UNIT-1

Introduction to Computer: Definition, Computer Hardware & Computer Software

Components: Hardware – Introduction, Input devices, Output devices, Central Processing Unit, Memory-
Primary and Secondary.
Software - Introduction, Types – System and Application.
Computer Languages: Introduction, Concept of Compiler, Interpreter & Assembler Problem solving concept:
Algorithms – Introduction, Definition, Characteristics, Limitations, Conditions in pseudo-code, Loops in
pseudo code.

What is a Computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data from the user,
processes it, produces results, displays them to the users, and stores the
results for future usage.
Data is a collection of unorganized facts & figures and does not provide
any further information regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data
means "unstructured facts and figures".
Information is a structured data i.e. organized meaningful and processed
data. To process the data and convert into information, a computer is
used.
Functions of Computers
A computer performs the following functions −

Receiving Input

Data is fed into computer through various input devices like keyboard,
mouse, digital pens, etc. Input can also be fed through devices like CD-
ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc.

Processing the information

Operations on the input data are carried out based on the instructions
provided in the programs.

Storing the information

After processing, the information gets stored in the primary or secondary

storage area.

Producing output

The processed information and other details are communicated to the

outside world through output devices like monitor, printer, etc.
 CLASSIFICATION OFCOMPUTERS:
Computers are divided into different types based on different criteria.

Based on the size:

1. Micro Computer
2. Mini Computer
3. Mainframe Computer
4. Super Computer
5. Workstations

1. Micro Computer:

It is a single-user computer which has less speed and storage capacity than the other types. It uses a microprocessor as
a CPU. The first microcomputer was built with 8-bit microprocessor chips. The common examples of microcomputers
include laptops, desktop computers, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets, and smartphones. Microcomputers are
generally designed and developed for general usage like browsing, searching for information, internet, MS Office,
social media, etc.
2. Mini Computer: Mini-computers are also known as "Midrange Computers." They are not designed for a single user.
They are multi- user computers designed to support multiple users simultaneously. So, they are generally used by
small businesses and firms. Individual departments of a company use these computers for specific purposes. For
example, the admission department of a University can use a Mini-computer for monitoring the admission process.

3. Mainframe Computer: It is also a multi-user computer capable of supporting thousands of users simultaneously. They
are used by large firms and government organizations to run their business operations as they can store and process
large amounts of data. For example, Banks, universities, and insurance companies use mainframe computers to store the
data of their customers, students, and policyholders, respectively.

4. Super Computer:
 Super-computers are the fastest and most expensive computers among all types of computers. They have huge storage
capacities and computing speeds and thus can perform millions of instructions per second. The super- computers are
task-specific and thus used for specialized applications such as large-scale numerical problems in scientific and
engineering disciplines including applications in electronics, petroleum engineering, weather forecasting, medicine,
space research and more. For example, NASA uses supercomputers for launching space satellites and monitoring and
controlling them for space exploration.

5. Work stations:

It is a single-user computer. Although it is like a personal computer, it has a more powerful microprocessor and a
higher-quality monitor than a microcomputer. In terms of storage capacity and speed, it comes between a personal
computer and minicomputer. Work stations are generally used for specialized applications such as desktop publishing,
software development, and engineering designs.

Based on PURPOSE:

1. General-Purpose Computers: Regular computers used for a wide range of tasks.

2. Special-Purpose Computers: Designed to perform specific tasks, such as weather forecasting or cryptography.

BASED ON TYPES(WORK):

1. Analog Computers :
Analogue computers work with analogue data. Examples of this type of data include temperature, pressure, weight,
depth, and voltage. These are continuous quantities with an infinite range of values.
The early computers were analogue, and they created the framework for digital computers today.

2. Digital Computers :
Digits are used to represent letters, numbers, and other special symbols in digital computers. Digital computers use on-
off (ON-OFF) inputs, and they also create ON-OFF signals.An ON is frequently represented by a 1 and an OFF by a 0.
A digital computer can handle both numerical and non-numerical data. It can do logical operations in addition to basic
arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

3. Hybrid Computers :

Hybrid computers are those that blend digital and analogue components. It combines the greatest aspects of both
systems, combining analogue computer speed with digital computer memory and precision. Hybrid computers are
generally utilised in applications that require the processing of both types of data.

CHARACTERSTICS of Computer:
 Benefits of Using a Computer:
o Increases your productivity: A computer increases your productivity. For example, after having a basic
understanding of a word processor, you can create, edit, store, and print the documents easily and quickly.
o Connects to the Internet: It connects you to the internet that allows you to send emails, browse content, gain
information, use social media platforms, and more. By connecting to the internet, you can also connect to your long-
distance friends and family members.
o Storage: A computer allows you to store a large amount of information, e.g., you can store your projects, ebooks,
documents, movies, pictures, songs, and more.
o Organized Data and Information: It not only allows you to store data but also enables you to organize your data.
For example, you can create different folders to store different data and information and thus can search for
information easily and quickly.
o Improves your abilities: It helps write good English if you are not good at spelling and grammar. Similarly, if you
are not good at math, and don't have a great memory, you can use a computer to perform calculations and store the
results.
o Assist the physically challenged: It can be used to help the physically challenged, e.g., Stephen Hawking, who was
not able to speak used computer to speak. It also can be used to help blind people by installing special software to read
what is on the screen.
o Keeps you entertained: You can use the computer to listen to songs, watch movies, play games and more.

The computer has become a part of our life. There are plenty of things that we do in a day are dependent on a
computer. Some of the common examples are as follows:

1. ATM: While withdrawing cash from an ATM, you are using a computer that enables the ATM to take instructions
and dispense cash accordingly.
2. Digital currency: A computer keeps a record of your transactions and balance in your account and the money
deposited in your account in a bank is stored as a digital record or digital currency.
3. Trading: Stock markets use computers for day to day trading. There are many advanced algorithms based on
computers that handle trading without involving humans.
4. Smartphone: The smartphone that we use throughout the day for calling, texting, browsing is itself a computer.

Limitation of computer:

Evolution of Computer or Generations of Computer

There are a total of five Generations of Computer, with each Generation something new was discovered to improvise
the functioning and the use of the computer systems.
First Generation (Vacuum Tubes) – 1940-1956:
This Generation computers relied on Machine Language (the Language of 0s and 1s) and used Vacuum tubes as
components of memory. They were huge in size and occupied almost a room-size area to fit in.
Given below are a few characteristic features of the 1st Generation of computer:

 The price of managing these computers was very high

 They were huge
 They were not capable of multitasking, and only one task could be performed at a time
 There was no use of monitors; the output was directly given in the form of printouts
 The electricity consumption was very high
Examples of computers developed in this generation are ENIAC – Electronic Numeric Integrated and Computer,
UNIVAC- Universal Automatic Computer, EDSAC – Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator and EDVAC –
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
Second Generation (Transistors) – 1956-1963:

 The speed of the transistor decided the speed of the computer

 It was less expensive in comparison to the 1st Generation computers
 The electricity consumption had also reduced with the use of transistors
 There was no change in the output as it was still received through a printout
 From machine language, there was a change to usage assembly language in computers. Thus, now computers
could understand words.example: ADD 1604,3600

Two significant developments during this phase include the development of FORTRAN or Formula Translation and
COBOL or Common Business Oriented Language, which was developed for business.
 Third Generation (Integrated Circuits) – 1964-1971:
The phase when the usage of keyboards and monitors has started for the input and output.
The transistors had been reduced in size and were placed on silicon chips. This increased the speed of the
computer.
Given below are the features of the 3rd Generation of computers:

 The Integrated circuits were used where small circuits could work as efficiently as the larger ones
 Multitasking could be done in the computers developed during the 3rd phase
 Functions of the computer were based on the memory
A few examples from this Generation of computer are PDP 8, IBM 360, ICL 2900, etc.
Fourth Generation (Microprocessors) – 1972-2010:

The maximum developments were done during this time phase as technology has advanced many folds. By this time,
millions of transistors could be placed on the silicon circuits.
The characteristic features of this Generation are given below:

 The first microprocessor, Intel 4004 chip was discovered by Ted Hoff and was made commercially available in
1971. This led to the introduction of personal computers
 This Generation saw revised versions of computers being introduced in the form of laptops and tablets.
 GUI – Graphical User Interface was developed during this phase.
 Speed, memory and storage had also improved in the computers of this Generation
The computers which were introduced during this Generation include Apple II, the first IBM computer, STAR 1000,
and many more.
Fifth Generation (Artificial Intelligence) – 2010-till date:
The current generation of computers which have made our lives easier and more convenient is all a part of the fifth
generation of the computer.
Given below is some basic information about the 5th generation of computers:

 Artificial intelligence is being used in devices currently which has enabled millions on tasks to be completed
within seconds on a device
 Advancement in the functioning of laptops, palmtops, etc.
 Other robotic devices have started being used to reduce human labour
 The devices from this generation are cost-effective, faster, consume lesser electricity and are easily portable and
convenient to use.

Components of Computer System

There are 5 main computer components that are given below:

o Input Devices
o CPU
o Output Devices
o Primary Memory
o Secondary Memory

The operations of computer components are given below:

1) Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and information into the computer. It is performed
with the help of input devices.

2) Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary storage to store data and instructions. It stores the
data before sending it to CPU for processing and also stores the processed data before displaying it as output.

3) Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into useful information. This process is performed by the
CPU of the computer. It takes the raw data from storage, processes it and then sends back the processed data to
storage.

4) Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data through output devices like monitor, printer and
speakers.

5) Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit that is part of CPU. The control unit ensures that all
basic operations are executed in a right manner and sequence.

What is Computer Hardware?

Computer hardware is a physical device of computers that we can see and touch. For e.g. Monitor, Central Processing
Unit, Mouse, Joystick, etc. Using these devices, we can control computer operations like input and output.
Computer Hardware Parts
These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which are:
1. Input Devices
2. Output Devices
3. Storage Devices
4. Internal Components

1. Input Devices
 Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user interacts with the computer. Or, In other words, with
the help of input devices, the user enters the data or information into the computer. This information or data is
accepted by the input devices and converted into a computer-acceptable format, which is further sent to the computer
system for processing.
Now we discuss some input devices:
 Keyboard: It is the most common and main input device for computers. The data is inputted by typing on the
keyboard. It consists of 104 keys in total. It contains numeric keys, alphabet keys, and different function keys as well.
Earlier, it was connected to the computer via cable, now as technology has advanced, you can connect a keyboard
using Bluetooth.
 Mouse: A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled over to control the cursor on the screen and it has
functional keys like left, middle, and right buttons. Using these functional keys, on by the click of which an object is
selected or to open a file by just a click of a mouse. It also consists of a sensor inside which notifies its speed to the
computer and according to which the cursor is moved on the screen.
 Scanner: As the name suggests, it scans images, documents, etc., and converts them into digital form and that can be
further edited and used. It works just like a Xerox machine.
 Track Ball: It is a device much like an upside-down mouse. It does not use much space for movement like a mouse.
As the trackball remains stationary and the user moves the ball in various directions, it affects the screen movements
directly.
 Light Pen: It is a light-sensitive device and it is touched to the CRT screen where it can detect, a raster on the screen
as it passes by and, with the help of this user can draw anything like lines, figures, or any objects.
 Microphone: It is a kind of voice input system that can be attached to a computer system to record sounds. It
converts human speech or voice into electrical signals . This electrical signal is processed by the computer and the
word is recognized.
 Optical Character Reader: It is used to detect alphanumeric characters that are written or printed on paper using a
low-frequency light source. This light is absorbed by the dark areas and reflected by the light areas, now this reflected
light is received by the photocells. It is like a scanner.
 Bar Code Reader: It is used to read bar codes and convert them into electric pulse which will further processed by
the computer. Here, the barcode is data that is coded into white and black lines(or light and dark lines).
 2. Output Devices

These are the devices that are used to display the output of any task given to the computer in human-readable form.
Now we discuss some output devices:
 Monitor: The monitor is the main output device. It is also called VDU(visual display unit) and it looks like a TV
screen. The Monitor displays the information from the computer. It is used to display text, video, images, etc.
 Printer: A printer is an output device that transfers data from the computer in a printed format by using text or
images on paper. There are both colored and black & white printers. Further, there are also different types of printers,
like Laser Printer, Dot-matrix printers, and Inkjet printers.
 Plotter: It is similar to a printer but potters are large in size. A plotter is used to generate large drawings, architectural
blueprints, etc. on paper and these are high-quality images and drawings and large in size.
 Speakers: It is a very common output device and it gives sound as an output. Speaker is generally used to play music
or anything having sound.

3. Storage Devices

There are some devices that are used for storage purposes and are known as secondary storage devices. Some of them
were discussed below:
1. CD (Compact disc): A CD is circular in shape and made up of thin platted glass and plastic polycarbonate
material. It has a storage capacity of 600 MB to 700 MB of data. It has a standard size of 12 cm with a hole in the
center of about 1.5 cm and 1.2 mm in thickness. There are basically 3 types of CDs, which are:
 CD-ROM (CD – Read Only Memory): Contents of this type of CD cannot be erased by the user. Only the publisher
is allowed to access the data imprinted on this CD. CD-ROM is basically used for commercial purposes like for a
music album or any application package by a software company.
 CD-R (CD-Recordable): In this, content or data can be stored once. After that, they can be read many times but the
data or content cannot be rewritten or erased. (Kind of one-time use)
 CD-RW(CD-Rewritable): As the name suggests, this type of CD is used to rewrite the content or erase previous
content and again write new content many times.
2. DVD (Digital Video/Versatile Disc): A DVD is the same as a CD but with some more features. A DVD comes in
single and dual-layer formats. It has much greater storage capacity in comparison to CD. The storage capacity of a
DVD with one-sided single layer is – 4.7 GB, one-sided double layer – 8.5 GB, double-sided single layer – 9.4 GB,
and double-sided double layer – 17 GB. There are also some types in DVDs, which are :
 DVD-ROM: In this type, the contents of the DVD cannot be written on or erased by the user. DVD ROM is used for
applications and database for distributing them in large amounts.
 DVD-R / DVD+R: DVD-R (DVD minus R) and DVD+R (DVD plus R) are two different kinds of discs and they are
once recordable format. Also, they have no difference virtually.
 DVD-RW / DVD+RW: This is a kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to 1,000 rewrites.
 DVD-RAM: DVD RAM is accessed like a hard disk. It provides high data security and storage capacity. This is a
kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to 1,00,000 rewrites.
3. Hard Disk: An hard disk is a non-volatile storage device that uses its read/write heads to store digital data on a
magnetic surface of a rigid plate. It is generally 3.5 inches in size for desktops and 2.5 inches in size for laptops. A
hard disk can be classified further into 3 types, which are:
 Internal Hard Disk: It has a common storage capacity stated as GB or TB. A system case or cabinet is the place
where it is located. It can perform faster operations and its storage is fixed. It is mainly used to store large data files
and programs.
 Internal Cartridges: The Internal hard disk can’t be removed from the system cabinet easily. To resolve this problem
Internal Cartridges are introduced. So, Internal cartridges are easy to remove CDs. It has a storage capacity of 2 GB
to 160 GB. It is used as an alternative to an internal hard disk.
 Hard Disk Packs: It is used by organizations such as banks, and government sector organizations to store large
amounts of data. It has a storage capacity of a range of PB( Peta Bytes).

Hardware Components

Some important hardware devices known as the internal components are discussed below:
1. CPU (Central Processing Unit)
The CPU is also known as the heart of the computer. It consists of three units, generally known as the control
unit, Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) , and the memory unit. Below is the block diagram of the CPU is given:

As shown in the diagram input is given to the CPU through input devices. This input goes to memory and the control
unit gets instructions from memory. The control unit now decides what to do with the input or instructions and
transfers it to ALU. Now, ALU performs various operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
logical operations, etc. After that, the final result gets stored in memory and finally passed to output devices to give
the output. So, this is how the CPU works.
2. Motherboard
It is the main circuit board inside a computer and it contains most of the electronic components together. All the
components of the computer are directly or indirectly connected to the motherboard. It includes RAM slots,
controllers, system chipsets, etc.
3. RAM (Random Access Memory)
It is also known as temporary or volatile memory. It holds the program and data, which are currently in process or
processing. All the data is erased as soon as the computer is turned off or in case of a power failure. Data stored in
this memory can be changed. There are two types of RAM:-
1. SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM basically consists of a flip-flop using a transistor or Mosfet (MOS). It is fast and has
less access time. In this refreshing circuits are not required. But it is costly and requires more space. For e.g. cache
memory.
2. DRAM (Dynamic RAM): DRAM consists of capacitors and the data is stored in the form of
capacitors. Capacitors charge when data is 1 and don’t charge if data is 0. It requires refreshing circuits, as leakage of
current in the capacitor can occur, so they need to be refreshed to the data. It is slower and has a higher access time. It
is cheaper in comparison with SRAM. For e.g. Main memory.
4. Video Graphics Array Port
A video input commonly used on computer monitors is called a video graphics array (VGA) port. Verifying that there
isn’t a loose connection, a damaged cable, or a broken display is one step in troubleshooting a VGA port. Compressed
air can also be sprayed inside the VGA port by a computer expert to make sure it’s dust-free.
5. Power Supply
All of a computer system’s parts are powered by a power source. Typically, a power cord is used to connect a
computer tower to an electrical outlet. By turning off the computer, unplugging and separating the power supply cord,
or trying a different cord or socket, a technician can diagnose the power supply.
 6. Cooling Fan
A computer’s system to prevent overheating uses cooling fans. To aid customers who use their computers intensively,
such as when streaming video or playing games, many computers contain more than one cooling fan. If a user detects
their computer overheating, a computer expert might need to repair the cooling fan. The blades may be examined for
any damage and cleared of any foreign objects. A technician’s standard method of troubleshooting may involve
replacing computer fans.
7. Hard Drive
On a computer system, files, programs, and other types of information are stored on hard drives, which are data
storage devices. They utilise hard drives, which are magnetically coated discs used to store digital versions of
information. A computer technician can suspect a corrupt hard disk when a hard drive dies.

Software:

Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of
instructions written to solve a particular problem.

There are two types of software −

 System Software
 Application Software

System Software

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities of
the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products
comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System
software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

 Close to the system

 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

Application Software

Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software
applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software.
 Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing a simple text.
It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a
task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following −

 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

 Close to the user

 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space
Relationship Between Computer Hardware and Software
 Both the Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Each should function properly so that the
computer produces an output.
 Software utilization can not be done without supporting of the hardware.
 Relevant software should be loaded into the hardware to get the latest software.
 Hardware is a one-time expense while software is not.
 Software development is very expensive while hardware cant be developed if in use once.
 Many software applications and their sub-applications can be loaded on hardware to run different jobs.
 The software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
Input Devices

Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a computer. The Central Processing Unit
(CPU) of a computer receives the input and processes it to produce the output.

Some of the popular input devices are:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Scanner
4. Joystick
5. Light Pen
6. Digitizer
7. Microphone
8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
9. Optical Character Reader (OCR)
10. Digital Camera
11. Paddle
12. Steering Wheel
13. Gesture recognition devices
14. Light Gun
15. Touch Pad
16. Remote
17. Touch screen
18. VR
19. Webcam
20. Biometric Devices

1) Keyboard

The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or any other electronic device by pressing
keys. It has different sets of keys for letters, numbers, characters, and functions. Keyboards are connected to a computer
through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless communication.

Types of keyboards: There can be different types of keyboards based on the region and language used. Some of the
common types of keyboards are as follows:

i) QWERTY Keyboard:

It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is named after the first six letters of the top
row of buttons and is even popular in countries that do not use Latin-based alphabet. It is so popular that some people
think that it is the only type of keyboard to use with computers as an input device.

ii) AZERTY Keyboard:

It is considered the standard French keyboard. It is developed in France as an alternative layout to the QWERTY layout
and is mainly used in France and other European countries. Some countries have manufactured their own versions of
AZERTY.

Its name is derived from the first six letters that appear on the top left row of the keyboard. The Q and W keys in
AZERTY keyboard are interchanged with A and Z keys in QWERTY keyboard. Furthermore, in AZERTY keyboard M
key is located to the left of the L key.

AZERTY keyboard differs from QWERTY keyboard not only in the placement of letters but also in many other ways,
e.g., it gives emphasis on accents, which is required for writing European languages like French.

iii) DVORAK Keyboard:

This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by reducing the finger movement while typing.
The most frequently used letters are kept in a home row to improve typing.

2) Mouse

The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer across the screen. It is designed to be
used on a flat surface and generally has left and right button and a scroll wheel between them. Laptop computers come
with a touchpad that works as a mouse. It lets you control the movement of cursor or pointer by moving your finger over
the touchpad. Some mouse comes with integrated features such as extra buttons to perform different buttons.

The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a roller ball integrated as a movement
sensor underneath the device. Modern mouse devices come with optical technology that controls cursor movements by a
visible or invisible light beam. A mouse is connected to a computer through different ports depending on the type of
computer and type of a mouse.

Common types of the mouse:

i) Trackball Mouse:

It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or cursor on the screen. The ball is half
inserted in the device and can be easily rolled with finger, thumb or the palm to move the pointer on the screen. The
device has sensor to detect the rotation of ball. It remains stationary; you don't need to move it on the operating surface.
So, it is an ideal device if you have limited desk space as you don't need to move it like a mouse.

ii) Mechanical Mouse:

It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a corded type of mouse. A mechanical mouse can
be used for high performance. The drawback is that they tend to get dust into the mechanics and thus require regular
cleaning.

iii) Optical Mouse:

An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more reliable than a mechanical mouse and also
requires less maintenance. However, its performance is affected by the surface on which it is operated. Plain non-glossy
mouse mat should be used for best results. The rough surface may cause problems for the optical recognition system,
and the glossy surface may reflect the light wrongly and thus may cause tracking issues.

iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:

As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless technology such as IrDA (infrared) or radio
(Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control the movement of the cursor. It is used to improve the experience of using a mouse. It
uses batteries for its power supply.

3) Scanner

The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a document. The scanned picture or
document then converted into a digital format or file and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical character
recognition techniques to convert images into digital ones. Some of the common types of scanners are as follows:

Types of Scanner:

i) Flatbed Scanner:
It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light illuminates the pane, and then the image is placed
on the glass pane. The light moves across the glass pane and scans the document and thus produces its digital copy. You
will need a transparency adapter while scanning transparent slides.

ii) Handheld Scanner:

It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a flat image that is to be scanned. The
drawback in using this device is that the hand should be steady while scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image. One
of the commonly used handheld scanners is the barcode scanner which you would have seen in shopping stores.

iii) Sheetfed Scanner:

In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the scanner. The main components of this scanner
include the sheet-feeder, scanning module, and calibration sheet. The light does not move in this scanner. Instead, the
document moves through the scanner. It is suitable for scanning single page documents, not for thick objects like books,
magazines, etc.

iv) Drum Scanner:

Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not have a charge-coupled device like a flatbed
scanner. The photomultiplier tube is extremely sensitive to light. The image is placed on a glass tube, and the light
moves across the image, which produces a reflection of the image which is captured by the PMT and processed. These
scanners have high resolution and are suitable for detailed scans.

v) Photo Scanner:
It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, which are required for scanning photographs.
Some photo scanners come with in-built software for cleaning and restoring old photographs.

4) Joystick

A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick with a spherical base. The base is fitted in
a socket that allows free movement of the stick. The movement of stick controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.

The first joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. A joystick can be of different
types such as displacement joysticks, finger-operated joysticks, hand operated, isometric joystick, and more. In joystick,
the cursor keeps moving in the direction of the joystick unless it is upright, whereas, in mouse, the cursor moves only
when the mouse moves.

5) Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive detector
that enables the user to point to or select objects on the display screen. Its light sensitive tip detects the object location
and sends the corresponding signals to the CPU. It is not compatible with LCD screens, so it is not in use today. It also
helps you draw on the screen if needed. The first light pen was invented around 1955 as a part of the Whirlwind project
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

6) Digitizer

Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with a stylus. It enables the user to draw
images and graphics using the stylus as we draw on paper with a pencil. The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer
appear on the computer monitor or display screen. The software converts the touch inputs into lines and can also convert
handwritten text to typewritten words.
It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped papers. Furthermore, it is also used to
receive information in the form of drawings and send output to a CAD (Computer-aided design) application and
software like AutoCAD. Thus, it allows you to convert hand-drawn images into a format suitable for computer
processing.

7) Microphone

The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It receives the sound vibrations and converts
them into audio signals or sends to a recording medium. The audio signals are converted into digital data and stored in
the computer. The microphone also enables the user to telecommunicate with others. It is also used to add sound to
presentations and with webcams for video conferencing. A microphone can capture audio waves in different ways;
accordingly the three most common types are described below:

i) Dynamic:

It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It has a magnet which is wrapped by a metal coil and a
thin sheet on the front end of the magnet. The sheet transfers vibrations from sound waves to the coil and from coil to
electric wires which transmit the sound like an electrical signal.

ii) Condenser:

It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat frequency response. It has a front plate called
diaphragm and a back plate parallel to the front plate. When sound hits the diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and
alters the distance between the two plates. The changes in distance are transmitted as electric signals.

iii) Ribbon:

It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum, duraluminum, or nanofilm suspended in a magnetic
field. The sound waves cause vibrations in the ribbon, which generate a voltage proportional to the velocity of the
vibration. The voltage is transmitted as an electrical signal. Early ribbon microphones had a transformer to increase the
output voltage, but modern ribbon microphones come with advanced magnets to produce a strong signal.
8) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic ink. MICR is a character recognition
technology that makes use of special magnetized ink which is sensitive to magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to
process the cheques and other organizations where security is a major concern. It can process three hundred cheques in a
minute with hundred-percent accuracy. The details on the bottom of the cheque (MICR No.) are written with magnetic
ink. A laser printer with MICR toner can be used to print the magnetic ink.

The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A document printed in magnetic ink is required to
pass through a machine which magnetizes the ink, and the magnetic information is then translated into characters.

9) Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of handwritten, typed or printed text into digital
text. It is widely used in offices and libraries to convert documents and books into electronic files.

It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After copying the documents, the OCR
software converts the documents into a two-color (black and white), version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light
and dark areas, where the dark areas are selected as characters, and the light area is identified as background. It is widely
used to convert hard copy legal or historic documents into PDFs. The converted documents can be edited if required like
we edit documents created in ms word.

10) Digital camera:

It is a digital device as it captures images and records videos digitally and then stores them on a memory card. It is
provided with an image sensor chip to capture images, as opposed to film used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a
camera that is connected to your computer can also be called a digital camera.

It has photosensors to record light that enters the camera through the lens. When the light strikes the photosensors, each
of the sensors returns the electrical current, which is used to create the images.

11) Paddle:

It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a wheel that is held by hand and looks like a volume knob
on a stereo that is used to increase or decrease the volume. Paddle moves or controls cursor or any other objects in the
game in a back-and-forth motion. It is widely used as an alternative to the joystick. Besides this, the term paddle also
refers to many handheld devices designed to control a function in an electronic device, computer, etc.

12) Steering wheel:

It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car racing games or in driving programs as virtual simulators
to steer a vehicle. It works like the real steering wheel by allowing you to take a right or left turn. A steering wheel may
be provided with acceleration and brake pedal devices and a mechanism for shifting gears. Thus, it makes racing games
more adventurous and entertaining.

13) Gesture recognition devices:

These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such devices that respond to gestures. For example, Kinect
is one such device that observes the movement of a player's body and interprets these movements as inputs to video
games. This feature is also available in certain tablets and smartphones where you can perform certain tasks such as
taking pictures using finger gestures such as swiping, pinching, etc.

14) Light Gun:

As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is designed to point at and shoot the targets on the screen in a
video game, or arcade, etc. The light gun was used for the first time on the MIT Whirwind computer. When the gun is
pointed at the target on the screen and the trigger is pulled, the screen goes blank for a fraction of a second. During this
moment, the photodiode, which is present in the barrel, determines where the gun is pointed. For example, shooting
ducks in a duck hunt game.

15) Touchpad:

It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows you to move or control the cursor on the screen
using your finger. Just like a mouse, it also has two buttons for right and left click. Using the touchpad, you can perform
all the tasks that you do with a mouse, such as selecting an object on the screen, copy, paste, delete, open a file or folder,
and more.

16) Remote:

It is a hardware device designed to control the functioning of a device, e.g., a TV remote that can be used to change
channels, increase or decrease the volume, from a distance without leaving the seat. The first cordless TV remote was
invented by Dr. Robert Adler of Zenith in 1956. The remote sends the electromagnetic waves to communicate with the
device. These waves can be infrared rays, radio waves, etc.

17) Touch screen:

It is the display screen of a device such as a smartphone, tablet, etc., that allows users to interact or provide inputs to the
device by using their finger. Today, most of the electronic devices come with touchscreen as an alternative to a mouse
for navigating a graphical user interface. For example, by touching, you can unlock your phone, open emails, open files,
play videos, etc. Besides this, it is used in lots of devices such as Camera, Car GPS, Fitness machine, etc.
The concept of the touch screen was first introduced and published by E.A. Johnson in 1965. The first touch screen was
developed at the beginning of the 1970s by CERN engineers Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe.

18) VR:

VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment which is generated by computers. A person can
interact with virtual objects of this artificial environment using some input devices such as headsets, gloves,
headphones, etc. For example, he or she can find himself or herself walking on a beach, watching a football match,
walking in the sky, etc., without actually doing all this.

19) Webcam:

Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built camera provided on a computer can also
be considered a webcam. It is an input device as it can take pictures, and can be used to record videos if required. The
pictures and videos are stored in the computer memory and can be displayed on the screen if required. Although it
works almost the same as the digital camera, it is different from a digital camera, as it is designed to take compact
digital photos that can be uploaded easily on the webpages and shared with others through the internet.

20) Biometric Devices:

Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified through his or her biological features such as fingerprints,
eye cornea, face structure, etc. It is done by using biometric devices, which can be of different types based on their
scanning features and abilities, such as:

i) Face Scanner:

It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It takes the face measurements of a person. For example,
the distance between eyes, nose, and mouth, etc., accordingly, it confirms the identity of a person. Besides this, it is
smart enough to differentiate between a person's picture and the real person.
ii) Hand Scanner:

The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity as every person has a unique pattern of veins in the
palm, just like fingerprints. This device takes advantage of this feature; it identifies a person by scanning the palm of his
hand. It uses infrared light to scan veins' patterns and blood flowing in them. Palm is even more unique than
fingerprints.

iii) Fingerprint Scanner:

It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric authentication. This device is developed, keeping in mind the
fact that no two persons in the world can have the same fingerprints. It is widely used in companies as a fingerprint
attendance system to mark the attendance of employees. This type of scanners captures the pattern of valleys and ridges
found on a finger and store it in the memory or database. When you press your finger on the given space, it verifies the
identity by using its pattern-matching software.

iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:

It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity. This device is more secure than others as it is next to
impossible to copy the retina or iris. It works by mapping the retina's blood vessel patterns of the eye. The blood vessels
of retina absorb light more easily as well as can be identified with appropriate lighting.

In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina through the scanner's eyepiece. Then, the software
captures the network of blood vessels in the retina and uses it to verify a person's identity.

v) Voice Scanner:
 It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a distinctive voice print or template. The voiceprints are stored
in the database, and are used to verify the voice of a person to confirm his or her identity. The person is required to
speak in the normal or same voice that was used to create a voice template. It is not much reliable as it can be misused
using a tape recording.

Output Devices
The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is entered in the computer through an input
device. There are a number of output devices that display output in different ways such as text, images, hard copies, and
audio or video. They bridge the gap between digital data and human perception, letting users engage with computer-
generated information. Understanding the many forms of output devices and their importance in computing is essential
for making informed decisions while selecting the right devices for certain applications.

Categories of Output Devices

Output devices can be categorized into four main types based on the nature of their output.

o Visual Output Devices: These devices display processed data as text, images, or video. Examples include monitors and
projectors, which allow users to view information on screens or project it onto larger surfaces.
o Data Output Devices: These devices provide machine-readable output for further processing or storage. Plotters and
3D printers fall into this category, allowing users to create physical representations of data or objects.
o Print Output Devices: Printers produce hard copies of processed data, such as documents, images, or graphics. They
allow for physical documentation and distribution of information.
o Sound Output Devices: These devices deliver audio output for listening or communication purposes. Speakers and
headphones/earphones enable users to hear the sound, whether Music, speech, or other audio content.

Visual Output Devices

Visual output devices are components of computing systems that enable the visual presentation of processed data.
Monitors and projectors, for example, play an important role in displaying information to users through text, pictures, or
video.

Users can view and analyze information more effectively with visual output devices. They allow for the intelligible
display of text, making reading papers, emails, and online sites simpler. These devices also excel in picture presentation,
allowing users to see photographs, graphics, and illustrations with accuracy and detail. Video material is additionally
improved by visual output devices, resulting in a fascinating viewing experience.

Some of the popular visual output devices are:

1. Monitor
o CRT Monitor
o LCD Monitor
o LED Monitor
 o Plasma Monitor
2. Printer
o Impact Printers
A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
o Non-impact printers
A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers
3. Projector

1) Monitor

The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output device that displays the processed data or
information as text, images, audio or video.

The types of monitors are given below.

i) CRT Monitor

CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes which produce images in the form of
video signals. Cathode rays tube produces a beam of electrons through electron guns that strike on the inner
phosphorescent surface of the screen to produce images on the screen. The monitor contains millions of phosphorus dots
of red, green and blue color. These dots start to glow when struck by electron beams and this phenomenon is called
cathodoluminescence.

The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly, deflection plate assembly, fluorescent
screen, glass envelope, and base.The front (outer surface) of the screen onto which images are produced is called the
face plate. It is made up of fiber optics.

There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So, the colors which you see on the screen are
the blends of red, blue and green lights.The magnetic field guides the beams of electrons. Although LCDs have replaced
the CRT monitors, the CRT monitors are still used by graphics professionals because of their color quality.
ii) LCD Monitor

The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as compared to CRT monitors. It is based on
liquid crystal display technology which is used in the screens of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD screen
comprises two layers of polarized glass with a liquid crystal solution between them. When the light passes through the
first layer, an electric current aligns the liquids crystals. The aligned liquid crystals allow a varying level of light to pass
through the second layer to create images on the screen.

The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen.Old LCDs had passive-matrix screens in
which individual pixels are controlled by sending a charge. A few electrical charges could be sent each second that
made screens appear blurry when the images moved quickly on the screen.

Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors (TFTs) with capacitors. This technology
allows pixels to retain their charge. So, they don?t make screen blurry when images move fast on the screen as well as
are more efficient than passive-matrix displays.

iii) LED monitor

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel display and uses liquid crystal
display technology like the LCD monitors. The difference between them lies in the source of light to backlight the
display. The LED monitor has many LED panels, and each panel has several LEDsto backlight the display, whereas the
LCD monitors use cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display.Modern electronic devices such as mobile
phones, LED TVs, laptop and computer screens, etc., use a LED display as it not only produces more brilliance and
greater light intensity but also consumes less power.

iv) Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display technology. It has small tiny cells
between two glass panels. These cells contain mixtures of noble gases and a small amount of mercury. When voltage is
applied, the gas in the cells turns into a plasma and emits ultraviolet light that creates images on the screen, i.e., the
screen is illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma, a charged gas. Plasma displays are brighter than liquid crystal displays
(LCD) and also offer a wide viewing angle than an LCD.
 Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent contrast ratios, wide viewing angle, a high
refresh rate and more. Thus, they offer a unique viewing experience while watching action movies, sports games, and
more.

Applications of Monitor
o Personal Computing: Monitors are commonly used in personal computers for everyday operations such as online
surfing, document editing, video viewing, and gameplay.
o Workstations: Monitors are necessary in professional settings such as workplaces since they serve as the primary
display for employees' workstations. Users may view and edit documents, spreadsheets, presentations, and other work-
related apps with them.
o Design and Multimedia: Graphic designers, video editors, and other multimedia workers rely on monitors. High-
resolution monitors with precise color reproduction are utilized to develop and edit visual material.
o Gaming: Gaming monitors give immersive experiences with high refresh rates and short reaction times. Gamers use
monitors to display fast-paced action, colorful images, and fluid gameplay.
o Education: Monitors are used in educational institutions, such as schools and universities, to facilitate learning. They
display educational content, multimedia presentations, interactive learning materials, etc.

3) Projector

A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a large surface such as a big screen or
wall. It can be connected to a computer and similar devices to project their output onto a screen. It uses light and lenses
to produce magnified texts, images, and videos. So, it is an ideal output device to give presentations or to teach a large
number of people.

Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as HDMI ports for newer equipment and
VGA ports that support older devices. Some projectors are designed to support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They can
be fixed onto the ceiling, placed on a stand, and more and are frequently used for classroom teaching, giving
presentations, home cinemas, etc.

A digital projector can be of two types:

1. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) digital projector: This type of digital projectors are very popular as they are
lightweight and provide crisp output. An LCD projector uses transmissive technology to produce output. It allows the
light source, which is a standard lamp, to pass through the three colored liquid crystal light panels. Some colors pass
through the panels and some are blocked by the panels and thus images are on the screen.
2. Digital Light Processing (DLP) digital projector: It has a set of tiny mirrors, a separate mirror for each pixel of the
image and thus provide high-quality images. These projectors are mostly used in theatres as they fulfill the requirement
of high-quality video output.
 Applications of projectors
o Education: Classrooms and educational institutions make heavy use of projectors. Teachers may use projectors to show
large groups of pupils instructional materials, presentations, movies, and interactive items.
o business Presentations: In corporate settings, projectors are vital for giving presentations and sharing information with
clients, colleagues, or stakeholders. Presenters can use them to offer slideshows, charts, graphs, and other visual aids.
o Home Theatre: Projectors are commonly used in in-home theatre systems. They provide a cinematic experience for
customers by projecting movies, TV shows, or streaming material onto a huge screen.
o Events and Conferences: Projectors are essential for events, conferences, and seminars. They are used to show keynote
speeches, slideshows, movies, and live demonstrations to a big group.
o Digital Signage: Projectors are employed in digital signage applications to display advertisements, information, or
dynamic content on large screens in public spaces, retail stores, or corporate environments.
o Art Installations: Projectors are used by artists and designers to create immersive art installations. They project images,
videos, or interactive visuals onto walls, buildings, or other unconventional surfaces, transforming spaces and providing
unique visual experiences.

Print Output Devices

Print output devices are essential components of computing systems that enable the generation of hard copies of
processed data. These devices, commonly known as printers, allow users to obtain physical copies of documents,
images, or other types of information.

Print output devices offer several advantages. Firstly, they provide a tangible format for information, allowing for easy
reading, sharing, and archiving of documents. Hard copies are particularly useful for legal documents, contracts, or
important records that require physical signatures or official documentation. Print output devices find applications in
various settings, including homes, offices, schools, and businesses. They are used for printing documents, reports,
presentations, photographs, labels, and more. From everyday printing needs to specialized requirements, printers
provide a reliable and efficient means of generating physical copies of digital content.

Some of the popular print output devices are:

3) Printer

o Impact Printers
o Character Printers
o Dot Matrix printers
o Daisy Wheel printers
o Line printers
o Drum printers
o Chain printers
o Non-impact printers
o Laser printers
o Inkjet printers

A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print images, text or any other information
onto the paper. Users can pick from various printer types, such as inkjet, laser, or dot matrix, to meet their printing
demands. Printers enable the generation of tangible copies for record-keeping, presentations, marketing materials, and
 other purposes, from household to professional settings. Printers are essential for personal and commercial use due to
their simplicity and adaptability.

Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers and Non-impact Printers.

o Impact Printers: They are of two types:

A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
o Non-impact printers: They are of two types:
A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers

Impact Printer

The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images onto the paper. The hammer or print
head strikes or presses an ink ribbon against the paper to print characters and images.

Impact printers are further divided into two types.

A. Character Printers
B. Line printers

A) Character Printers
Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the print head or hammer. It does not print
one line at a time. Dot Matrix printer and Daisy Wheel printer are character printers. Today, these printers are not in
much use due to their low speed and because only the text can be printed. The character printers are of two types, which
are as follows:

i) Dot Matrix Printer

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by it are the patterns of dots. These patterns
are produced by striking the ink soaked ribbon against the paper with a print head. The print head contains pins that
produce a pattern of dots on the paper to form the individual characters. The print head of a 24 pin dot matrix contains
more pins than a 9 pin dot matrix printer, so it produces more dots which results in better printing of characters. To
produce color output, the black ribbon can be changed with color stripes. The speed of Dot Matrix printers is around
200-500 characters per second.

ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

Daisy Wheel Printer was invented by David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems.It consists of a wheel or disk that has spokes
or extensions and looks like a daisy, so it is named Daisy Wheel printer. At the end of extensions, molded metal
characters are mounted. To print a character the printer rotates the wheel, and when the desired character is on the print
location the hammer hits disk and the extension hits the ink ribbon against the paper to create the impression. It cannot
be used to print graphics and is often noisy and slow, i.e., the speed is very low around 25-50 characters per second. Due
to these drawbacks,these printers have become obsolete.

B) Line Printers:
Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-speed impact printer as it can print 500 to
3000 lines per minute. Drum printer and chain printer are examples of line printers.

i) Drum Printer:

Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print characters. The drum has circular bands of
characters on its surface. It has a separate hammer for each band of characters. When you print, the drum rotates, and
when the desired character comes under the hammer, the hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the paper to print
characters. The drum rotates at a very high speed and characters are printed by activating the appropriate hammers.
Although all the characters are not printed at a time, they are printed at a very high speed. Furthermore, it can print only
a predefined style as it has a specific set of characters. These printers are known to be very noisy due to the use of
hammering techniques.

ii) Chain Printer:

Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print characters. The characters are embossed on the surface of
the chain. The chain rotates horizontally around a set of hammers, for each print location one hammer is provided, i.e.,
the total number of hammers is equal to the total number of print positions.

The chain rotates at a very high speed and when the desired character comes at the print location, the corresponding
hammer strikes the page against the ribbon and character on the chain. They can type 500 to 3000 lines per minute.
They are also noisy due to the hammering action.
 Non-Impact Printer:

Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head or hammer on the ink ribbon placed against
the paper. They print characters and images without direct physical contact between the paper and the printing
machinery. These printers can print a complete page at a time, so they are also known as page printers. The common
types of non-impact printers are Laser printer and Inkjet printer:

i) Laser Printer:

A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the characters. The laser beam hits the drum, which
is a photoreceptor and draws the image on the drum by altering electrical charges on the drum. The drum then rolls in
toner, and the charged image on the drum picks the toner. The toner is then printed on the paper using heat and pressure.
Once the document is printed, the drum loses the electric charge,and the remaining toner is collected. The laser printers
use powdered toner for printing instead of liquid ink and produce quality print objects with a resolution of 600 dots per
inch (dpi) or more.

ii) Inkjet Printer:

The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters by spraying fine,ionized drops of ink. The
print head has tiny nozzles to spray the ink. The printer head moves back and forth and sprays ionized drops of ink on
the paper, which is fed through the printer. These drops pass through an electric field that guides the ink onto the paper
to print correct images and characters.

An inkjet printer has cartridges that contain ink. Modern inkjet printers are color printers that have four cartridges
containing different colors: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black. It is capable of printing high-quality images with
different colors. It can produce print objects with a resolution of at least 300 dots per inch (dpi).

Applications of Printer
o Personal and Home Use: Printers are frequently used in homes to print papers, pictures, and other personal stuff.
Individuals can use them to make tangible copies of vital information or photographs for personal use.
o Offices and enterprises: Printers are required in offices and enterprises. They print commercial enterprise papers,
reports, contracts, invoices, and documents. Employees can utilize printers to create physical copies of crucial
information, which aids in communication and record-keeping.
o Education: Students and teachers utilize printers at educational institutions such as schools and universities. They are
used to print assignments, worksheets, study materials, project reports, and educational tools.
o Printing and Publishing: Printers are critical in the publishing and printing industries. They're used on a massive scale
to print publications, including newspapers, brochures, flyers, and other published goods.
o Advertising and Marketing: Printers are employed in the advertising and marketing industry to create promotional
materials such as posters, banners, flyers, business cards, and product labels.

Sound Output Devices

Sound output devices, which allow users to listen to audio material, are a significant component of computing systems.
Speakers and headphones, for example, facilitate sound reproduction and improve the whole multimedia experience.
There are various advantages to using sound output equipment. They let consumers experience high-quality audio with
increased clarity, depth, and richness. Sound output devices improve the entire audio experience by bringing
information to the existence, whether or not it is the minute specifics in Music, the immersive sound effects in movies,
or the clear voice during a conference call.

These devices have several applications, which include use in homes, groups, amusement venues, and academic
institutions. They are used for personal enjoyment, communication, professional audio work, and multimedia jobs.
Sound output devices link to other devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and televisions, increasing their versatility and
utility.

Some of the popular sound output devices are:

4) Speakers

Speakers are important output devices that transform electrical impulses into audible sounds. They're essential to many
modern devices, including computers, televisions, music players, and mobile phones. The audio system improves the
multimedia experience by providing high-quality audio output, whether listening to the song, viewing films, playing
video games, or participating in virtual meetings. They help ensure that consumers enjoy audio material with clarity and
depth by contributing to clean and clear sound reproduction.

Types of speakers
o Stereo Speakers: Also known as 2.0 speakers, stereo speakers comprise left and right speakers. They are the most
fundamental speaker, typically found in desktop computers, laptop computers, and tiny audio installations. Stereo
speakers offer a simple yet efficient method of reproducing sounds and creating a spatial audio experience.

o Surround Sound Speakers: Surround sound speakers provide immersive audio commonly used in home theatre
systems. For a surround sound experience, many speakers are carefully positioned around the room. Multiple speakers
plus a subwoofer are used in common arrangements like 5.1, 7.1, and 9.1 systems. The number denotes the number of
speakers, while ".1" denotes a specialized subwoofer for low-frequency effects. These configurations provide realistic
soundscapes, immersing viewers in a more engaging home theatre experience.
o Subwoofers: Subwoofers are specialized speakers designed to reproduce low-frequency sounds, also known as bass.
They add depth and impact to audio by delivering powerful and deep bass tones. Subwoofers are often used alongside
stereo or surround sound systems to enhance the audio experience, specifically in movies, Music, and gaming.

o Soundbars: Soundbars are slim and elongated speakers that provide an all-in-one audio solution for TVs and home
entertainment systems. They consist of multiple built-in speakers housed in a single enclosure. Soundbars offer
improved audio quality compared to built-in TV speakers and can create a simulated surround sound effect. They are
popular for those seeking a compact and convenient audio setup.

o Portable Speakers: portable speakers are small, lightweight, wireless devices designed for audio enjoyment on the go.
Customers may additionally listen to songs and other audio files from anywhere. Bluetooth audio systems are available
in various styles and sizes, as well as outdoor audio systems with long battery life and waterproof audio systems for use
by the pool.
o
o Bookshelf speakers: Bookshelf speakers are placed on a shelf, table, or stand. They provide a good combination of size
and sound insulation, making them excellent for small to medium-sized rooms. In surround sound or stereo systems,
they are commonly utilized as back speakers.

o Soundbar subwoofer: Some soundbars have a separate subwoofer for higher bass response. These subwoofers are
designed to maximize sound output and offer lower-strength enjoyment.
o Outdoor speaker: The outdoor speaker is designed to withstand outdoor situations such as humidity, UV exposure, and
temperature changes. They are ideal for outdoor gatherings, parties, or enjoying Music in outdoor spaces like gardens or
patios. Outdoor speakers can be mounted on walls, installed on poles, or designed to blend into the landscape.

Applications of Speakers
o Entertainment: Speakers are used in entertainment systems such as home theatres, game consoles, and music players
to playback audio. They provide immersive sound experiences, letting users enjoy high-quality audio in movies, Music,
and gaming.
o Public Address Systems: Speakers are used in public places such as schools, stadiums, conference centers, and airports
to make announcements, deliver public speeches, and address big audiences. They provide clear and audible
communication in various public meetings and activities.
o Multimedia Presentations: In multimedia presentations and conferences, speakers are vital. They magnify the audio of
presentations, movies, and speeches, allowing the audience to better hear and participate in the information.
o Music Production: Speakers are crucial in music production studios and recording environments. They are used for
tracking and playback of recorded audio, ensuring correct sound duplication and quality manipulation during the
production technique.
o Communication Devices: Speakers are integrated into conversation devices like smartphones, pills, and laptops. They
permit customers to make telephone calls, participate in video conferences, and listen to audio content.

5) Headphones/Earphones

Headphones and earphones are personal audio devices worn over the ears or inserted into the ear canal, respectively.
They deliver Music to the user directly, giving a private and immersive listening experience. Earphones are tiny and fit
within the ear, whereas headphones have two speakers that cover both ears. They are regularly used with portable music
players, phones, laptop computers, and different gadgets. Users of headphones and earbuds may listen to Music and
podcasts and view films and other media without bothering others. They offer ease, mobility, and the ability to
concentrate on audio information while maintaining privacy and clarity.
 Types of Headphones/Earphones
Headphones and earphones come in various types and designs, catering to different preferences and audio needs. Here
are some common types:

o Over-Ear Headphones: Over-ear headphones feature large ear cups that fully envelop the ears. They deliver
exceptional sound quality and isolate noise, making them ideal for immersive music listening and studio monitoring.
One of their notable advantages is their comfort, as the ear cups completely cover the ears, evenly distributing the
weight for a pleasant experience.

o On-Ear Headphones: On-ear headphones rest on the outer ear without fully enclosing it. In comparison to over-ear
headphones, they're smaller and additional compact. On-ear headphones offer a first-rate aggregate of mobility and
sound first-rate. Even as they do not supply the same quantity of noise isolation as over-ear headphones, they will often
be extra lightweight and less hard to use for prolonged intervals.
o In-Ear Earphones: In-ear earphones, additionally known as earbuds or earphones, are inserted right away into the ear
canal. They are compact, light, and quite transportable. In order to ensure a secure and comfortable fit, in-ear earbuds
are equipped with silicone or foam tips in different sizes. They provide good noise isolation and are appropriate for use
during difficult tasks or while traveling. In-ear earphones are commonly bundled with smartphones and portable music
players.

o Wireless Headphones/Earphones: Wireless Headphones/Earphones: Wireless headphones and earphones have

acquired recognition because of their comfort and freedom from tangled wires. They communicate with different
gadgets thru Bluetooth or different wireless generations. Wi-Fi headphones let you circulate spherical freely without
being confined via the use of cables. They come in loads of fashions, together with over-ear, on-ear, and in-ear designs.
o Noise-Canceling Headphones/Earphones: Noise-canceling headphones and earphones use advanced technology to
reduce external ambient noise. They employ microphones to capture external sounds and generate opposite sound waves
to cancel them out. Noise-canceling headphones are mainly effective in busy locations, which include airplanes or
crowded areas, since they offer extra immersive listening enjoyment with less background noise.
o Sports/Exercise Headphones/Earphones: Designed for active individuals, sports or exercise headphones and
earphones are designed to withstand sweat, moisture, and vigorous movement. They often feature a secure fit and may
have additional features like water resistance or ear hooks to stay in place during physical activities.

o Gaming Headsets: Gaming headsets are tailored for gamers, providing enhanced audio quality and clear
communication. They typically come with built-in microphones for in-game chat and voice communication. Gaming
headsets offer immersive soundscapes, allowing gamers to pinpoint audio cues accurately.
o True Wireless Earbuds: True wireless earbuds are in-ear headphones with no wires connecting them. Each earbud is
self-contained and connects to the smartphone through Bluetooth. True wireless earbuds provide a cable-free listening
experience, with some versions including sophisticated capabilities such as touch controls and smart assistants.

Applications of Headphones/Earphones

o Personal Music Listening: Headphones/earphones are frequently utilized for personal music enjoyment.
Headphones/earphones allow you to listen to your favorite Music privately and clearly, whether you're on the road or
resting at home.
o Communication: Headphones/Earphones with built-in microphones are used for voice calls, video conferencing, and
online gaming. They provide clear audio input and output, enabling effective communication over voice and video
platforms.
o Fitness and Sports: Headphones/Earphones are popular among fitness enthusiasts and athletes. They offer the
convenience of wire-free listening during workouts, running, or other physical activities, keeping users motivated and
entertained.
o Education and Language Learning: Headphones/Earphones are used in educational settings for language learning
programs, online courses, and audio-based learning materials. They provide a focused listening experience, helping
learners improve comprehension and pronunciation.
o Entertainment: Headphones/earphones are required to watch movies and TV shows and play video games. They offer
immersive audio experiences that allow users to completely immerse themselves in the entertainment material without
bothering others.

Data Output Devices

Data output devices are essential components of computer systems that allow users to receive and analyze processed
data intelligibly. These gadgets are critical in displaying data meaningfully, making it accessible and valuable for further
analysis or decision-making.

Data output devices are required for data processing, visualization, and transmission. They facilitate understanding
complex information by presenting it in a visually accessible format. Using data output devices, users can interpret and
make sense of data more effectively, leading to informed decision-making, improved communication, and enhanced
productivity in various fields and industries.

Some of the popular Data output devices are:

6) Plotter

A plotter is a specialized output device used to generate high-quality, accurate, and detailed graphics. It's popular in
fields like engineering, architecture, and graphic design. Unlike printers, which use ink or toner to create pictures or text
on paper, plotters utilize a pen or marker to draw continuous lines on diverse media such as paper, vinyl, or film.
Plotters are capable of creating intricate and accurate drawings, maps, blueprints, and technical diagrams. They are
valued for their ability to handle large-format prints and deliver precise output, making them essential tools in industries
that require precise graphical representation.

Types of Plotters
Plotters come in different types, each with its own unique features and applications. Here are some common types of
plotters:

o Pen Plotters: Pen plotters are the most classic sort of plotter, drawing continuous lines on paper or other media using a
pen or marker. They create precise and elaborate designs by sliding the pen horizontally and vertically over the page.
Pen plotters are known for their high accuracy and can produce detailed line art, technical diagrams, architectural
blueprints, and engineering designs. They are commonly used in industries that require precise and professional-looking
graphical outputs.

o Electrostatic Plotters: Electrostatic plotters use an electrostatic charge to attract toner or ink onto paper. They operate
by selectively charging areas of the paper and then applying toner or ink to those charged areas, resulting in the
 formation of graphical output. Electrostatic plotters can print high-resolution images with smooth gradients and solid
fills. They are frequently used in industries requiring accurate color reproduction, including graphic design, advertising,
and photography.
o Inkjet Plotters: Inkjet plotters work similarly to inkjet printers but are designed for large-format printing. They
generate the desired picture or pattern by spraying small droplets of ink onto the paper. High-quality printouts with
brilliant colors and precise details may be produced using inkjet plotters. They are frequently used in industries that
need large-scale printing, such as architecture, engineering, and signage.

o Cutting Plotters: Cutting plotters, also known as vinyl cutters, are specialized plotters used to cut out shapes and
designs on various materials such as vinyl, paper, or fabric. They operate by cutting along the outlines of the desired
pattern using a sharp blade. Cutting plotters are commonly used in sign making, vehicle graphics, apparel design, and
other industries that require precise cutting of materials for signage, decals, or stencils.
o Laser Plotters: Laser plotters use a laser beam to create high-resolution prints on various media. They work by
directing the laser beam across the surface of the media, selectively exposing it to heat, which creates the desired image
or design. Laser plotters are known for their high precision and can produce detailed and intricate graphics. They are
used in industries such as prototyping, architectural modeling, and graphic arts, where precise and complex designs are
required.

Applications of Plotter
o Engineering and Architecture: Plotters are extensively used in engineering and architecture for creating detailed
technical drawings, blueprints, and floor plans. They can produce accurate and scaled drawings on large sheets of paper
or other materials.
o Fine Art & Graphic Design: Plotters are used by artists and graphic designers to generate large-scale artwork, posters,
and drawings. They can reproduce fine details and beautiful colors, letting artists communicate their ideas on a larger
scale.
o Textile and Fashion Design: Plotters are used to create patterns, templates, and stencils in the textile and fashion
sectors. They can produce intricate designs and precise measurements on fabrics, enabling efficient production and
customization.
o Signage and Advertising: Plotters are utilized in the production of signs, banners, and promotional materials. They can
cut vinyl or other materials into desired shapes and sizes, allowing for the creation of visually appealing signage and
advertisements.

Wireless Output Devices

Wireless output devices have grown in popularity and have become essential components of modern computing
systems. These gadgets link and interact with computers or other devices via wireless technology, eliminating the need
for physical wires or connections. They provide ease, flexibility, and mobility by letting users engage with their devices
from a distance while removing the constraints imposed by wired connections. Here are a few examples of wireless
output devices and their applications:

o Wireless Monitors: Wireless monitors are display units that can connect to a computer or other devices using wireless
technology, such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth. They provide the ease of cable-free communication, letting users position their
displays wherever they are within wireless range. Wireless monitors are especially beneficial when wire management is
difficult or when users need to move or adjust the display often.
o

o Wireless Printers: Wireless printers have changed the way people print by removing the requirement for direct physical
connections. These printers usWi-Fifi or Bluetooth to connect to devices such as PCs, laptops, or smartphones, allowing
wireless printing from anywhere within the network range. Wireless printers provide increased flexibility, convenience,
and decreased cable clutter. Users may print papers, images, and other items without having to deal with wires and
cords. Wireless printers are very handy in shared office environments or households with many devices since they may
be accessed by several people at the same time.
o

o Wireless Projectors: They can wirelessly receive video and audio signals, letting users project material from a distance
onto a screen or wall. They can wirelessly receive video and audio signals, letting users project material from a distance
onto a screen or wall. Wireless projectors are often utilized in classrooms, boardrooms, and home theatre setups because
they provide flexibility and convenience of usage during presentations, movie evenings, and gaming sessions.
o
o Wireless Speakers: wireless speakers make use of wireless technologies like Bluetooth or Wi-Fi to connect and flow
audio from devices which include smartphones, tablets, or computer systems. They provide a clean method to listen to
Music, podcasts, or other audio records without having to deal with cords. Wi-Fi audio systems are available in an
expansion of sizes and styles, ranging from small portable devices for on-the-go use to larger devices for home
enjoyment systems.

o Wireless Headphones/Earphones: wireless headphones and earbuds have grown in recognition because of their
portability and lack of cables. Wireless headphones and earbuds connect to gadgets via Bluetooth, giving a hassle-free
music experience without tangled cords. They're available in an expansion of designs to accommodate an extensive
variety of tastes and usage conditions. These gadgets' wireless connection allows users to roam around freely while
listening to audio material. Wireless headphones and earbuds have become popular alternatives for their seamless and
portable audio experiences, whether for workouts, commuting, or simply untethered listening.
o

o Wireless Presenters: Wireless presenters are handheld devices that enable users to control presentations remotely. They
connect to computers or other devices using wireless technology, allowing presenters to navigate slides, highlight points,
or control multimedia elements from a distance. Wireless presenters provide flexibility and enhance the presenter's
mobility and engagement during meetings, conferences, or lectures.

Applications of Wireless Output Devices

o Home and Office Environments: Wireless output devices find widespread use in both home and office settings.
Wireless printers allow multiple users to print documents or photos from their devices, eliminating the need for
everyone to be physically connected to the printer. Wireless speakers provide flexible audio solutions for entertainment
or productivity purposes.
o Education: Wireless output devices are particularly valuable in educational environments. Wireless projectors enable
teachers to display content from their devices onto a larger screen, facilitating effective visual learning for students.
Wireless headphones can be used by students to listen to educational audio materials without disrupting others.
o Presentations and Conferences: Wireless output devices are commonly used in business presentations, conferences,
and meetings. Wireless projectors and presenters allow for seamless presentations without the need for cable
connections. Wireless speakers provide clear audio for conference calls or multimedia presentations.
o Entertainment: Wireless output devices, such as headphones/earphones and speakers, improve entertainment
experiences by allowing for more mobility and high-quality audio for Music, movies, and other media.
o Mobile Devices: Wireless output devices are compatible with mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. Users
can wirelessly connect to wireless speakers, projectors, or headphones/earphones to enhance their mobile entertainment
or productivity experiences.

Advantages of Wireless Output Devices

o Convenience and Flexibility: Wireless output devices offer the convenience of cable-free connectivity. Users can
connect and interact with their devices from a distance, eliminating the limitations imposed by physical cables. This
flexibility allows for easier device setup, repositioning, and mobility.
o Reduced Clutter: Without the need for physical cables, wireless output devices contribute to a cleaner and more
organized workspace. Users can avoid the tangle of cables and the hassle of managing and untangling wires, leading to a
more aesthetically pleasing and efficient working environment.
o Enhanced Mobility: Wireless output devices provide greater freedom of movement. Users can freely move around
within the wireless range without being tethered to a specific location. This is particularly advantageous in scenarios
such as presentations, where the presenter can move around the room while maintaining control over the output device.
o Ease of Sharing: Wireless output devices make it easier to share resources among multiple users. For example, wireless
printers can be accessed by multiple devices within a wireless network, allowing users to conveniently print from
different locations without the need for physical connections or transferring files.
o Increased Accessibility: Wireless output devices improve accessibility for users with mobility challenges or
disabilities. They enable users to interact with devices from a comfortable position or distance, providing a more
inclusive computing experience.

The full form of CPU is Central Processing Unit . It is a brain of the computer. All types of data processing operations
and all the important functions of a computer are performed by the CPU. It helps input and output devices to
communicate with each other and perform their respective operations. It also stores data which is input, intermediate
results in between processing, and instructions.
What is a CPU?
A Central Processing Unit is the most important component of a computer system. A CPU is a hardware that performs
data input/output, processing and storage functions for a computer system. A CPU can be installed into a CPU socket.
These sockets are generally located on the motherboard. CPU can perform various data processing operations. CPU can
store data, instructions, programs, and intermediate results.
History of CPU
Since 1823, when Baron Jons Jakob Berzelius discovered silicon, which is still the primary component used in the
manufacture of CPUs today, the history of the CPU has experienced numerous significant turning points. The first
transistor was created by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley in December 1947. in 1958, the first
working integrated circuit was built by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby.
The Intel 4004 was the company’s first microprocessor, which it unveiled in 1971. Ted Hoff’s assistance was needed for
this. When Intel released its 8008 CPU in 1972, Intel 8086 in 1976, and Intel 8088 in June 1979, it contributed to yet
another win. The Motorola 68000, a 16/32-bit processor, was also released in 1979. The Sun also unveiled the SPARC
CPU in 1987. AMD unveiled the AM386 CPU series in March 1991.
In January 1999, Intel introduced the Celeron 366 MHZ and 400 MHz processors. AMD back in April 2005 with it’s
first dual-core processor. Intel also introduced the Core 2 Dual processor in 2006. Intel released the first Core i5 desktop
processor with four cores in September 2009.
In January 2010, Intel released other processors like Core 2 Quad processor Q9500, the first Core i3 and i5 mobile
processors, first Core i3 and i5 desktop processors.
In June 2017, Intel released Core i9 desktop processor, and Intel introduced its first Core i9 mobile processor In April
2018.
Different Parts of CPU
Now, the CPU consists of 3 major units, which are:
1. Memory or Storage Unit
2. Control Unit
3. ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Let us now look at the block diagram of the computer:
 Here, in this diagram, the three major components are also shown. So, let us discuss these major components:
Memory or Storage Unit
As the name suggests this unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. The memory unit is responsible for
transferring information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as an internal storage unit or the
main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM) as all these are storage devices.
Its size affects speed, power, and performance. There are two types of memory in the computer, which are primary
memory and secondary memory. Some main functions of memory units are listed below:
 Data and instructions are stored in memory units which are required for processing.
 It also stores the intermediate results of any calculation or task when they are in process.
 The final results of processing are stored in the memory units before these results are released to an output device for
giving the output to the user.
 All sorts of inputs and outputs are transmitted through the memory unit.
Control Unit
As the name suggests, a control unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but it does not carry out any
data processing operations. For executing already stored instructions, It instructs the computer by using the electrical
signals to instruct the computer system. It takes instructions from the memory unit and then decodes the instructions
after that it executes those instructions. So, it controls the functioning of the computer. It’s main task is to maintain the
flow of information across the processor. Some main functions of the control unit are listed below:
 Controlling of data and transfer of data and instructions is done by the control unit among other parts of the computer.
 The control unit is responsible for managing all the units of the computer.
 The main task of the control unit is to obtain the instructions or data which is input from the memory unit, interprets
them, and then directs the operation of the computer according to that.
 The control unit is responsible for communication with Input and output devices for the transfer of data or results from
memory.
 The control unit is not responsible for the processing of data or storing data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical functions or operations. It consists of
two subsections, which are:
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Now, let us know about these subsections:
Arithmetic Section: By arithmetic operations, we mean operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division, and all these operation and functions are performed by ALU. Also, all the complex operations are done by
making repetitive use of the mentioned operations by ALU.
Logic Section: By Logical operations, we mean operations or functions like selecting, comparing, matching, and
merging the data, and all these are performed by ALU.
Note: CPU may contain more than one ALU and it can be used for maintaining timers that help run the computer
system.
What Does a CPU Do?
The main function of a computer processor is to execute instruction and produce an output. CPU work are Fetch,
Decode and Execute are the fundamental functions of the computer.
 Fetch: the first CPU gets the instruction. That means binary numbers that are passed from RAM to CPU.
 Decode: When the instruction is entered into the CPU, it needs to decode the instructions. with the help of
ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit) the process of decode begins.
 Execute: After decode step the instructions are ready to execute
 Strore: After execute step the instructions are ready to store in the memory.
Types of CPU
We have three different types of CPU:
 Single Core CPU: The oldest type of computer CPUs is single core CPU. These CPUs were used in the 1970s. these
CPUs only have a single core that preform different operations. This means that the single core CPU can only process
one operation at a single time. single core CPU CPU is not suitable for multitasking.
 Dual-Core CPU: Dual-Core CPUs contain a single Integrated Circuit with two cores. Each core has its cache and
controller. These controllers and cache are work as a single unit. dual core CPUs can work faster than the single-core
processors.
 Quad-Core CPU: Quad-Core CPUs contain two dual-core processors present within a single integrated circuit (IC) or
chip. A quad-core processor contains a chip with four independent cores. These cores read and execute various
instructions provided by the CPU. Quad Core CPU increases the overall speed for programs. Without even boosting the
overall clock speed it results in higher performance.
What is Primary Memory
Primary memory is a segment of computer memory that can be accessed directly by the processor. In a hierarchy of
memory, primary memory has access time less than secondary memory and greater than cache memory. Generally,
primary memory has a storage capacity lesser than secondary memory and greater than cache memory.
Need of primary memory
In order to enhance the efficiency of the system, memory is organized in such a way that access time for the ready
process is minimized. The following approach is followed to minimize access time for the ready process.
 All programs, files, and data are stored in secondary storage that is larger and hence has greater access time.
 Secondary memory can not be accessed directly by a CPU or processor.
 In order, to execute any process operating system loads the process in primary memory which is smaller and can be
accessed directly by the CPU.
 Since only those processes are loaded in primary memory which is ready to be executed, the CPU can access those
processes efficiently and this optimizes the performance of the system.
This organization of memory in a stepwise manner is known as Memory Hierarchy.
Primary Memory Example
Primary Memory examples are RAM, ROM, cache, PROM, EPROM, registers, etc.
Classification of Primary Memory
Primary memory can be broadly classified into two parts:
1. Read-Only Memory (ROM)
2. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Read-Only Memory
Any data which need not be altered are stored in ROM. ROM includes those programs which run on booting of the
system (known as a bootstrap program that initializes OS) along with data like algorithm required by OS. Anything
stored in ROM cannot be altered or changed.
Types of ROM:
ROM can be broadly classified into 4 types based on their behavior:
 MROM: Masked ROM is hardwired and pre-programmed ROM. Any content that is once written cannot be altered
anyhow.
 PROM: Programmable ROM can be modified once by the user. The user buys a blank PROM and writes the desired
content but once written content cannot be altered.
 EPROM: Erasable and Programmable ROM Content can be changed by erasing the initial content which can be
done by exposing EPROM to UV radiation. This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge on ROM and
content can be rewritten on it.
 EEPROM: Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM Content can be changed by erasing the initial content
which could be easily erased electrically. However, one byte can be erased at a time instead of deleting in one go.
Hence, reprogramming of EEPROM is a slow process.
Random Access Memory
Any process in the system which needs to be executed is loaded in RAM which is processed by the CPU as per
Instructions in the program. Like if we click on applications like Browser, firstly browser code will be loaded by the
Operating system into the RAM after which the CPU will execute and open up the Browser.
Types of RAM:
RAM can be broadly classified into SRAM (Static RAM) and DRAM (Dynamic RAM) based on their behavior:
 DRAM: Dynamic RAM or DRAM needs to periodically refresh in a few milliseconds to retain data. DRAM is made
up of capacitors and transistors and electric charge leaks from capacitors and DRAM needs to be charged
periodically. DRAM is widely used in home PCs and servers as it is cheaper than SRAM.
 SRAM: Static RAM or SRAM keeps the data as long as power is supplied to the system. SRAM uses Sequential
circuits like a flip-flop to store a bit and hence need not be periodically refreshed. SRAM is expensive and hence only
used where speed is the utmost priority.
Primary Memory is volatile in nature.
Content of primary memory may or may not vanish when power is lost depending on if it is stored in RAM or ROM.
 The content of ROM is non-volatile in nature, they are stored even when power is lost.
 The content of RAM is volatile in nature, it vanishes when power is lost.
When cache memory comes into existence?
Data in primary memory can be accessed faster than secondary memory but still, access times of primary memory are
generally in a few microseconds, whereas the CPU is capable of performing operations in nanoseconds. Due to the
time lag between accessing data and acting on data performance of the system decreases as the CPU is not utilized
properly, it may remain idle for some time. In order to minimize this time gap new segment of memory is Introduced
known as Cache Memory.

Computer Language

A Computer language includes various languages that are used to communicate with a Computer machine. Some of the
languages like programming language which is a set of codes or instructions used for communicating the machine.
Machine code is also considered as a computer language that can be used for programming. And also HTML which is a
computer language or a markup language but not a programming language. Similarly there are different types of
languages developed for different types of work to be performed by communicating with the machine. But all the
languages that are now available are categorized into two basic types of languages including Low-level language and
High level language.

Low Level Language:

Low level languages are the machine codes in which the instructions are given in machine language in the form of 0 and
1 to a Computer system. It is mainly designed to operate and handle all the hardware and instructions set architecture of
a Computer. The main function of the Low level language is to operate, manage and manipulate the hardware and
system components. There are various programs and applications written in low level languages that are directly
executable without any interpretation or translation. The most famous and the base of all programming languages “C”
and “C++” are mostly used Low level languages till today. Low level language is also divided into two parts are
Machine language and Assembly language.
 Machine Language is one of the low-level programming languages which is the first generation language developed
for communicating with a Computer. It is written in machine code which represents 0 and 1 binary digits inside the
Computer string which makes it easy to understand and perform the operations. As we know a Computer system can
recognize electric signals so here 0 stands for turning off electric pulse and 1 stands for turning on electric pulse. It is
very easy to understand by the Computer and also increases the processing speed.

The main advantage of using Machine language is that there is no need of a translator or interpreter to translate the code,
as the Computer directly can understand. But there are some disadvantages also like you have to remember the
operation codes, memory address every time you write a program and also hard to find errors in a written program. It is
a machine dependent and can be used by a single type of Computer.

 Assembly Language is the second generation programming language that has almost similar structure and set of
commands as Machine language. Instead of using numbers like in Machine languages here we use words or names in
English forms and also symbols. The programs that have been written using words, names and symbols in assembly
language are converted to machine language using an Assembler. Because a Computer only understands machine code
languages that’s why we need an Assembler that can convert the Assembly level language to Machine language so the
Computer gets the instruction and responds quickly.

The main disadvantage of this language is that it is written only for a single type of CPU and does not run on any other
CPU. But its speed makes it the most used low level language till today which is used by many programmers.

High Level Language:

The high level languages are the most used and also more considered programming languages that helps a programmer
to read, write and maintain. It is also the third generation language that is used and also running till now by many
programmers. They are less independent to a particular type of Computer and also require a translator that can convert
the high level language to machine language. The translator may be an interpreter and Compiler that helps to convert
into binary code for a Computer to understand. There is various high level programming languages like C, FORTRAN
or Pascal that are less independent and also enables the programmer to write a program.

The Compiler plays an important role on the Computer as it can convert to machine language and also checks for errors
if any before executing. There are several high level languages that were used earlier and also now like COBOL,
FORTRAN, BASIC, C, C++, PASCAL, LISP, Ada, Algol, Prolog and Java. It is user-friendly as the programs are
written in English using words, symbols, characters, numbers that needs to be converted to machine code for processing.

What is Assembler
Assembler is used to convert programs written in assembly language to machine language. The assembler takes the
source code as input which is written in assembly language and converts it into machine level language or machine
language. GAS, GNU, etc. are some examples of assemblers.
Features of Assembler
 Assembler converts the source code into machine code and then, this machine code is executed by the computer.
 Assembler first converts the source code into an object, then it converts the object code into Machine Language with the
linker program.
 The output of the assembler consists of relocatable machine code that is generated by an assembler represented by
binary code.
 The assembler takes the code written in the assembly language as input.
 Assembler converts assembly language into machine language.
 The assembler does not convert the entire code into machine language at once.
 The assembler is less intelligent than the compiler.
 The assembler produces two phases of the given input, the first phase, and the second phase.
 Debugging is difficult in assembler.
 GAS is an example of a GNU assembler.
What is Compiler?
Compiler is a language translator software that reads programs written in a high-level language such as C Language, C
++ Language, C #, Java, etc., and converts it into machine code or a low-level language.
In simple words, compilers are software that transforms programs written in a high-level language, that is called source
code, into machine code (0’s and 1’s), or low-level language.
 The compiler converts the source code into machine code when there is no error in the source code. If there is an error
in the source code, the compiler will not convert the source code into machine code without correcting that error.
Compiler is much more intelligent than the assembler. it checks all types of limits, ranges, errors, etc.
But when the compiler runs, then it uses a large part of the memory and the compiler works very slowly because it
checks the entire program first and then Translates into machine code (0’s and 1’s) or low-level language if there is no
error in the program.
Examples – C, C ++, Java Compilers |
Features of Compiler
 The compiler converts the program code written in high level language into machine language and then the program
runs on the computer.
 The compiler scans the entire program before translating the program into machine language and converts the program
to machine language only if there is no error.
 The compiler takes the entire source code as input.
 In the case of compiler, object code is generated.
 The compiler takes much less time in execution than the interpreter.
 Through compiler, the code written in the following programming language is converted into machine language -: C,
COBOL, C #, C ++, etc.
 The compiler requires much more memory than the interpreter.
 If there is any modification in the program, then the entire program has to be recompiled.
 Compiler is much faster than the Interpreter.
 After compiling the program, there is no need to compile it again and again.
 If an error occurs in the program, the compiler provides a list of errors after compiling the program.
 The compiler converts that program into machine code only after correcting the error.
 Debugging in the compiler is a bit slow because the compiler compiles the entire program first and then displays it when
there is an error.
What is Interpreter
Interpreter is a translator that translates and runs the entire statement of a program written in the High-Level Language.
The interpreter does not convert the entire program into machine code simultaneously. It will first convert a line of the
program to machine language and run or execute it. Then the second and second to third line of the program will be
converted into machine language.
This will work as long as there is no error in any of the lines of that program. If an error is found in any line of the
program, then the interpreter will not translate and run any further line when the line containing the error is not
corrected.
Interpreter is used to convert programs written in languages like Python, and Perl to machine language or binary
language.
Features of Interpreter
 The interpreter takes the source code which is written in the high-level language and first converts it into intermediate
code and then converts that intermediate code into machine language. This intermediate code is similar to the assembler
code.
 The interpreter takes the source code and converts it to line by line in machine code.
 The interpreter takes a single instruction as input and converts it into machine code.
 In the case of an interpreter, any kind of object code is not generated.
 The interpreter program takes longer to execute than the compiler.
 Interpreter is used to convert code written in the language of Python, Perl, VB, PostScript, LISP etc. into machine
language.
 Interpreter requires much less memory than the compiler.
 If there is any modification in the program in the interpreter, then the entire program does not have to be recompiled.
 The interpreter is much slower than the compiler.
 The interpreter has to scan and translate each time when executing of program.
 If an error occurs in any line of the program, then the interpreter stops its work and starts its work again only after that
error is corrected.
 The number of times the program executes, the interpreter translates the machine code by checking every line of the
program.
 Interpreter is good enough for fast debugging programs.
Friends, by this time you must have understood that what is assembler? what is compiler? , And what is an interpreter?
Let us now see what is the difference between assembler and compiler. What is the difference between an assembler and
an interpreter? And what is the difference between compiler and interpreter?
Difference Between Assembler And Compiler
#1. The main difference between assembler and compiler is that the assembler generates relocatable machine code while
the compiler generates assembly code and some compilers can also generate directly executable code.
#2. Assembler takes assembly code as input and compiler take preprocessed code generated by Preprocessor as input.
#3. Compilation takes place in two stages which are analysis phase and synthesis phase. In the analysis phase, input
goes through lexical analyzer, syntax analyzer, semantic analyzer, while synthesis analysis is through intermediate code
generator, code optimizer, code generator. On the other hand, the assembler takes the input in two steps. The first stage
detects the addresses and in the second phase the assembly code translates to binary code.
#4. The assembly code generated by the compiler is a mnemonic version of the machine code. However, the relocatable
machine code generated by the assembler is a binary relocatable code.
#5. Assembler converts assembly language code into machine language and Compiler converts code written in high
level language to machine language.
#6. Assembler does not convert all code into machine language in one go. Whereas the compiler converts the entire
code into machine language in one go.
#7. Assembler takes assembly level code as input, Compiler takes source code (code written in high level language) as
input.
#8. Assembler is intelligent whereas compiler is more intelligent than the assembler.
#9. Assembler is used for: GAS, GNU | The code written in the following languages is compiled through the compiler -:
C, C ++, Java, C #, etc.
#10. Following are the examples of assembler -: One pass assemblers, Load-and-go assemblers and Following are
examples of compilers. Cross-compiler, Bootstrap compiler, De-compiler, Source-to-source compiler
Difference between Assembler and Interpreter
#1. Assembler converts code taken in assembly language to machine language. Whereas the interpreter converts the
code taken in high level language into machine language.
#2. The program for the assembler is written for particular hardware, while the program for the interpreter is written for
particular language.
#3. The assembler translates the entire program before running, and the interpreter translates the program instructions
Line by Line.
#4. The assembler does not require much memory while the interpreter requires more memory.
#5. Assembler is used for: The code written in the following languages is intercepted via GAS, GNU and Interpreter are
used PHP, Python, Perl, Ruby. Etc.
Difference Between Compiler And Interpreter
#1. The compiler converts program code written in high level language into machine code and then executes it. Whereas
the interpreter converts the source code into intermediate code and then converts that intermediate code into machine
code.
#2. The compiler takes less time to execute. Whereas the interpreter takes longer for program execution than the
compiler.
#3. The compiler displays all the errors after compilation, on the other hand, the Interpreter displays the errors of each
line one by one.
#4. Compiler translation is based on the linking-loading model, while Interpreter is based on the interpretation method.
#5. The compiler takes the entire program while the Interpreter takes a line of code.
#6. In the case of compiler, object code is generated. In the case of the interpreter, no object code of any kind is
generated.
#7. The compiler needs more memory and the interpreter requires much less memory than the compiler.
#8. Debugging in the compiler is a bit slow and debugging in the interpreter is fast.
#9. The compiler is very fast. While the interpreter is much slower than the compiler.
#10. After compiling the program in the compiler, there is no need to compile it again and again. Whereas after
compiling the program in the interpreter, it needs to be compiled again and again.
In the compiler, if there is any modification in the program, then the entire program has to be recompiled. Whereas, if
there is any modification in the program in the interpreter, then the entire program does not have to be recompiled.
Through the compiler, the code written in the following programming language is converted into machine language -: C,
COBOL, C #, C ++, etc. Used the Interpreter to convert code written in machine language to Python, Perl, VB,
PostScript, LISP, etc.

Definition of Algorithm
The word Algorithm means ” A set of finite rules or instructions to be followed in calculations or other problem-
solving operations ”
Or
 ” A procedure for solving a mathematical problem in a finite number of steps that frequently involves recursive
operations”.
Therefore Algorithm refers to a sequence of finite steps to solve a particular problem.

Use of the Algorithms:

Algorithms play a crucial role in various fields and have many applications. Some of the key areas where algorithms
are used include:
1. Computer Science: Algorithms form the basis of computer programming and are used to solve problems ranging
from simple sorting and searching to complex tasks such as artificial intelligence and machine learning.
2. Mathematics: Algorithms are used to solve mathematical problems, such as finding the optimal solution to a
system of linear equations or finding the shortest path in a graph.
3. Operations Research: Algorithms are used to optimize and make decisions in fields such as transportation,
logistics, and resource allocation.
4. Artificial Intelligence: Algorithms are the foundation of artificial intelligence and machine learning, and are used
to develop intelligent systems that can perform tasks such as image recognition, natural language processing, and
decision-making.
5. Data Science: Algorithms are used to analyze, process, and extract insights from large amounts of data in fields
such as marketing, finance, and healthcare.
These are just a few examples of the many applications of algorithms. The use of algorithms is continually
expanding as new technologies and fields emerge, making it a vital component of modern society.
Algorithms can be simple and complex depending on what you want to achieve.
It can be understood by taking the example of cooking a new recipe. To cook a new recipe, one reads the
instructions and steps and executes them one by one, in the given sequence. The result thus obtained is the new dish
is cooked perfectly. Every time you use your phone, computer, laptop, or calculator you are using Algorithms.
Similarly, algorithms help to do a task in programming to get the expected output.
The Algorithm designed are language-independent, i.e. they are just plain instructions that can be implemented in
any language, and yet the output will be the same, as expected.
What is the need for algorithms?
1. Algorithms are necessary for solving complex problems efficiently and effectively.
2. They help to automate processes and make them more reliable, faster, and easier to perform.
3. Algorithms also enable computers to perform tasks that would be difficult or impossible for humans to do manually.
4. They are used in various fields such as mathematics, computer science, engineering, finance, and many others to
optimize processes, analyze data, make predictions, and provide solutions to problems.
What are the Characteristics of an Algorithm?
 As one would not follow any written instructions to cook the recipe, but only the standard one. Similarly, not all
written instructions for programming are an algorithm. For some instructions to be an algorithm, it must have the
following characteristics:
 Clear and Unambiguous: The algorithm should be unambiguous. Each of its steps should be clear in all aspects
and must lead to only one meaning.
 Well-Defined Inputs: If an algorithm says to take inputs, it should be well-defined inputs. It may or may not take
input.
 Well-Defined Outputs: The algorithm must clearly define what output will be yielded and it should be well-
defined as well. It should produce at least 1 output.
 Finite-ness: The algorithm must be finite, i.e. it should terminate after a finite time.
 Feasible: The algorithm must be simple, generic, and practical, such that it can be executed with the available
resources. It must not contain some future technology or anything.
 Language Independent: The Algorithm designed must be language-independent, i.e. it must be just plain
instructions that can be implemented in any language, and yet the output will be the same, as expected.
 Input: An algorithm has zero or more inputs. Each that contains a fundamental operator must accept zero or more
inputs.
 Output: An algorithm produces at least one output. Every instruction that contains a fundamental operator must
accept zero or more inputs.
 Definiteness: All instructions in an algorithm must be unambiguous, precise, and easy to interpret. By referring to
any of the instructions in an algorithm one can clearly understand what is to be done. Every fundamental operator in
instruction must be defined without any ambiguity.
 Effectiveness: An algorithm must be developed by using very basic, simple, and feasible operations so that one can
trace it out by using just paper and pencil.
Properties of Algorithm:
 It should terminate after a finite time.
 It should produce at least one output.
 It should take zero or more input.
 It should be deterministic means giving the same output for the same input case.
 Every step in the algorithm must be effective i.e. every step should do some work.
Types of Algorithms:
There are several types of algorithms available. Some important algorithms are:
1. Brute Force Algorithm :
It is the simplest approach to a problem. A brute force algorithm is the first approach that comes to finding when we
see a problem. A brute force approach is an approach that finds all the possible solutions to find a satisfactory
solution to a given problem. The brute force algorithm tries out all the possibilities till a satisfactory solution is not
found.
2. Recursive Algorithm:
A recursive algorithm is based on recursion. In this case, a problem is broken into several sub-parts and called the
same function again and again.
3. Backtracking Algorithm :
The backtracking algorithm builds the solution by searching among all possible solutions. Using this algorithm, we
keep on building the solution following criteria. Whenever a solution fails we trace back to the failure point build on
the next solution and continue this process till we find the solution or all possible solutions are looked after.
4. Searching Algorithm:
Searching algorithms are the ones that are used for searching elements or groups of elements from a particular data
structure. They can be of different types based on their approach or the data structure in which the element should
be found.
5. Sorting Algorithm:
Sorting is arranging a group of data in a particular manner according to the requirement. The algorithms which help
in performing this function are called sorting algorithms. Generally sorting algorithms are used to sort groups of
data in an increasing or decreasing manner.
6. Hashing Algorithm:
Hashing algorithms work similarly to the searching algorithm. But they contain an index with a key ID. In hashing,
a key is assigned to specific data.
7. Divide and Conquer Algorithm :
This algorithm breaks a problem into sub-problems, solves a single sub-problem, and merges the solutions to get the
final solution. It consists of the following three steps:
 Divide
 Solve
 Combine
8. Greedy Algorithm:
In this type of algorithm, the solution is built part by part. The solution for the next part is built based on the
immediate benefit of the next part. The one solution that gives the most benefit will be chosen as the solution for the
next part.
9. Dynamic Programming Algorithm :
This algorithm uses the concept of using the already found solution to avoid repetitive calculation of the same part
of the problem. It divides the problem into smaller overlapping subproblems and solves them.
10. Randomized Algorithm:
In the randomized algorithm, we use a random number so it gives immediate benefit. The random number helps in
deciding the expected outcome.

Advantages of Algorithms:
 It is easy to understand.
 An algorithm is a step-wise representation of a solution to a given problem.
 In an Algorithm the problem is broken down into smaller pieces or steps hence, it is easier for the programmer to
convert it into an actual program.
Disadvantages of Algorithms :
 Writing an algorithm takes a long time so it is time-consuming.
 Understanding complex logic through algorithms can be very difficult.
 Branching and Looping statements are difficult to show in Algorithms(imp).

How to Design an Algorithm?

To write an algorithm, the following things are needed as a pre-requisite:
1. The problem that is to be solved by this algorithm i.e. clear problem definition.
2. The constraints of the problem must be considered while solving the problem.
3. The input to be taken to solve the problem.
4. The output is to be expected when the problem is solved.
5. The solution to this problem is within the given constraints.
Then the algorithm is written with the help of the above parameters such that it solves the problem.

Example: Consider the example to add three numbers and print the sum.
Step 1: Fulfilling the pre-requisites
As discussed above, to write an algorithm, its prerequisites must be fulfilled.
1. The problem that is to be solved by this algorithm: Add 3 numbers and print their sum.
2. The constraints of the problem that must be considered while solving the problem: The numbers must contain
only digits and no other characters.
3. The input to be taken to solve the problem: The three numbers to be added.
4. The output to be expected when the problem is solved: The sum of the three numbers taken as the input i.e. a
single integer value.
5. The solution to this problem, in the given constraints: The solution consists of adding the 3 numbers. It can be
done with the help of the ‘+’ operator, or bit-wise, or any other method.
Step 2: Designing the algorithm
Now let’s design the algorithm with the help of the above pre-requisites:
Algorithm to add 3 numbers and print their sum:
1. START
2. Declare 3 integer variables num1, num2, and num3.
3. Take the three numbers, to be added, as inputs in variables num1, num2, and num3 respectively.
4. Declare an integer variable sum to store the resultant sum of the 3 numbers.
5. Add the 3 numbers and store the result in the variable sum.
6. Print the value of the variable sum
7. END
Flowcharts are nothing but the graphical representation of the data or the algorithm for a better understanding of the
code visually. It displays step-by-step solutions to a problem, algorithm, or process. It is a pictorial way of
representing steps that are preferred by most beginner-level programmers to understand algorithms of computer
science, thus it contributes to troubleshooting the issues in the algorithm. A flowchart is a picture of boxes that
indicates the process flow sequentially. Since a flowchart is a pictorial representation of a process or algorithm, it’s
easy to interpret and understand the process. To draw a flowchart, certain rules need to be followed which are
followed by all professionals to draw a flowchart and are widely accepted all over the countries.
What is FlowChart?
A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents a workflow or process. A flowchart can also be defined as a
diagrammatic representation of an algorithm, a step-by-step approach to solving a task.
Flowchart symbols
Different types of boxes are used to make flowcharts flowchart Symbols. All the different kinds of boxes are
connected by arrow lines. Arrow lines are used to display the flow of control. Let’s learn about each box in detail.
Symbol Name Symbol Representation

Terminal/Terminator

Process

Decision

Document

Data or Input/Output

Stored Data

Flow Arrow
 Uses of Flowcharts in Computer Programming/Algorithms
The following are the uses of a flowchart:
 It is a pictorial representation of an algorithm that increases the readability of the program.
 Complex programs can be drawn in a simple way using a flowchart.
 It helps team members get an insight into the process and use this knowledge to collect data, detect problems, develop
software, etc.
 A flowchart is a basic step for designing a new process or adding extra features.
 Communication with other people becomes easy by drawing flowcharts and sharing them.

When to Use Flowchart?

Flowcharts are mainly used in the below scenarios:

 It is most importantly used when programmers make projects. As a flowchart is a basic step to make the design of
projects pictorially, it is preferred by many.
 When the flowcharts of a process are drawn, the programmer understands the non-useful parts of the process. So
flowcharts are used to separate sound logic from the unwanted parts.
 Since the rules and procedures of drawing a flowchart are universal, a flowchart serves as a communication channel
to the people who are working on the same project for better understanding.
 Optimizing a process becomes easier with flowcharts. The efficiency of the code is improved with the flowchart
drawing.
Types of Flowcharts
Three types of flowcharts are listed below:
1. Process flowchart: This type of flowchart shows all the activities that are involved in making a product. It provides a
pathway to analyze the product to be built. A process flowchart is most commonly used in process engineering to
illustrate the relation between the major as well as minor components present in the product. It is used in business
product modeling to help understand employees about the project requirements and gain some insight into the project.
2. Data flowchart: As the name suggests, the data flowchart is used to analyze the data, specifically it helps in
analyzing the structural details related to the project. Using this flowchart, one can easily understand the data inflow
and outflow from the system. It is most commonly used to manage data or to analyze information to and fro from the
system.
3. Business Process Modeling Diagram: Using this flowchart or diagram, one can analytically represent the business
process and help simplify the concepts needed to understand business activities and the flow of information. This
flowchart illustrates the business process and models graphically which paves the way for process improvement.
Types of boxes used to make a flowchart
There are different types of boxes that are used to make flowcharts. All the different kinds of boxes are connected to
one another by arrow lines. Arrow lines are used to display the flow of control. Let’s learn about each box in detail.
1. Terminal

This box is of an oval shape which is used to indicate the start or end of the program. Every flowchart diagram has an
oval shape that depicts the start of an algorithm and another oval shape that depicts the end of an algorithm. For
example:
2. Data

This is a parallelogram-shaped box inside which the inputs or outputs are written. This basically depicts the
information that is entering the system or algorithm and the information that is leaving the system or algorithm. For
example: if the user wants to input a from the user and display it, the flowchart for this would be:

3. Process

This is a rectangular box inside which a programmer writes the main course of action of the algorithm or the main
logic of the program. This is the crux of the flowchart as the main processing codes is written inside this box. For
example: if the programmer wants to add 1 to the input given by the user, he/she would make the following
flowchart:
4. Decision

This is a rhombus-shaped box, control statements like if, condition like a > 0, etc are written inside this box. There
are 2 paths from this one which is “yes” and the other one is “no”. Every decision has either yes or no as an option,
similarly, this box has these as options. For example: if the user wants to add 1 to an even number and subtract 1 if
the number is odd, the flowchart would be:

5. Flow

This arrow line represents the flow of the algorithm or process. It represents the direction of the process flow. in all
the previous examples, we included arrows in every step to display the flow of the program. arrow increases the
readability of the program.
6. On-Page Reference

This circular figure is used to depict that the flowchart is in continuation with the further steps. This figure comes into
use when the space is less and the flowchart is long. Any numerical symbol is present inside this circle and that same
numerical symbol will be depicted before the continuation to make the user understand the continuation. Below is a
simple example depicting the use of On-Page Reference
 Advantages of Flowchart
 It is the most efficient way of communicating the logic of the system.
 It acts as a guide for a blueprint during the program design.
 It also helps in the debugging process.
 Using flowcharts we can easily analyze the programs.
 flowcharts are good for documentation.
Disadvantages of Flowchart
 Flowcharts are challenging to draw for large and complex programs.
 It does not contain the proper amount of details.
 Flowcharts are very difficult to reproduce.
 Flowcharts are very difficult to modify.
Solved Examples on FlowChart
Question 1. Draw a flowchart to find the greatest number among the 2 numbers.
Solution:
Algorithm:
1. Start
2. Input 2 variables from user
3. Now check the condition If a > b, goto step 4, else goto step 5.
4. Print a is greater, goto step 6
5. Print b is greater
6. Stop
FlowChart:

Question 2. Draw a flowchart to check whether the input number is odd or even
Solution:

Algorithm:
1. Start
2. Put input a
3. Now check the condition if a % 2 == 0, goto step 5. Else goto step 4
4. Now print(“number is odd”) and goto step 6
5. Print(“number is even”)
6. Stop
FlowChart:
 Pseudo code: is a term which is often used in programming and algorithm based fields. It is a methodology that
allows the programmer to represent the implementation of an algorithm. Simply, we can say that it’s the cooked up
representation of an algorithm. Pseudo codes as they can be interpreted by programmers no matter what their
programming background or knowledge is. Pseudo code, as the name suggests, is a false code or a representation of
code which can be understood by even a layman with some school level programming knowledge.

Advantages of Pseudocode
 Improves the readability of any approach. It’s one of the best approaches to start implementation of an algorithm.
 Acts as a bridge between the program and the algorithm or flowchart. Also works as a rough documentation, so the
program of one developer can be understood easily when a pseudo code is written out. In industries, the approach of
documentation is essential. And that’s where a pseudo-code proves vital.
 The main goal of a pseudo code is to explain what exactly each line of a program should do, hence making the code
construction phase easier for the programmer.
 Here are some rules for writing pseudocode:
 Statements: Write one statement per line
 Keywords: Capitalize initial keywords like "READ", "WRITE", "IF", "WHILE", and "UNTIL"
 Indentation: Indent to show hierarchy, improve readability, and show nested constructs
 Ending: End multiline structure using any of the END keywords like "ENDIF" or
"ENDWHILE"
 Language: Keep statements programming language independent
 Structures: Use standard programming structures like "if-then", "for", "while", and "cases"
 Avoid: Avoid the use of advanced C++ features like iterators, templates, and class
inheritance
 .

Difference between Algorithm and Pseudocode

Algorithm Pseudocode

It is defined as a sequence of well-defined steps. It can be

These steps provide a solution/ a way to solve a understood as one
problem in hand. of the methods
that helps in the
representation of
an algorithm.
It is a systematic, and a logical approach, where It is a simpler
the procedure is defined step-wise version of coding
in a programming
language.

algorithms are generally written in a natural pseudocode is

language or plain English language. written in a format
that is similar to
the structure of a
high-level
programming
language..

Plain text is used. Control structures

such as 'while', 'if-
thenelse', 'repeat-
until', and so on
can be used.

It is easy to debug. It is relatively

difficult to debug.

Its construction is tough. Its construction is

easy.

There are no rules to follow while constructing it. It has certain rules
to follow while
constructing it.

S. No Algorithm Flow Chart Pseudo Code

Sequence of
Pictorial instruction to
Sequence of instruction to solve the
1 Representation of solve the
Particular Problem
algorithm Particular
Problem

2 It’s pure English Language, it has no It has symbol to It’s a English

rules to write Represent the language But it
instruction has, some set of
 rules

Flow chart are Pseudo code are

tools document tools document
3 It’s not a tool for document purpose
and represent represent and
algorithm Algorithm

Pictorial Rules of
Sequence of instruction to solve the representation of structured
4
Particular Problem algorithm using design &
standard symbols. programming.