Domain Name System

✓ Domain Name System is an Internet service that translates domain names into IP
addresses.
✓ The DNS has a distributed database that resides on multiple machines on the Internet.
✓ DNS has some protocols that allow the client and servers to communicate with each other.

Name space

✓ The names assigned to the machines must be carefully selected from a name space with
complete control over the binding between the names and IP addresses.
✓ There are two types of name spaces: Flat name spaces and Hierarchical names.

Flat name spaces

✓ In a flat name space, a name is a sequence of characters without structure.

✓ A name in this space is assigned to an address.
✓ The names were convenient and short.
✓ A flat name space cannot be used in a large system such as the internet because it must be
centrally controlled to avoid ambiguity and duplication.

Hierarchical Name Space

✓ In hierarchical name space, each name consists of several parts.

✓ First part defines the nature of the organization, second part defines the name of an
organization, third part defines department of the organization, and so on.
✓ In hierarchical name space, the authority to assign and control the name spaces can be
decentralized.
✓ Authority for names in each partition is passed to each designated agent.
 DNS in the Internet

• DNS is a protocol that can be used in different platform.

• Domain Name Space is divided into different sections in the Internet: Generic domain,
country domain and inverse domain.

1) Generic Domains

The generic domains define registered hosts according to their generic behavior.

2) Country Domains

✓ Country domain uses two character country abbreviations.

✓ Second labels can be more specific, national designation.
✓ For example, for Australia the country domain is “au”, Inida is .in, UK is .uk etc.

3) Inverse Domains

• Inverse domain is used to map an address to a name.

• For example, a client send a request to the server for performing a particular task, server
finds a list of authorized client. The list contains only IP addresses of the client.
• The server sends a query to the DNS server to map an address to a name to determine if
the client is on the authorized list.
• This query is called an inverse query.
• This query is handled by first level node called arpa.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

If an organization has 1000 of devices then to check all devices, one by one every day, are
working properly or not is a hectic task. To ease these up, Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP) is used.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) –

1 .SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol.

2. SNMP is an application layer protocol which uses UDP (Connectionless) port number
161/162

3. SNMP is a framework used for managing devices on the internet.

4. It provides a set of operations for monitoring and managing the internet.

SNMP Concept

o SNMP has two components Manager and agent MIB.

o The manager is a host that controls and monitors a set of agents such as routers.
o It is an application layer protocol in which a few manager stations can handle a set of
agents.
o It is used in a heterogeneous (Different) network made of different LANs and WANs
connected by routers or gateways.

SNMP components –
There are 3 components of SNMP:
1. SNMP Manager –
It is a centralised system used to monitor network. It is also known as Network
Management Station (NMS)
2. SNMP agent –
It is a software management software module installed on a managed device. Managed
devices can be network devices like router, switches, servers etc.
3. Management Information Base –
MIB consists of information of resources that are to be managed. These information is
organised hierarchically. It consists of objects instances which are essentially variables.

SNMP messages –
Different variables are:
1. GetRequest –
SNMP manager sends this message to request data from SNMP agent. It is simply used
to retrieve data from SNMP agent. In response to this, SNMP agent responds with
requested value through response message.
2. GetNextRequest –
This message can be sent to discover what data is available on a SNMP agent. The
SNMP manager can request for data continuously until no more data is left. In this way,
SNMP manager can take knowledge of all the available data on SNMP agent.
3. GetBulkRequest –
This message is used to retrieve large data at once by the SNMP manager from SNMP
agent.
4. SetRequest –
It is used by SNMP manager to set the value of an object instance on the SNMP agent.
5. Response –
It is a message send from agent upon a request from manager. When sent in response to
Get messages, it will contain the data requested. When sent in response to Set message,
it will contain the newly set value as confirmation that the value has been set.
6. Trap –
These are the message send by the agent without being requested by the manager. It is
sent when a fault has occurred.
7. InformRequest –
It was introduced in SNMPv2, used to identify if the trap message has been received by
the manager or not.
SNMP security levels –
It defines the type of security algorithm performed on SNMP packets. These are used in
only SNMPv3.
There are 3 security levels namely:
1. noAuthNoPriv- –
This (no authentication, no privacy) security level uses community string for no
authentication and no encryption for privacy.
2. authNopriv –
This security level (authentication, no privacy) uses HMAC (Hashing for
Message Authentication code) with Md5 (Message Digest Algorithm 5) for authentication
and no encryption is used for privacy.
3. authPriv –
This security level (authentication, privacy) uses HMAC with Md5 or SHA
(Secure Hash Algorithm) for authentication and encryption uses DES-56(Data Encryption
Standard) algorithm.

SNMP versions –
There are 3 versions of SNMP:
1. SNMPv1 –
It uses community strings for authentication and use UDP only.
2. SNMPv2–
It uses community strings for authentication. It uses UDP but can be configured to use
TCP.
3. SNMPv3 –
It uses Hash based MAC with MD5 or SHA for authentication and DES-56 for privacy.
This version uses TCP. Therefore, conclusion is the higher the version of SNMP, more
secure it will be.
Electronic Mail

Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of most widely used services of Internet. This service
allows an Internet user to send a message in formatted manner (mail) to the other
Internet user in any part of world.

Components of E-Mail System :

The basic components of an email system are : User Agent (UA), Message Transfer Agent
(MTA), Mail Box, and Spool file. These are explained as following below.
1. User Agent (UA) :
The UA is normally a program which is used to send and receive mail. Sometimes, it
is called as mail reader. It accepts variety of commands for composing, receiving and
replying to messages as well as for manipulation of the mailboxes.

2. Message Transfer Agent (MTA) :

MTA is actually responsible for transfer of mail from one system to another. To send
a mail, a system must have client MTA and system MTA. It transfer mail to mailboxes
of recipients if they are connected in the same machine. It delivers mail to peer MTA
if destination mailbox is in another machine. The delivery from one MTA to another
MTA is done by Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.

1. Mailbox :
It is a file on local hard drive to collect mails. Delivered mails are present in this file. The
user can read it delete it according to his/her requirement. To use e-mail system each
user must have a mailbox . Access to mailbox is only to owner of mailbox.

2. Spool file :
This file contains mails that are to be sent. User agent appends outgoing mails in this
file using SMTP. MTA extracts pending mail from spool file for their delivery. E-mail
allows one name, an alias, to represent several different e-mail addresses. It is known
as mailing list, Whenever user have to sent a message, system checks recipients’s name
 against alias database. If mailing list is present for defined alias, separate messages, one
for each entry in the list, must be prepared and handed to MTA. If for defined alias,
there is no such mailing list is present, name itself becomes naming address and a single
message is delivered to mail transfer entity.

Services provided by E-mail system:

• Composition –
The composition refer to process that creates messages and answers. For composition
any kind of text editor can be used.
• Transfer –
Transfer means sending procedure of mail i.e. from the sender to recipient.
• Reporting –
Reporting refers to confirmation for delivery of mail. It help user to check whether their
mail is delivered, lost or rejected.
• Displaying –
It refers to present mail in form that is understand by the user.
• Disposition –
This step concern with recipient that what will recipient do after receiving mail i.e. save
mail, delete before reading or delete after reading.

E-Mail Format

Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of the most widely used services of the Internet. This service
allows an Internet user to send a message in a formatted manner (mail) to other Internet
users in any part of the world. Message in the mail not only contain text, but it also contains
images, audio and videos data. The person who is sending mail is called sender and person
who receives mail is called the recipient. It is just like postal mail service.
Format of E-mail :
An e-mail consists of three parts that are as follows :
1. Envelope
2. Header
3. Body
These are explained as following below.
1. Envelope :
The envelope part encapsulates the message. It contains all information that is required for
sending any e-mail such as destination address, priority and security level. The envelope is
used by MTAs for routing message.

2. Header :
The header consists of a series of lines. Each header field consists of a single line of ASCII
text specifying field name, colon and value. The main header fields related to message
transport are :
1. To: It specifies the DNS address of the primary recipient(s).
2. Cc : It refers to carbon copy. It specifies address of secondary recipient(s).
3. BCC: It refers to blind carbon copy. It is very similar to Cc. The only difference between
Cc and Bcc is that it allow user to send copy to the third party without primary and
secondary recipient knowing about this.
4. From : It specifies name of person who wrote message.
5. Sender : It specifies e-mail address of person who has sent message.
6. Received : It refers to identity of sender’s, data and also time message was received. It
also contains the information which is used to find bugs in routing system.
7. Return-Path: It is added by the message transfer agent. This part is used to specify how
to get back to the sender.

3. Body:- The body of a message contains text that is the actual content/message that needs
to be sent, such as “Employees who are eligible for the new health care program should
contact their supervisors by next Friday if they want to switch.” The message body also
may include signatures or automatically generated text that is inserted by the sender’s
email system.
The above-discussed field is represented in tabular form as follows :

Advantages and Disadvantages of E-mail

1. E-mails provides faster and easy mean of communication. One can send message to
any person at any place of world by just clicking mouse.
2. Various folders and sub-folders can be created within inbox of mail, so it provide
management of messages.
3. It is effective and cheap means of communication because single message can be send
to multiple people at same time.
4. E-mails are very easy to filter. User according to his/her priority can prioritize e -mail
by specifying subject of e-mail.
5. E-mail is not just only for textual message. One can send any kind of multimedia
within mail.
Disadvantages of E-mail :

1. It is source of viruses. It is capable to harm one’s computer and read out user’s e -mail
address book and send themselves to number of people around the world.
2. It can be source of various spams. These spam mails can fill up inbox and to deletion
of these mail consumes lot of time.
3. It is informal method of communication. The documents those require signatures are
not managed by e-mail.

Difference table between IMAP and POP3

Feature IMAP POP3

Stands for IMAP stands for Internet Message It stands for Post Office Protocol 3.
Access Protocol.

Used for IMAP is an advanced protocol that POP is a simple protocol compared
allows a user to check all the folders to IMAP and used only for
on the mail server and is used to downloading the messages from our
retrieve the mails. inbox to the local computer.

Port number It listens on port number 143, and It listens on port number 110, and
IMAPDS(IMAP with SSL) Listens on POP3DS(POP3 with SSL) listens on
port 993. port 995.

Accessibility Using IMAP, the messages can be Using POP3, mail can only be
accessed using different devices. accessed using a single device at a
time.

Readability We can partially read the message We can only read the message once it
before finishing the download. is downloaded.

Change In IMAP, a mail can be updated In POP3, mail can be updated using
using email software or a web the local email software.
interface.

Update IMAP allows the user to create, POP3 does not allow the user to
delete, or update the mailboxes on create, delete, or update the
 the mail server and also allows to mailboxes on the mail server.
create a hierarchy of mailboxes in the
folder.

Mail It allows the user to organize the It does not allow to organize the
organization mails on the server. mails on the server.

Download In IMAP, the message header is Using POP3, all the messages can be
previewed before downloading a downloaded at once.
message.

Email Emails are stored on a single device Emails are stored on the server and
storage once they are downloaded and synced & can be accessed using
removed from the server. multiple devices.

WEB

The World Wide Web abbreviated as WWW and commonly known as the web. The
WWW was initiated by CERN (European library for Nuclear Research) in 1989.

History:

It is a project created, by Timothy Berner’s Lee in 1989, for researchers to work together
effectively at CERN. is an organization, named World Wide Web Consortium (W3C),
which was developed for further development in the web.

Components of Web: There are 3 components of web:

1. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as system for resources on web.

2. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies communication of browser and
server.
3. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): defines structure, organisation and content
of webpage.

Architecture of WWW

The WWW is mainly a distributed client/server service where a client using the browser
can access the service using a server. The Service that is provided is distributed over many
different locations commonly known as sites/websites.
 • Each website holds one or more documents that are generally referred to as web
pages.
• Where each web page contains a link to other pages on the same site or at other sites.
• These pages can be retrieved and viewed by using browsers.

In the above case, the client sends some information that belongs to site A. It generally
sends a request through its browser (It is a program that is used to fetch the documents on
the web) and also the request generally contains other information like the address of the
site, web page(URL).

The server at site A finds the document then sends it to the client. after that when the user
or say the client finds the reference to another document that includes the web page at site
B.

The reference generally contains the URL of site B. And the client is interested to take a look
at this document too. Then after the client sends the request to the new site and then the
new page is retrieved.

Now we will cover the components of WWW in detail.

1.Client/Browser

The Client/Web browser is basically a program that is used to communicate with the
webserver on the Internet.

• Each browser mainly comprises of three components and these are:

o Controller
o Interpreter
o Client Protocols
• The Controller mainly receives the input from the input device, after that it uses the
client programs in order to access the documents.
• After accessing the document, the controller makes use of an interpreter in order to
display the document on the screen.
• An interpreter can be Java, HTML, javascript mainly depending upon the type of the
document.
• The Client protocol can be FTP, HTTP, TELNET.
2.Server

The Computer that is mainly available for the network resources and in order to provide
services to the other computer upon request is generally known as the server.

• The Web pages are mainly stored on the server.

• Whenever the request of the client arrives then the corresponding document is sent
to the client.
• The connection between the client and the server is TCP.
• It can become more efficient through multithreading or multiprocessing. Because in
this case, the server can answer more than one request at a time.

3.URL

URL is an abbreviation of the Uniform resource locator.

• It is basically a standard used for specifying any kind of information on the Internet.
• In order to access any page the client generally needs an address.
• To facilitate the access of the documents throughout the world HTTP generally
makes use of Locators.

URL mainly defines the four things:

• Protocol It is a client/server program that is mainly used to retrieve the document. A

commonly used protocol is HTTP.
• Host Computer It is the computer on which the information is located. It is not
mandatory because it is the name given to any computer that hosts the web page.
• Port The URL can optionally contain the port number of the server. If the port
number is included then it is generally inserted in between the host and path and is
generally separated from the host by the colon.
• Path It indicates the pathname of the file where the information is located.
4.HTML

HTML is an abbreviation of Hypertext Markup Language.

• It is generally used for creating web pages.

• It is mainly used to define the contents, structure, and organization of the web page.

5.XML

XML is an abbreviation of Extensible Markup Language. It mainly helps in order to define

the common syntax in the semantic web.

Features of WWW

Given below are some of the features provided by the World Wide Web:

• Provides a system for Hypertext information

• Open standards and Open source
• Distributed.
• Mainly makes the use of Web Browser in order to provide a single interface for
many services.
• Dynamic
• Interactive
• Cross-Platform

Advantages of WWW

Given below are the benefits offered by WWW:

• It mainly provides all the information for Free.

• Provides rapid Interactive way of Communication.
• It is accessible from anywhere.
• It has become the Global source of media.
• It mainly facilitates the exchange of a huge volume of data.

Disadvantages of WWW

There are some drawbacks of the WWW and these are as follows;

• It is difficult to prioritize and filter some information.

 • There is no guarantee of finding what one person is looking for.
• There occurs some danger in case of overload of Information.
• There is no quality control over the available data.
• There is no regulation.

HTTP

o HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.

o It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
o The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text,
hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
o This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its efficiency
that allows us to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps
from one document to another document.
o HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to another
host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one connection, i.e., no
control connection to transfer the files.

Features of HTTP:
o Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP client initiates
a request and waits for a response from the server. When the server receives the
request, the server processes the request and sends back the response to the
HTTP client after which the client disconnects the connection. The connection
between client and server exist only during the current request and response time
only.
o Media independent: HTTP protocol is a media independent as data can be sent
as long as both the client and server know how to handle the data content. It is
 required for both the client and server to specify the content type in MIME-type
header.
o Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know each
other only during the current request. Due to this nature of the protocol, both the
client and server do not retain the information between various requests of the
web pages.

HTTP Transactions

Messages
HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both the message types follow
the same message format.

Request Message: The request message is sent by the client that consists of a request
line, headers, and sometimes a body.
Response Message: The response message is sent by the server to the client that
consists of a status line, headers, and sometimes a body.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

o A client that wants to access the document in an internet needs an address and to
facilitate the access of documents, the HTTP uses the concept of Uniform
Resource Locator (URL).
o The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard way of specifying any kind of
information on the internet.
o The URL defines four parts: method, host computer, port, and path.
o Method: The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document from a
server. For example, HTTP.
o Host: The host is the computer where the information is stored, and the
computer is given an alias name. Web pages are mainly stored in the computers
and the computers are given an alias name that begins with the characters
"www". This field is not mandatory.
o Port: The URL can also contain the port number of the server, but it's an optional
field. If the port number is included, then it must come between the host and
path and it should be separated from the host by a colon.
o Path: Path is the pathname of the file where the information is stored. The path
itself contain slashes that separate the directories from the subdirectories and
files.

Streaming audio and video

Streaming media is video or audio content sent in compressed form over the
Internet and played immediately, rather than being saved to the hard drive.

We can divide audio and video services into three broad categories: streaming
stored audio/video, streaming live audio/video, and interactive audio/video.
Streaming means a user can listen (or watch) the file after the downloading has

started.

In the first category, streaming stored audio/video, the files are compressed and
stored on a server. A client downloads the files through the Internet. This is
sometimes referred to as on-demand audio/video.

In the second category, streaming live audio/video refers to the broadcasting of

radio and TV programs through the Internet.

In the third category, interactive audio/video refers to the use of the Internet for
interactive audio/video applications. A good example of this application is Internet
telephony and Internet teleconferencing.
 1. STREAMING STORED AUDIO/VIDEO
Downloading these types of files from a server can be different from downloading
other types of files.
This is the class of application which allows the client to request for compressed
audio or video files which are stored on the server. This application has three
distinguishing factors follows:
I. Stored Media: The Multimedia content has been prerecorded and stored at the
server. So , it is possible for the user to make following operations on the stored
contents.
Pause
Rerwind
Fastworward
Index through
II. Streaming: In a streaming stored audio/video applications ,a client starts playout
of the audio/video a few seconds after receiving the file from the server.
III. Continuous playout: Once the playout of the Multimedia content begins, it is
necessary to proceed as per the original timings of recording. The requirement puts
critical delay constraints on the data delivery.

Downloading these types of files from a server can be different from downloading
other types of files.

First Approach: Using a Web Server

A compressed audio/video file can be downloaded as a text file. The client (browser)
can use the services of HTTP and send a GET message to download the file. The Web
server can send the compressed file to the browser. The browser can then use a help
application, normally called a media player, to play the file. The file needs to

download completely before it can be played.

Second Approach: Using a Web Server with Metafile
In another approach, the media player is directly connected to the Web server for
downloading the audio/video file. The Web server stores two files: the actual
audio/video file and a metafile that holds information about the audio/video file.
 1. The HTTP client accesses the Web server using the GET message.
2. The information about the metafile comes in the response.
3. The metafile is passed to the media player.
4. The media player uses the URL in the metafile to access the audio/video file.
5. The Web server responds.

Third Approach: Using a Media Server

The problem with the second approach is that the browser and the media player
both use the services of HTTP. HTTP is designed to run over TCP. This is
appropriate for retrieving the metafile, but not for retrieving the audio/video file. The
reason is that TCP retransmits a lost or damaged segment, which is counter to the
philosophy of streaming. We need to dismiss TCP and its error control; we need to
use UDP. However, HTTP, which accesses the Web server, and the Web server itself
are designed for TCP; we need another server, a media server.

1. The HTTP client accesses the Web server using a GET message.
2. The information about the metafile comes in the response.
 3. The metafile is passed to the media player.
4. The media player uses the URL in the metafile to access the media server to
download the file.Downloading can take place by any protocol that uses UDP.
5. The media server responds.

Fourth Approach: Using a Media Server and RTSP

The Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) is a control protocol designed to add more
functionalities to the streaming process. Using RTSP, we can control the playing of
audio/video. Figure 5 shows a media server and RTSP.

1. The HTTP client accesses the Web server using a GET message.
2. The information about the metafile comes in the response.
3. The metafile is passed to the media player.
4. The media player sends a SETUP message to create a connection with the
media server.
5. The media server responds.
6. The media player sends a PLAY message to start playing (downloading).
7. The audio/video file is downloaded using another protocol that runs over
UDP.
8. The connection is broken using the TEARDOWN message.
9. The media server responds.

2. STREAMING LIVE AUDIO/VIDEO

Streaming live audio/video is similar to the broadcasting of audio and video by radio
and TV stations. Instead of broadcasting to the air, the stations broadcast through the
Internet. There are several similarities between streaming stored audio/video and
streaming live audio/video. They are both sensitive to delay; neither can accept
retransmission. However, there is a difference. In the first application, the
communication is unicast and on-demand. In the second, the communication is
multicast and live. Live streaming is better suited to the multicast services of IP and
the use of protocols such as UDP and RTP.
 Examples: Internet Radio, Internet Television (ITV), Internet protocol television
(IPTV)

3. REAL-TIME INTERACTIVE AUDIO/VIDEO

In real-time interactive audio/video, people communicate with one another in real
time. The Internet phone or voice over IP is an example of this type of application.
Video conferencing is another example that allows people to communicate visually
and orally.
Before discussing the protocols used in this class of applications, we discuss some
characteristics of real-time audio/video communication.

• Time Relationship
Real-time data on a packet-switched network require the preservation of the time
relationship between packets of a session.

But what happens if the packets arrive with different delays? For example, the first
packet arrives at 00:00:01 (1-s delay), the second arrives at 00:00:15 (5-s delay), and the
third arrives at 00:00:27 (7-s delay). If the receiver starts playing the first packet at
00:00:01, it will finish at 00:00:11. However, the next packet has not yet arrived; it
arrives 4 s later. There is a gap between the first and second packets and between the
second and the third as the video is viewed at the remote site. This phenomenon is
called jitter. Jitter is introduced in real-time

Data by the delay between packets.

 • Timestamp
One solution to jitter is the use of a timestamp. If each packet has a timestamp that
shows the time it was produced relative to the first (or previous) packet, then the
receiver can add this time to the time at which it starts the playback. Imagine the
first packet in the previous example has a timestamp of 0, the second has a timestamp
of 10, and the third a timestamp of 20. If the receiver starts playing back the first
packet at 00:00:08, the second will be played at 00:00:18, and the third at 00:00:28.
There are no gaps between the packets.