross-sectional area doubles, the Thicker wires allow
resistance halves. If the diameter of more electrons to flow
the wire doubles, the resistance goes (like placing resistors in
parallel; see page 166).
down by a factor of four.

Free electrons Free electrons normally move randomly

in all directions between the ions.

Atoms in a metal are held together in a regular

lattice. The atoms’ outermost electrons can easily No current flowing
separate to become free electrons, leaving behind
positively charged ions. These free electrons
normally move randomly in all directions inside the
metal, but when a voltage (potential difference) is
applied, the electrons all flow in the same direction.
Some metals (such as copper and silver) are better
conductors than others because their atoms lose Current flowing
the outer electrons more easily.
A potential difference makes electrons
move in the same direction.
 Electrical circuits 165

Investigating resistors
in series and parallel
We use resistors to control the amount of current
flowing through a circuit. This experiment investigates
Resistors on a circuit board
how much resistance they create when multiple
resistors are connected in series or parallel.
Method
Resistors in series
Use a circuit like the one below to
find out what happens when you add
! 1. Set up the circuit shown, with
just one 10 Ω resistor held
resistors in series. This experiment Teacher supervision between two crocodile clips.
required
shows that when resistors are added
in series, the total resistance in the 2. Turn on the power supply and
circuit increases. record the voltage across the
resistor and the current.

3. Turn off and add another

Ammeter 10 Ω resistor in series with
the first. Turn on and record
A the current and voltage again.

4. Repeat step 3 until you’ve

One or more
10 Ω resistors Voltmeter tested the circuit with four
resistors in it.
V
5. Use the following equation to
Power supply calculate the total resistance
of the circuit for each test:
voltage
resistance =
current

Results

Record your readings in a table like the

Number of Voltage Current Calculated
one shown here. The results show that
10 Ω resistors (V) (A) resistance (Ω)
the resistance of the circuit increases by
10 Ω every time a 10 Ω resistor is added
1 2.0 0.200 10
in series. The total resistance is the sum
of the resistors in the chain. This is shown
by the equation below. 2 2.0 0.100 20

3 2.0 0.067 30
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + …
4 2.0 0.050 40
166 Electrical circuits

Resistors in parallel
We can investigate the effect of resistors in parallel using Method
the circuits below. The bulbs serve as resistors here, but we
would get similar results using actual resistors. This experiment
shows that when resistors are added in parallel, the overall 1. Set up the circuit with a single bulb
resistance of the circuit falls and the current in the main part and note the current on the ammeter.
of the circuit increases.
2. Turn off the power and add a second
bulb in parallel. Turn on the power
Ammeter and note the new reading. The current
Circuit 1 A ! will have doubled because the new path
allows more electricity to flow through
0.015 A Teacher supervision
required the circuit.

6V 3. Add a third bulb in parallel and

Bulb
take another reading. The current
will have tripled.

The current increases because the

Circuit 2 extra bulb in parallel provides another Circuit 3 The current increases
path for electricity. each time a bulb is added
in parallel.
A A
0.030 A 0.045 A

6V 6V

Two identical
bulbs connected
in parallel

Calculating resistance for components in parallel

The total resistance of components Answer Check the answer using the
in parallel can be calculated using equation V = I × R (voltage =
this equation: 1 1 1
= + current × resistance). For this
Rtotal 400 Ω 400 Ω
circuit, I = 0.030 A and V = 6 V.
2
1 1 1 =
= + + … 400 Ω
V = 0.030 A × 200 Ω
Rtotal R1 R2 Rtotal = 400 Ω =6V
2
Question = 200 Ω
Each bulb in the circuits above has Note that this is half the
a resistance of 400 Ω. What is the total resistance of one resistor
resistance of the circuit with two bulbs? by itself.
 Electrical circuits 167

Current and Series circuits key facts

voltage calculations ✓ Resistances of components in series

add up to the total resistance:
Rtotal = R1 + R2 .
Previous pages in this chapter have introduced lots
✓ Voltage = current × resistance:
of ideas about series and parallel circuits, and some
V = I × R. This is known as Ohm’s law.
equations. The calculations here show you some ways in
✓ Ohm’s law works everywhere in the
which these ideas can be used. The first three questions
circuit, whether we’re looking at
feature series circuits. The rest are about parallel circuits. individual components, a part of
the circuit, or the whole circuit.

Circuit 1 Circuit 2 Circuit 3

A A
0.06 A 50 Ω 0.04 A
6V V 9V 6V
100 Ω 100 Ω

Question Question Question

What’s the resistance of the bulb in What’s the total resistance in The bulb in this circuit has a
circuit 1? this circuit? Use the answer to resistance of 100 Ω. What’s
calculate the current that flows the resistance of the resistor?
through the circuit.

Answer Answer Answer

You know the voltage across the bulb The resistances of components Start by working out the total
and the current flowing through it, connected in series add up. resistance of the circuit, using
so rearrange the equation V = I × R Rtotal = R1 + R2 the voltage of the battery and
(Ohm’s law) to calculate the resistance. = 100 Ω + 50 Ω the current.
V = 150 Ω V
R= You know the resistance and voltage, R=
I I
6V so rearrange V = I × R to calculate 6V
= the current. =
0.06 A 0.04 A
V = 150 Ω
= 100 Ω I=
R
9V The resistances of the bulb and
= resistor add up to 150 Ω, so:
150 Ω
Rresistor = 150 Ω − 100 Ω
= 0.06 A
= 50 Ω
168 Electrical circuits

Circuit 4 Parallel circuits key facts

I1 I3
A A
0.09 A I2 0.03 A ✓ Current flowing into a junction equals current
flowing out: I1 = I2 + I3 .
A
✓ The total resistance of components in parallel
is smaller than the resistance of either of
the components.
✓ Each branch of a parallel circuit has the same
voltage across it.

Question Answer
All the bulbs in this circuit are the same. What’s the current The current going into a junction equals the total current
I2? Explain why I2 is greater than I3. coming out of the junction.
0.09 A = I2 + 0.03 A
I2 = 0.06 A
I2 is flowing through one bulb, but I3 flows through two. The
two parallel branches have the same voltage, but two bulbs
create twice as much resistance, so the current through I3
is half the size.

Circuit 5 Circuit 6 Circuit 7

A A A
0.06 A 0.18 A 0.09 A

6V 100 Ω 6V 100 Ω 50 Ω 6V 100 Ω 200 Ω

Questions Answers
1. Which of the three circuits above has the smallest 1. Circuit 6. All the circuits have the same voltage
total resistance? supplied by the battery, and the current is biggest
2. Which resistor has the highest voltage across it? in circuit 6.
3. Explain why the current is highest in circuit 6. 2. They all have 6 V across them. In the parallel circuits,
each branch of the circuit has the same voltage
across it.
3. The current through the 100 Ω resistor is the same in
all three circuits. In circuits 6 and 7, more current can
flow through the extra resistors. A higher current will flow
through the 50 Ω resistor in circuit 6 than through the
200 Ω resistor in circuit 7, so the total current in
circuit 6 is highest.
 Electrical circuits 169

Current and Key facts

voltage graphs ✓ The graph of current against voltage for an

ohmic conductor is a straight line passing
through the origin (0, 0).
Resistors and wires are called ohmic
✓ Filament bulbs and diodes are examples of
conductors because they obey Ohm’s law
nonohmic conductors.
(V = I × R). In other words, a resistor or
✓ The resistance of metals increases with
a wire has constant resistance, and the
temperature.
current flowing through it is proportional
✓ Diodes only allow current to pass through in
to the voltage across it. Not all components
one direction.
obey this law, however. You can investigate the
resistance of different components
using the circuit below.

! Method
Teacher supervision required
1. Set up the circuit shown in the diagram.
2. Use the variable resistor to change the current to 10
different values. Make a note of the voltage for each
different current. Write down your results in a table.
Variable resistor
3. Swap the connections to the battery over, and repeat
Component being step 2. Your current and voltage readings will now
tested (resistor) have negative values.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 with a filament bulb
A instead of the resistor, and then with a diode.
Voltmeter 5. Plot a graph of current against voltage for
Ammeter each component.
V

Results for a resistor

A graph of current and voltage for a
resistor forms a straight line that
passes through the origin (0, 0). As
Current

resistance can be calculated from

voltage divided by current, this shows The graph for a
resistor is a straight
that the resistance is constant and
line through
doesn’t change when the direction of the origin.
the voltage and current changes. A
resistor is an ohmic conductor.
Voltage
A negative voltage is
one applied in the
opposite direction.
A negative current
is one flowing in the
opposite direction.

Resistor
170 Electrical circuits

Results for a filament bulb

The graph for a filament bulb shows the line curving
at higher voltages. This indicates that resistance The current
increases less for
is increasing, so a filament bulb is not an ohmic
each increase in
conductor. The filament in a light bulb gets white

Current
voltage. This shows
hot when current passes through, transferring that resistance
electrical energy to light. Resistance increases increases at
because the metal atoms vibrate more higher voltages.
as they get hotter, obstructing
Voltage
the flow of free electrons.

Filament

Bulb

Results for a diode

A diode is like a one-way street: current can flow Resistance is very
freely in one direction but not the other. As the high when the The diode has an

Current
graph shows, a diode is not an ohmic conductor. voltage is applied in almost constant
the reverse direction, resistance
so the current is zero. above 0.7 V.

Voltage

Diode

Rectification
The voltage of the
electricity supply
Diodes are used in rectifier continually changes
direction. This
Current

circuits, which convert

makes the current
alternating current (a.c.) flow in one direction
from electricity supplies Time and then the other.
to direct current (d.c.) for
electronic devices. Alternating current With a diode in
the circuit, current
can only flow in
one direction.
Current

When the voltage is

Time
in the reverse direction,
the resistance of the
Rectified current diode is very high and
no current can flow.
 Electrical circuits 171

Power in circuits Key facts

Electrical devices transfer energy from a power supply ✓ Power is measured in watts (W).
such as a battery to components such as lamps, heaters, ✓ One watt means that one joule of
and motors. Electrical power is the amount of energy energy is transferred in each second.
transferred each second. We measure it in watts (W). 1 W = 1 J/s.
✓ Electrical power can be calculated
using three equations:
Power equations
power = current × voltage
The energy transferred by an electrical device depends on the
power = (current)2 × resistance
current and voltage. We can calculate power—the amount of
energy transferred each second—using the equation below. power = (voltage)2 ÷ resistance.
The equation doesn’t need to include a term for time, as current
is a measure of flow of the charge passing each second.

power (W) = current (A) × voltage (V)

P=I×V

If we combine the equation above with Ohm’s

law (voltage = current × resistance), we can derive
two new equations for power. One, shown below,
calculates power from current and resistance. The
other calculates power from voltage and resistance:
power = (voltage)2 ÷ resistance.

voltage = current × resistance power = current × voltage

2 2
power (W) = current (A) × resistance (Ω)
2
P=I ×R

Calculating power

Question Answer To find resistance, rearrange

A flashlight uses a 6 V battery, and Use the first equation to calculate either V = I × R or P = I 2 × R to
the current through the lamp is 300 power. Remember that 300 mA make R the subject.
mA. What’s the power of the flashlight? is 0.3 A. P
R= 2
What’s the resistance of the lamp? P= I × V I
= 0.3 A × 6 V 1.8 W
=
= 1.8 W (0.3 A)2
= 20 Ω
172 Electrical circuits

Calculating Key facts

energy ✓ Energy transferred by a device

equals power multiplied by the
time the device is used for:
From flashlights and phones to electric E = P × t.
cars and high-speed trains, all electrical
✓ Energy transferred by a device equals
devices transfer energy. The amount of the charge that has passed through it
energy transferred can be calculated multiplied by the voltage across it:
using several related equations. E = Q × V.
✓ Energy transferred by a device
equals current × voltage × time:
E = I × V × t.

Equation 1
The power of a device is the energy used per second, so if you
multiply the power by the number of seconds it is turned on,
you can find the energy transferred.

energy ( J ) = power (W) × time (s)

E=P×t

Equation 2
The voltage of an electricity supply is the energy it transfers
for each coulomb of charge, so you can work out the energy
transferred by multiplying charge by voltage.

energy ( J ) = charge (C) × voltage (V)

E=Q×V

Equation 3
The power of an electrical device can be found by multiplying the
current and the voltage. Combine this with energy = power × time
and you get the following equation.

energy ( J ) = current (A) × voltage (V) × time (s)

E=I×V×t
 Electrical circuits 173

Calculating energy, charge, and current

Question
This 3 kW oven took 30 minutes to cook an apple pie.
The voltage is 230 V. Calculate the energy transferred,
the total amount of charge that flowed during this time,
and the current used.

Answer E=Q×V
There’s a lot to work out here! Start by writing down E
Q=
what you know, but convert the information into the V
correct units: 5 400 000 J
=
power = 3 kW = 3000 W 230 V
time = 30 minutes = 1800 s = 23 478 C = 23 000 C
voltage = 230 V
Use the last equation (or just P = I × V ) to
Use the first equation to calculate the energy transferred. calculate the current:
E=P×t E=I×V×t
= 3000 W × 1800 s E
I =
= 5 400 000 J (5.4 MJ) V×t
5 400 000 J
=
Now that you know the energy, you can use the second 230 V × 1800 s
equation to calculate charge. = 13 A

Electrified railway
High-speed trains, such as France’s TGV (Train
à Grande Vitesse), are powered by electricity
supplied by overhead cables, giving the
locomotive at the front of the train a power
of 9.3 megawatts (9.3 million watts).
174 Electrical circuits

Light-dependent Key facts

resistors ✓ The resistance of LDRs falls as the

brightness of the light increases.
✓ LDRs are used in night lights,
Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) are resistors that sense
streetlights, burglar alarms, and
the brightness of light falling on them: as the light gets
smartphone screen dimmers.
brighter, an LDR’s resistance falls. LDRs have many
applications. They are used in night lights, streetlights,
burglar alarms, and smartphone screen dimmers.

How LDRs work

Also known as photoresistors, LDRs are small circuit components made
of a semiconductor material. When light shines on the semiconductor,
electrons are released from atoms, allowing a larger current to flow and The circuit symbol for an
so reducing resistance. The higher the light intensity (brightness), the lower LDR is a rectangle in a
the resistance, as the graph here shows. In darkness, a typical LDR has a circle with arrows
representing light.
resistance of over 1 000 000 Ω, but this falls to a few hundred ohms in sunlight.

LDR
Resistance

Resistance
falls as the light
gets brighter.

Light intensity

Investigating LDRs An ohmmeter measures

the LDR’s resistance.
Ω

You can investigate how the resistance of an LDR The flashlight sits at
changes using the apparatus shown here. Carry out the different distances
experiment in a darkened room so the only light falling on from the LDR.
the LDR comes from the flashlight. Place the flashlight at
different distances from the LDR and use an ohmmeter
connected to the LDR to measure resistance. Place a light
meter next to the LDR to measure light intensity. Use your LDR
Light meter
data to plot a graph of resistance against light intensity.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 29 30
 Electrical circuits 175

Thermistors Key facts

Thermistors are resistors that react to a change ✓ In thermistors, the resistance

in temperature. When the temperature rises, a changes as temperature increases.
thermistor’s resistance may either rise or fall, ✓ Thermistors are used in devices that
depending on the type of thermistor. Thermistors measure or control temperature.
are used as temperature sensors in many kinds
of device, from digital thermometers to
refrigerators, ovens, and thermostats.

How thermistors work

Thermistors are found in the tips of digital
thermometers. These thermistors are made from
a semiconductor material that releases more free Resistance falls

Resistance
electrons as it gets hotter, allowing more current as temperature
increases in the kind
to flow. The higher the temperature, the lower
of thermistor used
the resistance, as the graph shows. in thermometers.

Temperature

98.6˚ F

Investigating thermistors

Thermometer
You can investigate how the resistance of a thermistor changes
Ω
using this setup. Place a thermistor in a beaker of water and use
a heat source to raise the water temperature. Record temperature
and resistance at the same time at various temperatures. Use the
data to plot a graph of resistance against temperature.
Water
Use an ohmmeter to measure
the thermistor’s resistance at

!
various temperatures.

Thermistor
Teacher supervision required Heat
176 Electrical circuits

Sensor circuits Key facts

Sensor circuits are used to control electric devices ✓ LDRs and thermistors can be used as
automatically, such as streetlights that turn on when it sensors to control lights, heaters, and
gets dark and heating or cooling systems that keep the other devices.
temperature in buildings comfortable all year round. ✓ The LDR or thermistor is connected in
series with another resistor, forming a
potential divider.
Potential dividers
✓ A potential divider is a circuit that
Sensor circuits often use potential dividers. A potential
uses resistors in series to control the
divider is a circuit that uses resistors in series to control
how much voltage is supplied to a parallel branch of the voltage supplied to a different part of
circuit. It works because voltage is divided between the circuit.
components in series but is equal across parallel
branches. Changing the combination of resistors
changes the voltage in the parallel branch.

The two resistors have The parallel branch has The parallel branch has
the same resistance, a higher voltage when a lower voltage when
so the voltage is the second resistor has the second resistor has
divided evenly. a higher resistance. a lower resistance.

3V 5V 1V
V V V

3V 3V 1V 5V 5V 1V

30 Ω 30 Ω 10 Ω 50 Ω 50 Ω 10 Ω

6V 6V 6V

Control circuits
When a light-dependent resistor or thermistor is used Sensing
as one of the resistors in a potential divider, the voltage circuit
in the parallel branch varies depending on the light
level or temperature. This varying voltage can then be
used to activate a control circuit that switches on when
the voltage rises above (or falls below) a chosen level.
Control
The control circuit does not draw current from the circuit
sensing circuit—it has a different power supply and
provides the much larger current needed to power a
device such as a streetlight, heater, or fan.

Output
device
 Electrical circuits 177

Controlling lights
The circuit below uses an LDR (light-dependent resistor)
and a potential divider to send a signal to a control Light-dependent
circuit that turns on a light at night as it gets darker. resistor (LDR)

In daylight, the LDR has

The LDR has high resistance
a much lower resistance
10 kΩ 10 kΩ in the dark, so it has a higher
than the 10 kΩ resistor,
voltage across it than there is
so it only has a low
across the 10 kΩ resistor.
voltage across it.

Control circuit Control circuit

for a light for a light

When the voltage rises, the

When the voltage is low, control circuit activates and
the control circuit is off. turns on a light.

Controlling temperature
The circuit below uses a thermistor and a potential
divider to send a voltage signal to a control circuit that
controls a fan. A similar circuit could be used to control Thermistor
an air-conditioning unit or a refrigerator.

When the temperature As the temperature

is low, this thermistor has increases, the resistance
a high resistance, and of this thermistor falls,
there is a high voltage so the voltage across it
across it. falls, too.
The voltage
The voltage across the
across the resistor
resistor is low. increases.

Control circuit Control circuit

10 kΩ 10 kΩ
for a fan for a fan

When the voltage is low, When the voltage rises, the control circuit
the control circuit is off. activates and switches on a fan.