ASM Handbook, Volume 12, Fractography Copyright # 2024 ASM InternationalW

C.J. Schroeder, R.J. Parrington, J.O. Maciejewski, J.F. Lane, editors All rights reserved
https://doi.org/10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0006843 www.asminternational.org

Microscale Fracture Surface

Morphologies*
M. Budinski and E. Mueller, National Transportation Safety Board

WHEN STRUCTURES or components fail lenses, digital microscopes (5 to 200
magnifi- on microscope observations. The key micro-
by fracture, analysis of the new surfaces result- cation), and low-magnification scanning elec- scopic features of fracture surfaces are described
ing from fracture can be used to understand their tron microscopes (<200
). Many microscopes and illustrated for the important types of fracture
root cause. One of the most important sources of allow scanning of the fracture surface to create mechanisms.
information relating to the cause of mechanical a montage image assembled from numerous
failures is the fracture surface itself. A fracture adjacent images.
surface is a detailed record of the failure history Imaging microscopic features of the fracture Introduction to Microfractography
of the part (Ref 1, 2). It contains evidence of surface (microfractography) provides more
the loading history, environmental effects, and mechanistic information about the nature or Early research on the fracture of metallic
material quality. Fracture surfaces may be evalu- mode of the fracture. Most of the mechanisms materials focused on the fracture of monocrys-
ated at the macroscopic level (imaging up to proposed to explain the various microscopic talline samples. In such studies, the specimens
200
) and the microscopic level. (microscale) features of fracture are often either fractured along a specific (and appropri-
Macrofractography focuses on large-scale based on dislocation generation and interac- ately aligned) crystallographic plane or cleaved
fracture features. As treated in the article “Mac- tion, involving complex slip and crystallo- through the crystal. Classic studies demon-
roscale Fracture Appearance” in this Volume, graphic relationships. The discussion of strated that in uniaxial tension, deformation
the macroscopic fracture features can reveal sub- mechanisms in this article does not include occurred discretely along crystallographic planes.
stantial information about the fracture process, detailed dislocation models or their treatment However, most engineering metals and alloys
including the fracture origin as well as the direc- with complex mathematical models, but this are polycrystalline in nature. Fracture in
tion of crack propagation and thus the failure article does present the mechanisms in more wrought polycrystalline engineering alloys
mode of the component (Ref 3). Typically, general terms in order to impart a practical can occur by a transgranular (through the
macrofractographic documentation is performed understanding as well as an ability to identify grains) or an intergranular (along the grain
using cameras with macro or macro-zoom the basic fracture mechanisms correctly based boundaries) fracture path (Fig. 1). There also

Fig. 1 A crack can propagate through wrought polycrystalline engineering alloys by a transcrystalline (through the grains) or an intercrystalline (along the grain boundaries)
fracture path. (a) Equiaxed polycrystalline grain structure. (b) Transcrystalline fracture through an equiaxed polycrystalline grain structure (transgranular).
(c) Intercrystalline fracture through an equiaxed polycrystalline grain structure (intergranular). (d) Intercrystalline (intergranular) fracture through an equiaxed polycrystalline
grain structure with grain-boundary segregation (indicated as shaded region along grain boundaries). (e) Intercrystalline fracture through a polycrystalline material with flat,
elongated grains

*In accordance with Title 5 Code of Federal Regulations Section §2635.807(b)(2), the views expressed in this article do not necessarily represent the views of the National Transportation
Safety Board or the United States.

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 94 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

are essentially four principal microscopic Cleaning of the fracture surfaces is a key product layers, while retaining the stripped layers
mechanisms of crack initiation and growth in step in microfractography of fractured compo- within the cellulose triacetate films. Hence, dur-
metallic materials (Table 1). Three of the nents, which are often corroded or contaminated. ing a microfractographic evaluation, cleaning
mechanisms occur with transgranular cracking, Often performed after suitable documentation of and microimaging are performed in an iterative
while fatigue or intergranular decohesion are the fracture surface in the as-received condi- manner. Sometimes, the key fractographic
associated with cracking along grain bound- tion, sequential cleaning and microimaging of features of interest are revealed within the cor-
aries. Each of these modes has a characteristic the fracture surface is performed. This work rosion product layers. If the corrosion product
fracture-surface appearance and a mechanism is slow and methodical because, as contamina- was completely stripped, these key fracture
or mechanisms by which the fracture propa- tion and corrosion products are removed, new features would be lost (Ref 6–9).
gates for a given metallic alloy and the envi- information is revealed, while irreversible Throughout this article, the stresses at the
ronmental and loading scenario under which changes in the sample ensue. One technique crack tip are referred to in the traditional frac-
the fracture occurred. It also is noted that the is to use cellulose triacetate replicas to “peel ture mechanics terminology (Ref 10, 11), as
fracture features in as-cast metals may not be off” layers of contamination and loose corrosion indicated in Fig. 2 and Table 2. As a practice,
as clearly delineated or interpreted compared
with wrought polycrystalline metals.
Typically, microfractography is performed y y
using various types of scanning electron micro- F
scopes (SEMs) (Ref 4), transmission electron
microscopes (using carbon-shadowed replicas),
and other high-resolution instruments such as
atomic force microscopes. In all practicality,
x x
most fractography is performed with SEMs F
(tungsten, LaB6, or field-emission gun fila-
ments). In some instances, such as documenting
high-cycle fatigue fracture, features as small as
10 to 100 nm may need to be imaged (typically
requiring a field-emission SEM and careful sam- z z
ple preparation and cleaning). F
For most industrially significant fractures,
F
the fracture surface or portions of the fracture
surface must be removed or excised from the
Mode I Mode II
fractured component to render it small enough
Crack opening In-plane
- shear
to fit in the electron microscope chamber. In
some instances, cellulose triacetate replicas or (a) (b)
silicone replicating compounds are used to col-
lect an inverse copy of the fracture area of y
interest rather than excising a fracture sample F
from the component. For example, in emer- y
gency situations, such as aircraft safety-of-
flight investigations, a replica of the fracture
is often acquired from the component, so that F
microfractography on the replica can be con- x
ducted in parallel with other work, such as x
three-dimensional analysis of the component.
The reader is referred to the literature for such
methods (Ref 5).
z
F z
Table 1 Microscale fracture mechanisms
in polycrystalline metals
Crack path at Fracture mechanism (fracture F
microstructural level micromode)

Transcrystalline, 1. Microvoid coalescence

Mode III
transgranular (dimpled rupture) Mode uniaxial tension
Out-of-plane shear
(through the grains) 2. Cleavage
Tearing
3. Fatigue
(c) (d)
Intercrystalline, 1. Intergranular decohesion
intergranular (along 2. Fatigue cracking Fig. 2 Fundamental modes of crack displacement under mechanical loading in structural components. The strain
the grain boundaries in the examples is distorted for demonstrative purposes.

Table 2 Modes of loading to fracture

Loading mode Nomenclature Loading direction Crack displacement

Mode I Opening (tensile mode) Normal stress Perpendicular to the plane of the crack
Mode II Sliding (in-plane shear mode) Shear stress in the plane of the crack In the plane of the crack perpendicular to the crack leading edge
Mode III Tearing (antiplane shear mode) Shear stress out of the plane of the crack In the plane of the crack parallel to the crack leading edge
Uniaxial tension Tension Uniaxial tension Perpendicular to the plane of the crack

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 Microscale Fracture Surface Morphologies / 95

when documenting the direction of loading and

the displacement of cracks, the fracture
mechanics loading modal terminology is
sometimes employed.

Microfractography in Stress
Modeling

Often a stress model, such as a finite-

element model, is created from the fractured
component to further understand the state of
stress in the region of the fracture. The mode
of fracture and the direction of crack propaga-
tion along the fracture path as determined by
fractographic analysis can be useful in building
and validating the stress model and selecting
appropriate material models. Microfractogra-
phy is often used to fully map the local crack
direction along the crack path, particularly
when macroscopic fracture features are incon-
clusive or nonindicative.
Additionally, with modeling such as atomistic-
scale molecular dynamics simulations portrayed
in cohesive zone models, microfractography can
provide useful data when creating the model.
This is similarly the case for continuum mechanics
methods based on integro-differential equations
such as peridynamics used for problems with sin-
gularities such as cracks (Ref 12, 13).
Fracture-surface mapping for fracture mi-
cromode and crack propagation direction can
help analysts to understand the overall fracture
process involving the contributions of the
material and its processing. In the example
shown in Fig. 3 (Ref 14), an austenitic stain-
less steel fuel line for a helicopter turbine
engine fractured due to reverse-bending
fatigue cracking associated with unanticipated
vibrational stresses. Macro- and microfracto-
graphy confirmed the mechanism of fracture
and the location of the fatigue crack initiation
sites (approximately 180 opposed). Micro-
fractography along the crack paths identified
the direction of crack propagation, the num-
ber of stress cycles for the fracture to pene-
trate the wall thickness, and the location of
the final overstress fractures. A finite-element
stress model confirmed that the initiation and
propagation were consistent with high-cycle
fatigue under reverse bending, while no static
loads due to assembly had been present.
In another example, a train carrying grain
derailed when an axle on one of the cars frac-
tured. Cars in this derailment fouled an adja-
cent railroad track, causing a second derailment
of a unit crude oil train traveling in the oppo-
site direction. The axle fractured at a large
metallurgical void along the central axis, as
shown in Fig. 4 (Ref 15–17). Although the
fracture surface of the axle was battered over
80% of the surface, macro- and microfracto-
graphy confirmed that a number of fatigue
cracks had developed along the surface of the
internal void and propagated toward the out- Fig. 3 Fractured helicopter turbine engine fuel line tube. Fracture features are consistent with initiation and
side surface of the axle. Microfractography propagation of two cracks about 180 apart, consistent with high cycle fatigue under bilateral alternating
confirmed the fatigue fracture mode and the bending mode. Variation in the striation spacing is consistent with fatigue crack propagation under spectrum
loading conditions. The tube is fabricated from AFNOR Z10CNT18-11 (similar to type 321 stainless steel).
direction of fatigue crack propagation and also Secondary electron SEM fractographs of the tube showing: (a) annotated fracture surface, original magnification:
identified the boundary between the fatigue 12
; (b) finite element model depicting stress; (c, d) close views of the two origin regions, original magnification:
fracture region and the final overstress fracture 29
; and higher magnification of the origin regions, (e) original magnification: 300
, (f) original magnification: 500

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 96 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

region. A finite-element stress model also con- changes in loading events, and the direction increased to the point that the component breaks,
firmed that a stress concentration created by of crack propagation. See also the section this mechanical scenario is referred to as mono-
geometric features of the void was sufficient “Transcrystalline Fracture: Fatigue” in this tonically increasing load to fracture (monotonic
to develop fatigue cracks at the void surface. article and the article “Quantitative Fractogra- ductile rupture process or monotonic fracture).
The fuel line and train axle examples dem- phy Applications for Fatigue Fracture Sur- In the field of failure analysis, such a macro-
onstrate how fractography, in conjunction with faces” in this Volume. scopic fracture mode is referred to as overload
stress modeling, can create a complete picture or overstress or monotonic fracture.
of the fracture process to support the develop- In overload fracture (in modes I, II, and III,
ment of a root cause of the failure. Another Transcrystalline Fracture— see Fig. 2), polycrystalline materials typically
important application of microfractography is Microvoid Coalescence fracture by microvoid coalescence (MVC),
the measurement of fractographic features on cleavage, or intergranular decohesion (when
fatigue crack surfaces to estimate fracture pro- If a component is mechanically loaded in a creep processes are not activated). When over-
cess, such as rate of fatigue crack growth, manner whereby the applied force is progressively load is the principal cause of fracture, most
common structural alloys fail by MVC. These
microvoids nucleate at regions of localized
strain discontinuity, such as those associated
with second-phase or constituent particles,
inclusions, grain boundaries, and dislocation
pileups and locks. As the strain in the material
increases, the microvoids grow, coalesce, and
eventually form a continuous fracture surface,
as depicted in Fig. 5. This type of fracture
exhibits numerous cuplike depressions that
are the direct result of the growing microvoids

Fig. 4 Fractured portion of a train axle. (a) Macroscopic image of the fracture surface with central void. (b) Digital
microscope image of a portion of the origin region. (c) Secondary electron SEM fractograph of fatigue
striations near the origin region. (d) Digital microscope image showing the demarcation between the progressive
crack growth region and the terminus to overstress fracture. (e) Three-dimensional free body diagram of the Fig. 5 Conceptual sequence revealing the formation
assembled wheels and axle, with loads superposed. (f) Digitally reconstructed cross section of the axle showing the and coalescence of microvoids as a crack
shape and location of the internal void. (g) Finite element stress map in the vicinity of the internal void, showing opens in a ductile matrix with a dispersion of particulates
high stress within a cusp in the void. such as inclusions or constituent particles

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 Microscale Fracture Surface Morphologies / 97

during coalescence. The cuplike depressions microvoids early in the loading cycle produce and one end of each dimple is open; that is,
are referred to as dimples, and the fracture a fracture surface that exhibits various dimple the dimples are not completely surrounded by
mode is known synonymously as dimpled rup- sizes (Fig. 10) (Ref 20). When microvoids a rim. In the case of a tear fracture, the elon-
ture or MVC. Figure 6 shows an example of a nucleate at grain boundaries (Fig. 11), inter- gated dimples on both fracture faces are ori-
fracture surface exhibiting MVC (Ref 18). The granular dimpled rupture results (Ref 21). ented in the same direction, and the closed
microvoids are uniform and generally nondirec- Dimple shape is governed by the state of ends point to the fracture origin. This charac-
tional, consistent with fracture in uniaxial ten- stress within the material as the microvoids teristic of the tear dimples can be used to
sion (facing the reader). An MVC fracture form and coalesce (Fig. 12). Fracture under establish the fracture propagation direction
surface can be quite rough and tortuous, as conditions of uniaxial tensile load results in (Ref 26) in a thin sheet that ruptures by a
revealed in the three-dimensional anaglyph in the formation of essentially equiaxed dimples full-slant fracture (by combined modes I and
Fig. 7. Figure 8 is a commonly encountered rep- bounded by a lip or rim. When fracture occurs III). This fracture consists entirely of a shear
resentation of an MVC fracture surface (Ref 19). by a combination of modes I and II, examina- lip and exhibits no macroscopic fracture direc-
As depicted in Fig. 9, the size of the dimples tion of the dimples on mating fracture surfaces tion indicators, such as chevron marks. A shear
on a fracture surface is governed by the num- can reveal the local fracture direction (Ref 22). fracture, however, exhibits elongated dimples
ber, size, and distribution of microvoids that Depending on the microstructure and plasticity
are nucleated. When the nucleation sites are of the material, the dimples can exhibit a very
few and widely spaced, the microvoids grow deep, conical shape, or they can be quite shal- F
to a large size before coalescing, and the result low. The formation of shallow dimples may
is a fracture surface that contains large dim- involve the joining of microvoids by shear
ples. Small dimples are formed when numer- along slip bands (Ref 23).
ous nucleating sites are activated and adjacent Fracture surfaces that result from tear (mode
microvoids join (coalesce) before they have I) or shear (modes II and II) loading conditions
an opportunity to grow to a larger size. For exhibit elongated dimples (Ref 24, 25). The
example, extremely small dimples are often characteristics of elongated dimples are that
found in alloys with numerous fine second-phase they are, as the name implies, elongated (one
particles or in oxide-dispersion-strengthened axis of the dimple is longer than the other),
materials. F
The distribution of the microvoid nucleation
(a)
sites can significantly influence the fracture-
surface appearance. In some alloys, the non-
uniform distribution of nucleating particles F
and the nucleation and growth of isolated

10 Pm
F
Fig. 7 Three-dimensional secondary electron SEM
fractograph anaglyph of a microvoid (b)
coalescence fracture surface on type 6061-T6 aluminum
alloy. The anaglyph, which reveals the height variation
and tortuosity of the fracture surface, was created from
F
stereo pairs. Attributed to E. Komarnicki, National
Transportation Safety Board, Washington, D.C.

F
(c)

Fig. 9 The size of the microvoids is controlled by the

size and distribution of the inclusions or
10 Pm
constituent particles. (a) Large and small particles in a
Fig. 6 Secondary electron SEM image showing a ductile metallic matrix. (b) A crack growing under
Fig. 8 Secondary electron SEM fractograph
monotonic loading conditions causes cracking in large
close-up view of ductile dimples (microvoids) demonstrating equiaxed microvoid coalescence
in an overstress-fractured Ti-6Al-4V airplane landing gear fracture features due to tensile overstress in an SAE grade particles and interfacial void formation in the small
damper coupling. (a) Fine microvoids with constituent 8 zinc-electroplated steel crankshaft bolt. The bolt is particles in the crack tip process zone. (c) As the crack
particles present. (b) Larger microvoids with indications of quenched-and-tempered martensite with a hardness of 38 continues growing under monotonic loading conditions,
discontinuous slip on the surfaces of the voids HRC. the microvoids at the particles grow and coalesce.

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 98 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

10 Pm

Fig. 10 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of

microvoid coalescence fracture features in
a helicopter rotor control system drive pin fabricated
from AerMet100 alloy quenched and aged to 53 HRC

10 Pm

Fig. 11 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of a

fracture surface in hardened alloy steel
(quench and tempered to 55 HRC) exhibiting
intercrystalline facets with microvoids

that point in opposite directions on mating

fracture faces. Examples of typical elongated
dimples are shown in Fig. 13.
It should be noted that the illustrations
representing equiaxed and elongated dimple
formation and orientation were deliberately
kept simple in order to convey the basic con-
cepts of the effect on dimple shape and orien-
tation to the loading or plastic-flow directions
in the immediate vicinity where the voids
form, such as at the crack tip. In reality, Fig. 12 Examples of microvoid formation and directionality for various fracture loading modes. When both halves
matching dimples on mating fracture faces of the fracture are present for evaluation, crack direction may be ascertained.
are seldom of the same size or rarely show
equivalent angular correspondence. Because
actual fractures hardly occur by pure tension favorably oriented toward the major stress
or shear, the various combinations of loading direction. The continual straining of the free
modes I, II, and III, as well as the constant surfaces of the dimples as the microvoids
change in orientation of the local plane of frac- enlarge produces slip-plane displacement at
ture as the crack propagates, result in asym- the surface of the dimple (Ref 27). Oval-shaped
metrical straining of the mating fracture dimples are occasionally observed on the walls
surfaces (assuming both halves of the fracture of large, elongated dimples. An oval dimple is
have been retrieved after the failure). In failure formed when a smaller subsurface void inter-
analysis, it is common to have only one-half of sects the wall of a larger void (dimple).
a pair of mating fracture surfaces for examina-
tion or to have postfracture mechanical dam- Fluting Fracture Features
age obscuring the surface features.
Metals that undergo considerable plastic In some alloy systems with hexagonal close-
deformation and develop large dimples fre- packed structures, such as those based on mag- Fig. 13 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of
elongated microvoids (shear loading) in the
quently contain deformation markings on the nesium, zirconium, and titanium, there are a body of a 400-series aluminum casting alloy wire cable
dimple walls. These markings occur when slip limited number of slip systems that can be pulley assembly that fractured during a helicopter
planes at the surface of the dimples are activated. When fractured under monotonically electrical cable pulling operation

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 Microscale Fracture Surface Morphologies / 99

increasing load, the fractures can appear brittle

macroscopically but microscopically exhibit
parallel elongated dimplelike features, known
as flutes (Ref 28–34). Although flutes are not
elongated dimples, they are the result of a plas-
tic deformation process. Such flutes form
by “tubular” void nucleation along slip-band
intersections or at slip-band/grain-boundary
intersections. Figure 14 shows some example
fractographs of fluting.

Fracture Surface Artifacts

In a monotonic ductile rupture process, (a) (b)
60 Pm 15 Pm
fracture in pearlitic steels can result in the frac-
ture progressing in a transcrystalline manner
through pearlite colonies. The resulting frac-
ture exhibits features with long, parallel
dimples (Ref 36, 37), as shown in Fig. 15
(Ref 38). When investigating fatigue fractures
in pearlitic steels, one must be careful to con-
firm that the features are from fatigue striations
rather than microstructural features associated
with overstress fracture through pearlite colo-
nies (Ref 39, 40). Sometimes feature spacing
must be compared with pearlite colony spacing
to confirm the nature of the features.

Microstructural Influences on MVC (c) 17 Pm (d) 10 Pm

Shape
Fig. 14 Secondary electron SEM fractograph examples of fluting fracture features. (a) Flutes and cleavage resulting
from mechanical overload of a Ti-0.35O alloy. (b) Flutes and cleavage resulting from stress-corrosion
Material microstructure can influence the cracking in a b-annealed Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V alloy in methanol. (c) Flutes and cleavage in Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V resulting
shape and morphology of the microvoids. As from sustained-load cracking in vacuum. (d) Flutes occurring near the notch on the fracture surface of mill-
an example, in Fig. 16 (Ref 41), when an alumi- annealed Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V resulting from fatigue in saltwater. Source: Ref 35
num casting with a network of constituent inter-
metallic phases fractured due to a monotonic
ductile rupture process, the microvoid shape
was directly affected by the morphology of the
constituent intermetallic phases. When investi-
gating the influence of microstructure on frac-
ture features, it is a common practice to create
reference fracture surfaces using samples of
known or precharacterized microstructure.

Transcrystalline Fracture—
Cleavage
Crystals often slip or twin when subjected to
a monotonically increasing stress process.
When resistance to twinning and slip are
sufficiently high, sudden separation along spe-
cific crystallographic planes under normal
stress can occur. This fracture process is called
cleavage (Ref 42, 43). Transcrystalline cleav-
age is a low-energy fracture process that pro-
pagates through grains in polycrystalline
materials along well-defined, low-index crys-
tallographic planes known as cleavage planes
(Ref 44) (Fig. 1b). Such low-energy fractures
are generally associated with lower fracture
toughness. Theoretically, a cleavage fracture
in a perfect single crystal should have match-
ing faces and should be completely flat and Fig. 16 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of a
400-series aluminum casting alloy locking
featureless. However, engineering alloys are Fig. 15 Secondary electron SEM fractographs of tab on a wire cable pulley assembly that fractured during
polycrystalline, and they contain grain and fracture in 90 lb railroad track comprising a helicopter electrical cable pulling operation. (a) Lower-
ferrite-pearlite steel. The monotonic ductile rupture magnification micrograph. Original magnification: 490
.
subgrain boundaries, inclusions, dislocations, process progressed by (a) transcrystalline cleavage (b) Higher-magnification micrograph showing void
and other imperfections that affect a propagat- through pearlite colonies, revealing (b) long, parallel formation at constituent particles in the casting. Original
ing cleavage fracture; thus, true, featureless dimples along the pearlite lamellae. magnification: 1510

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 100 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

cleavage is seldom observed. These imperfec- axis perpendicular to the boundary, a twist and higher steps. Thus, when viewing a cleavage
tions and changes in crystal lattice orientation boundary results (Fig. 18b). Because of the fracture that propagates across a twist boundary,
(i.e., grain texture), such as possible mismatch significant misalignment of cleavage planes at the cleavage steps do not cross but rather initiate
of the low-index planes across grain or sub- the boundary, the propagating fracture reinitiates new steps at the boundary (Fig. 18b). Most
grain boundaries, produce distinct cleavage at the boundary as a series of parallel cleavage boundaries, rather than being simple tilt or twist,
fracture-surface features. The distinct frac- fractures connected by small (low) cleavage are a combination of both types and are referred
ture-surface features include cleavage steps, steps. As the fracture propagates away from the to as tilt-twist boundaries. A cleavage fracture
river patterns, feather markings, chevron (her- boundary, the numerous cleavage planes join, exhibiting twist and tilt boundaries is shown in
ringbone) patterns, and tongues (Ref 45, 46). resulting in fewer individual cleavage planes Fig. 19.
A typical cleavage fracture viewed at differ-
ent magnifications is presented in Fig. 17
(Ref 47). As shown schematically in Fig. 18, Cleavage
cleavage fractures frequently initiate on many planes Fracture
parallel cleavage planes. As the fracture advances, direction
Tilt
however, the number of active planes decreases
by a joining process that forms progressively
higher cleavage steps. At the microscale, this
network of cleavage steps is known as a river
pattern (there are also river patterns at the
macroscopic scale). Because the branches of
the river pattern join in the direction of crack Grain or
propagation, these markings can be used to Cleavage steps subgrain boundary
establish the local fracture direction.
A tilt boundary exists when principal cleav- (a)
age planes form a small angle with respect to
one another as a result of a slight rotation
River pattern
about a common axis parallel to the intersec-
tion (Fig. 18a). In the case of a tilt boundary, Cleavage feathers Fracture
Twist direction
the cleavage fracture path is virtually uninter-
rupted, and the cleavage planes and steps prop- Cleavage
agate across the boundary. However, when the plane
principal cleavage planes are rotated about an

Grain or
Cleavage step subgrain boundary

(b)

Fig. 18 Schematic of cleavage fracture formation showing the effect of subgrain boundaries. (a) Tilt boundary.
(b) Twist boundary

Fig. 17 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of

cleavage fracture in American Association
of Railroads (AAR) TC-128 grade B railroad tank car
steel. The fracture was created in a transverse Charpy V-
notch specimen at –75  C (–100  F). (a) Lower-
magnification micrograph demonstrating a typical
cleavage fracture surface. Original magnification: 100
. Fig. 19 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of cleavage fracture with annotations for key cleavage fracture
(b) Higher-magnification micrograph revealing fine details features. The fracture was created in American Association of Railroads (AAR) TC-128 grade B railroad
on the cleavage faces. Original magnification: 1000
tank car steel in a transverse Charpy V-notch specimen at –75  C (–100  F).

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 Microscale Fracture Surface Morphologies / 101

Feather markings are a fan-shaped array of the general macroscopic propagation direction fractures were replicated in the laboratory
fine cleavage steps on a large cleavage facet of the crack. Such information can be useful (known as reference laboratory fractures).
(Fig. 19); they may also be called fine river for identifying the origin region of the fracture. In another example, transcrystalline cleavage
patterns. The apex of the fan points back to Cleavage fracture can occur in materials of fracture features were documented in a medium-
the fracture origin. Large cleavage steps are varying microstructures under a variety of load- low carbon steel casting that fractured in over-
shown in Fig. 19. ing conditions and environments. For example, stress, with cracks initiating at an internal casting
To support failure analysis, local crack cleavagelike fractures interspersed with inter- void, as demonstrated in Fig. 21 (Ref 49).
direction may be ascertained by studying the granular separations were observed on fractured
river pattern on each cleavage fracture facet. ultrahigh-strength alloy steel pins (Ref 48) due to
Crack direction mapping at the microscopic hydrogen-assisted cracking (Fig. 20, Ref 20). To Transcrystalline Fracture—Fatigue
level can, in aggregate, be used to ascertain confirm the fracture morphology, reference
A fracture that is the result of repetitive or
cyclic loading is known as a fatigue fracture
(Ref 50), as depicted in Fig. 22. Fatigue crack
initiation and growth in structures can often
occur at loads considered acceptable or safe
for the design and end use (Ref 51–53). Local
stresses on the component that concentrate at
singularities such as scratches, pores, cavities,
pits (corrosion), and nonmetallic inclusions
can influence the initiation of fatigue cracks.
The fatigue fracture diagram in Fig. 22 depicts
the three stages of fatigue fracture in a

Fig. 20 Secondary electron SEM images at original magnification of 870
(top) and 750
(bottom) of a helicopter
rotor control system drive pin revealing cleavagelike fractures interspersed with intergranular separations
and small regions of ductile dimples, consistent with hydrogen embrittlement. AerMet100 alloy, quenched and aged
to 53 HRC, exhibited a hydrogen content of approximately 9 ppm.

5 mm

5 mm
Fig. 22 (a) Conceptual example of a structural
Fig. 21 Secondary electron SEM images of the fracture surface of a failed snatch block hook revealing component that fractured after a fatigue
transcrystalline cleavage fracture features initiating at a casting void. The fracture in the 0.16 wt% C crack propagated to a critical size. (b) The relative
steel casting was due to overstress (63 HRBW average hardness—pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite microstructure). locations of stage 1, stage 2, and stage 3 fractures are
The inset image is a low-magnification montage image of the overall fracture surface of the hook. shown in the image.

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 102 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

cyclically loaded mechanical component: it cracks are faceted and sometimes resemble of 0.1 to 1.0 nm/cycle, suggesting that because
incubates and initiates during stage 1, propagates cleavage; they do not exhibit fatigue striation this distance is less than one atomic distance,
for most of its length during stage 2, and pro- features themselves. There are no clearly defined the crack does not grow with each stress rever-
ceeds to catastrophic overstress fracture during features on stage 1 fracture surfaces, but ridges sal (Ref 65). Stage 1 incubation and crack
stage 3, as evidenced by microfractography can occur with torsional loading or under corro- development are affected by the environment,
(Ref 54, 55). An example of a fractured recipro- sion fatigue conditions (Ref 52). The crack tends mean stresses (including residual surface
cating engine crankshaft exhibiting the three to follow crystallographic planes but changes stress), loading frequency, surface feature
stages of fatigue fracture is shown in Fig. 23 direction at discontinuities, such as grain bound- dimensions, and crystallographic and micro-
(Ref 56). Different cyclic load profiles may be aries. Stage 1 fatigue is normally observed on structure features.
used during fatigue testing, ranging from con- high-cycle, low-stress fractures and is frequently From a practical perspective, it has been
stant-amplitude tests to more complex spectrum absent in low-cycle, high-stress fatigue. At large generally observed that a stage 1 crack grows
(variable-amplitude) tests or block loading at plastic-strain amplitudes, fatigue cracks may ini- for approximately one to two grains (as
two or more loading amplitudes. tiate at grain boundaries (Ref 63). As much as demonstrated in Fig. 26 and 27). As the ratio
90% of the cumulative loading cycles prior to of tensile stress to shear stress increases, the
Stage 1—Fatigue Crack Incubation and failure may be consumed in initiating a viable crack may change direction (sometimes at a
Initiation fatigue crack (Ref 64). grain-boundary triple point) and follow along
Fundamental studies of the stage 1 initiation the maximum principal normal stress at the
Metal alloys used for technical and engi- process suggest that below approximately crack tip. At this transition, the crack is said
neering applications largely comprise poly- 100 Å, fatigue striations do not form; rather, to be stage 2 or crack propagation. A stage
crystalline grains. One can consider a single crack growth is nonuniform. Incremental crack 2 fracture surface may exhibit ridges asso-
crystal, in the form of one of the grains of a growth may not occur with every stress rever- ciated with crack opening and subsequent clos-
structure, that intersects the surface of a mechan- sal along the fracture front. It is believed that ing, known as striations. Generally, there is a
ical or structural component (Fig. 24b). Under the crack growth rate in stage 1 is on the order direct relationship between striation formation
dynamic loading conditions, fine dislocation slip
occurs along slip bands in the crystal, resulting in
Stage 2
ridge and groove formation, undulations, and Progressive
Cyclic
force
crack Stage 3
ultimately slip band intrusions and extrusions propagation
F (T )
Region
(Ref 54, 57–59) (Fig. 25). Through this process, of final
overstress
a crack develops at the slip band extrusion, Stage 1 fracture
resulting in a fatigue crack nucleus (Fig. 26). Crack
initiation
Crack
progression
Often, the active slip planes are those most region
marks
closely aligned with the maximum shearing
stress. With stress reversals, the crack will grow
(a) F (T )
in length along this slip plane during stage 1 ini- Cyclic
force
tiation. An example of stage 1 fatigue features is
shown in Fig. 27 (Ref 60, 61). Typically, stage 1
Part Part
surface Stage 3 surface
Monotonic
Stage 1 Stage 2 fracture
Incubation Progressive crack
Final
and initiation propagation
overstress
Intrusion Striation fracture
and extrusion formation
localized
plastic slip
steps

Fracture
direction

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

1–2 grains Can range from ~1% to Balance of
~95% of section section thickness
thickness

(b)
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Fracture
Fracture

Typically monotonic fracture by:

See Fig. 25 and 26 • Transcrystalline: cleavage, MVC
• Intercrystalline decohension
• Other
Fig. 23 Digital microscope images of fatigue crack (c) (d) (e)
progression marks on a fractured crankshaft
from a reciprocating engine. (a) Fatigue crack progression Fig. 24 Example of a structural component that fractured after a fatigue crack propagated to a critical size. The
marks on the fracture surface. (b) Primary fatigue crack relative locations of stage 1, stage 2, and stage 3 fractures are shown in Fig. 22(b). MVC, microvoid
origin coalescence

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 Microscale Fracture Surface Morphologies / 103

Component
Slip bands
surface

Force Force
Grain
boundaries

(a)

Slip steps

Fig. 26 Using the concept of Wood’s model, an incipient stage 1 fatigue crack can
develop to a length of one to two grains over n force reversals. Numerous
incipient stage 1 cracks can develop concurrently. On the part surface, the extrusions
can be discontinuous, tonguelike or continuous, ribbonlike.
Force Force
Slip bands

(b)

Extrusion Intrusion

Force Slip bands Force

(c)

Intrusion and extrusion

of persistent slip bands

100 Pm
Cyclic force Cyclic force
over n cycles over n cycles Fig. 27 Backscattered electron SEM image of a stage 1 fracture feature in a ŽS6K
Slip bands nickel-base superalloy. The crack initiation site is flat and faceted.
Ratchet marks and crack-arrest marks were observed emanating from the facet. The
(d) expanding pattern of ratchet marks was consistent with fatigue crack propagation
from the crack initiation site. Prior to SEM examination, the sample was cleaned of
deposits using a boiling aqueous potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and sodium
Fig. 25 Variation in Wood’s model to reveal how intrusions and extrusions of slip hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The arrows show the crack growth directions. Alloy
bands can result in sites for stage 1 fatigue crack initiation. Numerous sites ŽS6K is a nickel-base superalloy, manufactured in the former USSR, similar in
for stage 1 cracks may develop concurrently as force reversals progress. composition to Nimonic 80A. Source: Ref 62

and a single loading cycle (Ref 66). As the stage propagating crack. The size, type, and frequency
fatigue fracture that initiates at a subsurface
2 crack continues to grow with peak load of the artifact affect the stress-intensity factor.
anomaly or defect such as a massive inclusion.
cycling, there is a point at which the crack is of As an example, an aircraft high-pressure turbine
critical length. With one additional advance of stage 2 disk fractured because of low-cycle Stage 2—Fatigue Crack Propagation
the crack front, the strength of the remaining lig- fatigue cracks that initiated from an internal
ament is no longer sufficient, and the component subsurface manufacturing anomaly. In this The largest portion of a fatigue fracture con-
ruptures instantaneously in overstress (typically case, very close to the origin, the striation den- sists of stage 2 crack growth, which generally
exhibiting dimpled rupture or cleavage). sity was very high (6300 striations/mm), and occurs by transgranular fracture (Fig. 1b). Stage
Because of damage that frequently occurs at the the far-field striation density fell to approxi- 2 is more influenced by the magnitude of the
fatigue crack origin, it is often difficult to micro- mately 780 striations/mm, typical for higher alternating stress than by either the mean stress
scopically image features in the stage 1 region. alternating stress, low-cycle fatigue crack or material microstructure (Ref 74, 75). Fatigue
As an example, Fig. 27 (Ref 60) shows a flat, fac- propagation mechanisms (Ref 67). fracture surfaces generated during stage 2 fatigue
eted fatigue crack initiation site in alloy ŽS6K The work of Wanhill et al. suggests that usually exhibit striations as a result of the open-
(nickel-base superalloy). This feature was consis- fatigue crack initiation most often occurs at ing, advancing, and closing of the crack during
tent with stage 1 fatigue crack growth typical after singularities such as an artifact, flaw, or each stress cycle (Ref 76) (Fig. 31, Ref 77;
fatigue crack initiation in nickel-base superalloys. defect (Fig. 28, Ref 68; Fig. 29, Ref 69) on Fig 32, Ref 78). Striations are a visual record of
Ratchet marks and crack-arrest marks were the component surface, such as scratches, the position of the fatigue crack front during
observed emanating from the facet. The expanding pores, cavities, pits (corrosion) (Fig. 29), crack propagation through the material. Striation
pattern of radial marks was consistent with fatigue and nonmetallic inclusions (Fig. 30, Ref 70) spacing, measured from center to center of each
crack propagation from the crack initiation site. (Ref 71–73). Within this artifact, an intru- striation, can range from 0.001 to approximately
Perhaps one of the more opportunistic ways sion-extrusion mechanism occurs along active 1 mm under high-cycle fatigue spectrum-loading
to observe stage 1 fracture features is from a slip planes, ultimately resulting in a conditions (Fig. 33, Ref 14).

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 104 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

Fig. 29 Digital microscope fractograph of fatigue

crack origins at corrosion pits in a steel
airplane main landing gear leg

1 mm

Fig. 28 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of a fatigue-initiated fracture in a tempered steel valve spring from a
reciprocating internal combustion engine. The fatigue fracture initiated at a pit on the surface of the steel
wire on the inside diameter of the spring.

Fig. 31 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of stage

2 striation features in clad type 7075-T6
aluminum alloy fuselage skin from a commercial
airplane. The striations are due to a progressive crack
advance with each ground-air-ground flight cycle.

Fig. 30 Secondary electron SEM fractographs of fatigue crack initiation at a nonmetallic inclusion in an airplane
wing spar fabricated from aluminum alloy 6061-T651

Fig. 33 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of

fatigue striation features in a fractured
helicopter turbine engine fuel line (type Z10CNT18-11
stainless steel) that fractured in reverse bending
(bilateral alternating-bending mode) high-cycle fatigue
(HCF). The variation in the striation spacing is
consistent with fatigue crack propagation under
spectrum-loading conditions. Striation spacing
measured from approximately 0.003 to 0.06 mm. Such
fine striation spacing is associated with vibratory fatigue
loading under HCF conditions in the megacycle range.

Fatigue crack propagation and therefore stri-

ation spacing can be affected by a number of
variables, such as loading conditions, strength
of the material, microstructure, environment,
temperature, and the presence of corrosive or
Fig. 32 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of stage 2 striation features in clad type 7075-T6 aluminum alloy embrittling gases and fluids. Regarding the
fuselage skin from a commercial airplane. The striations are due to a progressive crack advance with
each ground-air-ground flight cycle. Pits are due to oxide removal in a chromic acid cleaning solution. Each loading conditions, the magnitude of the alter-
striation is a record documenting the local deformation of a crack opening, advancing, and closing during one nating stress (sa = ½ (smax – smin)) has a
complete loading cycle. In this case, the crack advances approximately 0.3 mm with each load cycle. greater effect on striation spacing than either

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 Microscale Fracture Surface Morphologies / 105

the mean stress or the cyclic frequency. Increas- another (Fig. 34). A plateau that has a concave closure (Ref 35, 82–84) (Fig. 36). This loading
ing the magnitude of the alternating stress pro- surface curvature exhibits a convex contour on scenario results in a compressive stress at the
duces a corresponding increase of the striation the mating fracture face (Ref 81). The plateaus crack tip due to the relaxation of the residual
spacing. An increase in mean stress can also are joined either by tear ridges or walls that elastic tensile stresses induced in the uncracked
increase the striation spacing, although not to contain fatigue striations. Fatigue striations portion of the material during the rising load
the extent a numerically equivalent increase in often bow outward in the direction of crack cycle (Fig. 36). The closing crack does not
the alternating stress would. Within reasonable propagation and generally tend to align perpen- reweld, because the new slip surfaces created
limits, the cyclic frequency has the least effect dicular to the principal (macroscopic) crack during the crack-opening displacement are
on striation spacing. In some cases, fatigue stria- propagation direction. However, variations in instantaneously oxidized (Ref 85), which makes
tion spacing can change significantly over a very local stresses and microstructure can change complete slip reversal unlikely in atmosphere.
short distance. This is due in part to changes in the orientation of the plane of fracture and alter This model also accounts for conditions where
local stress conditions as the crack propagates. the direction of striation alignment (Fig. 35). slip may not occur precisely at the crack tip due
Typically, each striation is the result of one The way in which the crack closes can affect to the presence of lattice or microstructural
load cycle and marks the position of the the appearance of the striation features. Some imperfections (Ref 83, 86, 87).
fatigue crack front at the time the striation of the more notable crack-closure scenarios The essential absence of striations on fatigue
was formed. However, when there is a sudden include: fracture surfaces of metals tested in vacuum
decrease in the applied load, the crack can tends to support the assumption that oxidation
 No closure
temporarily stop propagating, and no striations reduces slip reversal during crack closure,
 Plasticity-induced closure
are formed. The crack resumes propagation which results in the formation of striations
 Roughness-induced (asperity-induced) closure
only after a certain number of cycles are (Ref 79, 88, 89). The lack of oxidation in high
 Mode-2-induced closure
applied at the lower stress (Ref 26, 76, 77, vacuum promotes a more complete slip rever-
 Oxide-induced closure
79, 80). This phenomenon of intermittent crack sal (Ref 90), which results in a smooth and
 Phase-transformation-induced closure
arrest is believed to be due to the presence of a relatively featureless fatigue fracture surface.
residual compressive-stress field within the Some fracture surfaces containing widely
crack tip plastic zone produced after the last In ductile metals, stage 2 fatigue crack spaced fatigue striations exhibit slip traces on
high-stress fatigue cycle (Ref 76, 77). growth propagates by the incremental genera- the leading edges of the striation and relatively
tion of a new fracture surface during crack smooth trailing edges, as predicted by the
Characteristics of Fractures with Fatigue opening and blunting and then resharpening model in Fig. 36. However, not all fatigue
Striation Features during crack closure. There have been variants striations exhibit distinct slip traces, as sug-
of this general concept, but they are based on gested by Fig. 36, which is a simplified repre-
During Stage 2 fatigue fracture, the crack localized plastic flow crystallographic slip dur- sentation of the fatigue process.
often propagates on multiple plateaus that are ing crack opening and subsequent reversed Cracks that propagate by stage 2 fatigue
at different elevations with respect to one shearing of the activated slip bands during crack fracture often produce striated features on the
fracture surface as a result of the opening,
advancing, and closing of the crack during
each stress cycle (Ref 73). The striation
spacing, related to the crack propagation rate
(da/dN), can be correlated with the amplitude
of the stress cycle and the length of the crack
through the stress-intensity factor range (DK)
(Fig. 37). As shown in Fig. 37, each stage of
a fatigue fracture can be represented on a plot
of da/dN versus DK. However, stage 2 can
most reliably be correlated to DK through an
exponential relationship, generally referred to
as the Paris-Erdogan region (Ref 91). If the
stress amplitude is approximately the same
10 Pm 2 Pm
(a) (b)
Macroscopic
fracture Secondary crack Fatigue striations
5
propagation
direction 6 10
11
12 13
3
9
4
2
7
8
1

Secondary
Ridges crack

(c)
Fig. 35 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of the
Fig. 34 (a) and (b) Secondary electron SEM fractographs of a fatigue fracture in an M-flange in an aircraft high- turbine engine diffuser case in Fig. 34.
pressure turbine case that propagated by cyclic fatigue (wrought nickel-base superalloy, such as IN- Variations in local stresses and microstructure can
718). Each striation was associated with the change in burner pressure during engine startup, takeoff, and engine change the orientation of the plane of fracture and alter
shutdown, resulting in one striation per flight cycle. Note that the striations are on plateaus. (c) Schematic example the direction of striation alignment. The yellow arrows
of fatigue fracture plateaus with concomitant striations indicate the local direction of crack propagation.

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 106 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

Increment
Formation of of crack Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
a striation growth due Crack initiation— Progressive crack propagation—
to one slip plane crack striated crack growth

dN
da
Mating striations Crack tip loading
cycle 1 loading cycle 1 1 loading cycle = 1 striation

Crack propagation rate,

Closed crack striation

Fatigue crack cross-sectional profile Final fracture—

a overstress fracture
Fracture surface:
Crack direction • Planar and
Fracture surface:
featureless
Opening crack da • Cleavage
n
= C (ΔK ) • Microvoid coalescence
dN
• Intergranular decohesion
Paris-Erdogan region • Mixed modes

ΔKth affected by type, Fracture surface:

size, and frequency of • Striations
artifacts or defects • Striations and mixed modes

Maximum load in Cyclic stress-intensity factor, ΔK

Opening crack
a loading cycle ΔKth
Influence
Attribute Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Microstructure Strong Minor (material dependent) Strong
Mean stress Strong Minor Strong
Environment Strong Minor Strong in some Weak
Frequency Strong Minor instances ...
Dimensions Strong Minor Strong (thickness)

Closing crack Fig. 37 Hypothetical graph showing the relationship between the fatigue crack
propagation rate as a function of the cyclic stress-intensity factor

Loading cycle, n

Closing crack 1 102 103 106 109

Very-
Closed crack High- high-
Low- cycle cycle
New striation Ultra- cycle fatigue fatigue
low- fatigue
Fig. 36 Sketches showing the progressive mechanism of fatigue crack propagation cycle
by alternate slip at the crack tip and the formation of a mating pair of fatigue
striations. Da, crack growth increment
Fig. 38 Relative range of ultralow-cycle fatigue, low-
cycle fatigue, high-cycle fatigue, and very-
aircraft can be well described with the GAG high-cycle fatigue
from cycle to cycle, the spacing of consecutive
striations should be nominally uniform (Ref profile, those of helicopters and military air-
35, 74, 92) (i.e., within the field of view of craft are subject to applied load spectra that
an SEM image). When performing crack are complex and highly variable. Traditional
growth rate studies, it is often assumed that fatigue-prediction tools do not always perform
one striation feature on the fracture surface is well in calculating the fatigue lives of systems
correlated with one peak loading cycle. As an under these conditions (Ref 101). Fatigue stri-
example, for airplane turbine engine compo- ation examination of spectrum-loaded frac-
nents that fracture in fatigue, each stage 2 stria- tures often undercounts the total number of
tion feature generally correlates to one takeoff striations, leading to an overestimate of the
cycle, where the engine is producing maxi- part fatigue life. Care and conservative safety
mum power (Ref 93). In another example, factors should be used if designing components
fatigue fracture striation features in pressurized that may be subjected to spectrum-loading
airplane fuselage structures often correlate to profiles and additional load amplitudes.
one ground-air-ground (GAG) cycle (fuselage The number of cycles that a component fab-
is pressurized at altitude and depressurized on ricated from a given material can endure until
landing). There are many articles that explain final fracture is directly related to the magni- Fig. 39 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of a
low-cycle fatigue fracture surface on a
how to develop fatigue crack growth rates tude of the stress reversal and the mean stress. fractured aircraft turbine engine fan blade fabricated
based on quantitative fractography and stria- Such fatigue master curves have been devel- from wrought alloy Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V
tion spacing data; hence, it is often the focal oped for design purposes. Conceptually, high
point of fatigue fracture fractography (Ref 61, stress amplitude and a zero mean stress (stress
94–100). ratio R = –1) can result in a low number of features such as ductile tear ridges or patches
It should be noted that while fatigue analysis cycles to final fracture, referred to as low-cycle of microvoid coalescence. In LCF, if the stri-
using observed striations can be useful, many fatigue (LCF). As shown in Fig. 38, the num- ation features can be resolved by SEM, a plot
components and systems do not undergo a sim- ber of cycles to final fracture can be classified of striation spacing as a function of distance
ple uniformly variable (e.g., sinusoidal) load- over various ranges. The fracture surfaces from the origin region will generally become
ing profile. These components may be subject can yield clues about the severity of the load- progressively larger. Conversely, high-cycle
to additional underlying lower-amplitude ing. Low-cycle fatigue fracture surfaces, for fatigue can have relatively smaller striation
cyclic stresses, such as from vibrations, exter- example, will exhibit striation features with spacing and less ductile tearing, as shown in
nal winds, and natural resonances, as well as relatively long spacing distance, such as Fig. 31 to 33.
erratic spectrum-loading profiles. While load approximately 2 mm striation spacing, as In components that are thermally cycled from
cycles, for example, of commercial civilian demonstrated in Fig. 39 (Ref 102), and other ambient to high temperatures, such as turbine

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 Microscale Fracture Surface Morphologies / 107

engine blades and surrounding components and Intercrystalline (Intergranular) deformation). Creep fracture is an exception
boiler tubes in energy production, thermal Fracture to this observation, because it often exhibits
strains may compressively yield the metal at both intergranular fracture and substantial
high temperature. Upon cooling and contraction deformation.
to original dimensions, the component may Polycrystalline metals and alloys can frac- There are numerous mechanisms that can
experience tensile stress. Repetitive heating and ture in a manner whereby the crack propagates occur under suitable environments, sensitive
cooling can lead to a failure mode known as ther- along grain boundaries (Fig. 1c). Such a frac- metallurgical conditions, or stress conditions
mal fatigue (TF) or thermomechanical fatigue ture phenomenon is synonymously called that result in the decohesion of the grain
(TMF), if ancillary mechanical loads are present intercrystalline fracture, intergranular fracture, boundaries under mechanical stress (Table 3).
(Ref 103). Thermal fatigue and TMF often prop- intergranular decohesion, or grain-boundary Some metals, intermetallics, and alloys inher-
agate as LCF. It is possible that an initial TF or decohesion. The influence of microstructure ently have a limited number of slip systems,
TMF crack can act as a precrack for high-cycle can affect the appearance of intercrystalline and intercrystalline fracture is a normal frac-
fatigue crack propagation in the component. fracture surfaces. For example, when an inter- ture mode. A number of metals and alloys
Often there is concomitant oxidation scale on crystalline fracture occurs along flattened, elon- have a propensity to form films or precipitates
the TF or TMF fracture surface. gated grains that form nearly uninterrupted along grain boundaries. These films can form
For components with precision surface treat- planes through the material (as in severely as a result of heat treating processes or per-
ments and highly controlled microstructures extruded alloys, deep-drawn parts, and along haps with aging at elevated temperatures.
(with consideration for the distribution and the parting planes of some forgings), a relatively Regardless, the films and precipitates at the
size of second-phase particles and inclusions), smooth, featureless fracture results (Fig. 1e). grain boundaries create a favorable crack
fatigue life can approach 108 to 1010 cycles, Intercrystalline fracture has occurred under path. Examples of grain-boundary films and
known as very-high-cycle fatigue (Ref 104). loading conditions such as: precipitates include sensitization in austenitic
In high-strength steels, fatigue crack initiation  Monotonically increasing load to fracture stainless steels or improperly aged aluminum
often occurs at subsurface inclusions in a (overstress fracture) alloys (Fig. 1d).
region termed the fine granular area (FGA).  Impact or high strain rate Regardless of the mechanism, the fracture
The formation mechanism of the FGA is still  Creep (constant or varying load at elevated surface will exhibit some degree of faceted
under technical investigation and has not been temperature > 0.4Tm over time) planes along the boundaries between grains.
settled (Ref 105).  Steady-state stress substantially below the Figure 41 (Ref 19) shows an intercrystalline
material failure limit (environmentally fracture surface. In this case, a medium-carbon
Stage 3—Final Fracture assisted fracture) grade 8 bolt fractured due to hydrogen-
 Alternating stress (fatigue fracture) assisted cracking. Because the steel is
Stage 3 is the terminal propagation phase of a quenched and tempered to 38 HRC, the inter-
fatigue crack in which the striation-forming In failure analysis, intercrystalline fracture crystalline fracture follows along the prior-
mode is progressively displaced by monotonic is typically indicative of a low-toughness or austenitic grain boundaries of the tempered
fracture modes, such as microvoid coalescence, low-energy fracture process. In most instances, martensite microstructure.
transcrystalline cleavage, or intercrystalline components that fracture in an intercrystalline Intercrystalline fracture is typically an indica-
decohesion, depending on the alloy and the cir- manner exhibit little, if any, macroductility tion of an environmental reaction or processing
cumstances of the separation. The rate of crack (i.e., such as necking or gross mechanical issue. Decohesion may occur along grain
growth increases during the transition to stage
3 until the fatigue crack becomes unstable and
the part separates or otherwise fails. Because Table 3 Common metallurgical mechanisms of intercrystalline fracture
the crack propagation is increasingly dominated  Inherent low number of slip systems, material naturally fractures intergranularly
by the monotonic fracture mode, stage 3 fatigue  Grain-boundary films and precipitates (such as sensitization in austenitic stainless steels or improperly aged aluminum
is sensitive to both microstructure and mean alloys)
 Metallurgical embrittlement
stress (Ref 75, 106). A micrograph showing the
a. Strain aging in steels
transition from stage 2 to stage 3 is shown in b. Quench-hardened steel
Fig. 40 (Ref 107). i. Blue brittleness
ii. Temper embrittlement
iii. Quench cracking
iv. Carbonitrided and carburized cases
c. Stainless steels
i. Thermal embrittlement in maraging steels
ii. 475  C embrittlement in ferritic stainless steels
iii. Sigma-phase embrittlement
iv. 350  C embrittlement in martensitic stainless steels
 Nitrided and ferritic nitrocarburized steels (surface effect)
 Topologically close-packed phase embrittlement (nickel-base alloys)
 Service environmental factors
 Environmentally assisted sustained-peak low-cycle fatigue
 Hydrogen-assisted cracking
 Nitrogen embrittlement
 Liquid metal embrittlement, liquid-metal-assisted cracking
 Neutron irradiation embrittlement
 Stress-corrosion cracking
 Intergranular corrosion (such as in sensitized austenitic stainless steels)
 Temperature (low-temperature impact)
 Rupture of melted and resolidified grain-boundary constituents (as in overheated aluminum alloys)
Fig. 40 Secondary electron SEM fractograph showing  Grain-boundary liquation
the transition from stage 2 fatigue fracture to  Fractures > 0.4Tm (creep)
stage 3 monotonic fracture (overstress) in a turbine  Hot cracking, separation of melted material in the boundaries before it solidifies, as in cracking at the heat-affected zones
engine diffuser case wall (fabricated from a nickel-base of welds
high-temperature superalloy). Original magnification:  Dezincification and other dealloying processes
200

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 108 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

Fig. 42 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of a

fracture surface exhibiting intercrystalline
facets with microvoids. Original magnification: 606

Fig. 41 Secondary electron SEM fractograph showing intercrystalline fracture along prior-austenitic grain Fig. 43 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of
boundaries due to hydrogen-assisted cracking in a grade 8 zinc-electroplated crankshaft bolt. The bolt intercrystalline fracture due to the
was quenched-and-tempered martensite with a core hardness of 38 HRC. (a) Fracture surface along prior-austenitic application of force under conditions of incipient melting
grain facets. (b) Fracture surface showing mixed microvoid coalescence and intercrystalline fracture. (c) in aluminum alloy 2024-T6 after exposure to a fire
Intercrystalline fracture adjacent to the fractured zinc-electroplated coating

boundaries for several reasons: second-phase This includes creep deformation and rupture reference fatigue life in a controlled environ-
particles or films at grain boundaries, constituent from high-temperature exposure and various ment such as dry air or vacuum) is designated,
composition segregation at grain boundaries types of environmentally assisted cracking, such in practice, as environmentally assisted fatigue
(Ref 108), and/or environmental influence. as hydrogen embrittlement, stress-corrosion fracture or corrosion fatigue. The specific
Figure 42 shows an intercrystalline fracture with cracking, sulfide-stress cracking, liquid-metal- mechanisms at play are highly dependent on
microvoid coalescence ornamentation on the induced embrittlement, corrosion fatigue, the variables at hand (Ref 111).
grain facets, indicating that, in some instances, and thermomechanical fatigue. Environmen- The objective of microfractography is to
localized plasticity is involved rather than just tally assisted cracking can be mechanistically identify fractographic features that correspond
decohesion (Ref 109). complex, depending on the material, loading to a specific fracture micromode. With
In some instances, fracture due to the appli- conditions, environment, and microstructural environmentally assisted fatigue fracture, often
cation of force under conditions of incipient conditions. More details on environmentally the damage from a corrosive environment
melting can result in an intercrystalline frac- assisted crack initiation and growth are provided removes the fracture microfeatures (Ref 112).
ture surface, as shown in Fig. 43 (Ref 110). in the subsequent articles “Fracture Mechan- Hence, the evidence of interest may be
Sometimes this morphology can be used to isms” and “Factors Influencing Fractures and contained within the corrosion products or
confirm a minimum temperature that compo- Fracture Appearance” in this Volume. may be lost due to dissolution or sloughing
nents reached in a fire. of the corrosion product. Often, other circum-
In most instances, testing and the consider- Environmentally Assisted Fatigue stantial data must be considered for a diagnosis
ation of other factors leading to the fracture
are necessary to confirm the specific cause of
Fracture of environmentally assisted fatigue fracture.
Figure 44(a) (Ref 113) shows subtle fatigue
intergranular decohesion. For example, in liq- The fatigue fracture incubation and initia- fracture striation features with a thin surface
uid metal embrittlement, a thin film of a lower- tion processes are very sensitive to the compo- layer of corrosion product. After removing
melting-point metal is typically present on the nent surface condition and the enveloping the corrosion product with a chelating rust
fractured grain facets (generally confirmed by environment. Stage 1 extrusion-intrusion pro- remover, the remnants of fine striations can
microscopic chemical-analytical methods such cesses, demonstrated in Fig. 25 and 26, can be observed (Fig. 44b). Along with the micro-
as energy-dispersive spectroscopy). be affected by environmental exposure. For a fractography, compositional analysis of the
given surface condition, the service environ- scale, metallurgical cross-sectional analysis
ment can alter the number of cumulative load- at the origin, and other macrofracture mor-
Environmental Factors ing cycles that a component can withstand phology considerations were required to iden-
before final fracture. The reduction in cumula- tify the environmentally assisted fatigue
The environment can have important effects tive loading cycles to failure as a result of fracture mode. In some instances, striation
on crack initiation and crack growth behavior. environmental exposure (compared to a features are replaced with other features, as

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 Microscale Fracture Surface Morphologies / 109

demonstrated in Fig. 45 for an environmentally  Grain-boundary sliding/diffusion (Coble creep)

assisted fatigue fracture of an aluminum alloy (intercrystalline fracture)
airplane propeller (Ref 114). A similar situa-  Dislocation glide/climb/creep (transgranu-
tion exists for metal alloys under static stress, lar fracture, wedge cracking)
known as environmentally assisted cracking
(such as stress-corrosion cracking). In microfractographic analysis of creep frac-
tures, parameters that are typically documen-
ted and cross compared with a creep fracture
Creep Fracture map or reference fractures include:
Metals and alloys under stress can experi-  Microfracture morphology
ence permanent progressively increasing strain  Presence and nature of oxidation layers on the
by creep at temperatures above approximately fracture surface (including thickness and
0.4Tm (melting temperature, Kelvin). morphology)
The mechanisms for deformation by creep  Cross-sectional metallographic and compo-
in metallic materials are influenced by the ser- sitional analysis of the base metal (electron
vice temperature and the magnitude of the probe microanalysis) for the presence of a
applied stress. Generally, for a known material reaction zone (adjacent to the fracture
system, creep fracture maps (Ref 115–118) are surface)
often created to map the fracture mode as a
function of the normalized tensile stress (s/G As an example, the fracture surface of an
or s/E) versus the homologous temperature Inconel 100 compressor turbine engine blade
(T/Tm). Classically, there are a number of that had fractured in creep (stress rupture)
creep mechanisms: revealed an intercrystalline and interdendritic
fracture surface. Ancillary metallographic
 Bulk diffusional flow (Nabarro-Herring analysis confirmed the creep failure mode
creep) (microvoid fracture) (Fig. 46, Ref 119). A second example demon-
 Stress-assisted vacancy diffusion (disloca- strates intercrystalline fissures or wedge
Fig. 44 Secondary electron SEM fractographs of
environmentally assisted fatigue fractures tion creep) cracking (Fig. 47, Ref 120).
from a ruptured petroleum pipeline (type API 5L x52
steel). (a) Subtle striation features with corrosion
product (after detergent cleaning). (b) Fine striation
features at the fracture origin after corrosion product
removal using a chelating cleaner

Fig. 45 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of an Fig. 46 (a) Secondary electron SEM fractograph of a creep-induced fracture surface in an Inconel 100 compressor
environmentally assisted fatigue crack in an turbine engine blade, revealing intercrystalline and interdendritic fracture features. Original magnification:
aluminum alloy propeller that exhibited flutinglike 14.5
. (b) Optical metallographic cross section through the fracture surface, revealing surface oxide scale and a
features. (a) Original magnification: 150
(b) Original reaction zone (outlined by the blue dashed line). Bright-field illumination; electrolytic phosphoric acid etch. Original
magnification: 500
magnification: 230
. (c) Higher-magnification optical micrograph of reaction zone in (b). Original magnification: 1200

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 110 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking In some hydrogen-embrittled steels, the corroded as the SCC process progresses
fracture micromode can change from dimpled (Fig. 50, Ref 147; Fig. 51, Ref 148, 149). Often
When certain body-centered cubic, body- rupture to mixed-mode cleavage, cleavage, or the presence of corrosion products on the frac-
centered tetragonal, and hexagonal close- intergranular decohesion (most common). ture surfaces, along with the analysis of corro-
packed metals or alloys of such elements as These changes in fracture mode or appearance dent salts and residue, provides the basis for the
iron (steel), nickel, titanium, vanadium, tanta- may not occur over the entire fracture surface designation of an SCC mechanism (Fig. 52,
lum, niobium, zirconium, and hafnium are and are usually more evident in the region of Ref 150). Fractography is typically accompanied
exposed to hydrogen, they are susceptible to the fracture origin. Figure 48 shows an exam- by cross-sectional metallography to identify an
a type of failure known as hydrogen-assisted ple of a hydrogen-embrittled AISI 4340 steel intergranular or transgranular fracture morphol-
cracking or hydrogen embrittlement (Ref 121). that exhibits cleavage fracture and secondary ogy. There is consensus among the technical
Although the face-centered cubic metals and intercrystalline decohesion. community that there are a variety of different
alloys are generally considered to have good mechanisms for different material systems and
resistance to hydrogen embrittlement, it has been Stress-Corrosion Cracking environments. Such mechanisms include stress-
shown that the type 300-series austenitic stain- assisted directed dissolution, selective dissolution
less steels (Ref 122–125) and certain type The concomitant effects of stress and envi- vacancy creep, film-induced cleavage, corro-
2000- and 7000-series high-strength aluminum ronment on a susceptible material can lead to sion-enhanced localized plasticity, hydrogen-
alloys are also embrittled by hydrogen crack incubation (Ref 143), initiation, and enhanced localized plasticity (and other hydro-
(Ref 126–132). Although the result of hydrogen propagation in a brittle manner at stresses gen effects), and adsorption-induced dislocation
embrittlement is generally perceived to be a cat- below the ultimate strength of the metal. This emission (Ref 141, 142, 151–153).
astrophic fracture that occurs well below the ulti- failure mode is regarded as stress-corrosion
mate strength of the material and exhibits little cracking (SCC) or environmentally assisted Liquid Metal Embrittlement
ductility, the effects of hydrogen can be quite cracking (EAC). Such a failure mode was first
varied (Ref 133). They can range from a slight chronicled in approximately 1875 (Ref 121) In the case of liquid metal embrittlement
decrease in the percent reduction of area at frac- and later with cracking in copper alloys (LME), many university studies have been
ture to premature rupture that exhibits no ductil- (Ref 144). The SCC and EAC failures generally
ity (plastic deformation) and occurs at a manifest with brittle fracture features such as
relatively low applied stress compared to the intercrystalline or transcrystalline cleavage in
failure strength. materials that otherwise would exhibit ductility
The source of hydrogen may be a processing upon fracture. Generally, cracks progress
operation, such as electroplating (Fig. 41) or through the material, driven by stresses (applied
acid pickling, or the hydrogen may be acquired or residual stresses) below the ultimate strength
from the environment in which the part oper- until a critical crack length is reached and other
ates (for example, a corrosive environment or fracture modes, such as overstress or fatigue,
under cathodic protection) (Ref 134). take over (Ref 145) (Fig. 49, Ref 146). Macro-
Some of the prevailing mechanisms for scopically, SCC can exhibit crack-arrest marks,
hydrogen-assisted cracking in steels include making it similar in appearance to other progres-
hydrogen-induced decohesion (Ref 135, 136), sive cracking fracture surfaces, such as fatigue.
hydrogen-enhanced local plasticity (Ref 137), However, microscopically the fracture features
hydrogen-induced phase transformation (Ref 138), are distinct. It is a common observation that
hydrogen-enhanced strain-induced vacancy for- SCC fractures exhibit branched cracking, which
mation (Ref 139), and adsorption-induced dislo- may be documented on the fracture surface or in
cation emission (Ref 140). Probably no one metallurgical cross sections through the fracture. Fig. 49 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of a
fractured commercial airplane landing
mechanism is applicable to all metals, and sev- Depending on the SCC mechanism, the gear. The gear is fabricated from quenched-and-
eral mechanisms may operate simultaneously branched cracks may be intergranular or trans- tempered type 300M steel. The fractograph shows the
to embrittle a metal (Ref 141, 142). Whatever granular (see the article “Fracture Mechanisms” transition from stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) to
the mechanism, the end result is an adverse fatigue to final overstress fracture once a critical crack
in this Volume for more details). length was obtained. The SCC region shows well-
effect on the mechanical properties or load-car- The challenge of SCC fractography is that, defined intercrystalline facets with some microvoid
rying capacity of the metal. in some instances, the fracture surface is coalescence decoration.

Fig. 48 Cleavage fracture with secondary intercrystalline Fig. 50 Secondary electron SEM fractograph showing
Fig. 47 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of intercrystalline fracture features along with
intergranular fissures in an Inconel 100 cracks due to delayed hydrogen-induced microvoid coalescence features typical of stress-corrosion
compressor turbine engine blade that fractured under cracking in AerMet100 alloy quench hardened and cracking of a type 1095 steel spiral spring from an
creep conditions tempered to 53 HRC airplane magneto exposed to condensed moisture

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 Microscale Fracture Surface Morphologies / 111

conducted to understand the fundamental Sustained-Peak Low-Cycle Fatigue

nature of grain-boundary liquation that can Fracture
occur when a notched metal under tension
spontaneously fractures when exposed to a liq- In high-temperature turbine alloys, such as
uid metal (Ref 46, 141, 142). Although there alloy 718 DA (Ref 154), an intergranular form
are not many situations when this happens in of fatigue cracking can occur, called sustained-
modern engineering applications, it is a reason peak low-cycle fatigue (SPLCF) (Ref 155–
why low-melting-point metals (liquid at ambi- 157). Sustained-peak low-cycle fatigue is an
ent temperatures) such as mercury and gallium environmentally assisted fracture mode asso-
are not allowed near aluminum aircraft struc- ciated with cyclic loading under an extended
tures. Liquid metal embrittlement can occur hold time concomitant with an oxidizing atmo-
during brazing processes when the base mate- sphere at elevated temperature, resulting in the
rial is stressed in the presence of fused braze progressive oxidation of grain boundaries. The
filler metal. Similarly, LME can occur during oxidized grain boundaries are brittle, resulting
hot dipped galvanizing operations of weld- in an intercrystalline crack. Figure 53
ments and components. During fires, zinc and (Ref 158) shows an alloy 718 DA turbine
cadmium coatings on stressed steel structures engine disk that fractured at the surface due
or bolted joints can melt, leading to LME frac- to SPLCF, but as the fracture progressed dee-
tures of the structure; sometimes this effect is per, the fracture mode transitioned to tran-
used to support fire cause-and-origin studies. scrystalline fracture with striations, consistent
Although LME fracture surfaces can exhibit with low-cycle fatigue. The SPLCF fracture
microvoids, intergranular fracture features are typically occurs at approximately 540  C
more common. Failure analysis investigations (1000  F) and is sensitive to alloy heat treat-
often involve chemical analytical methods to ment (direct aging versus conventional heat
profile the composition of the grain surface treatment), grain size, strain amplitude, tem-
and near-surface region. perature, and hold-time duration.

Fig. 51 Secondary electron SEM fractographs

showing the fracture surface of a
commercial airplane main landing gear truck beam.
The truck beam is fabricated from type 300M steel in
the tempered martensitic condition. The truck beam
fractured as a result of stress-corrosion cracking (SCC)
due to condensed moisture exposure. The SCC was
precipitated by damage to the protective finishes on the
lower surface of the beam. Final fracture and separation of Intergranular
the beam occurred when the SCC crack grew to critical
size. (a) Fracture surface in the SCC region showing
intercrystalline fracture and corrosion deposits. (b) Low-
magnification view of the fracture surface showing the Transition
transition from intercrystalline SCC fracture to microvoid
coalescence in the final overstress fracture region

Transgranular

Fig. 52 Secondary electron SEM image of a fatigue

fracture that initiated at a region of
intercrystalline stress-corrosion cracking in a low-
service-time aluminum alloy airplane propeller blade. A
corrosion product covered portions of the surface in the
intergranular area. Two smaller intergranular fracture Fig. 53 Secondary electron SEM fractographs of a fracture in an alloy 718 DA turbine engine disk. (a) Overall
areas with similar features were observed at the camber fractograph showing the transition from intercrystalline sustained-peak low-cycle fatigue (SPLCF)
surface intersecting the fatigue region. The inner coating fracture to transcrystalline low-cycle fatigue (LCF). (b) The initiating area revealed intergranular fracture features
layer (in contact with the aluminum blade surface) had an that started at the aft face of the web and extended approximately 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) from the aft face in SPLCF.
energy-dispersive spectroscopy spectrum with a major (c) At approximately 0.25 mm (0.010 in.), the fracture surface began to exhibit transcrystalline fracture features
peak of titanium and minor peaks of zinc, chlorine, with striations, consistent with LCF. The LCF features continued for the rest of the flat fracture region until the
phosphorus, silicon, aluminum, oxygen, and carbon. transition to monotonic tension fracture.

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 112 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

Thermomechanical Fatigue (Ref 159) master rod is shown in Fig. 54 (Ref 160). In a fracture surface from an American Associa-
instances where both halves of the fracture have tion of Railroads (AAR) TC-128 grade B rail-
Thermomechanical fatigue refers to fatigue been retained, it is useful to document the macro- road tank car steel that exhibits elongated
under simultaneous changes in temperature fractographic features on both halves. Some- dimples associated with long manganese sul-
and mechanical strain. Thermomechanical times one half will retain features that have fide stringers present in the steel fracture.
fatigue encompasses several mechanisms in been damaged on the other half. However, in Microstructural artifacts such as pearlite
addition to “pure” fatigue damage, including failure analysis, often only one half of the frac- lamellae can be mistaken for fatigue striations
high-temperature creep and oxidation, which ture is retained or recovered. For example, when or dimpled rupture features, as demonstrated
directly contribute to damage. These mechan- the tip of an airplane propeller fractures, centrip- in Fig. 15 and 56.
isms differ, depending on the strain-temperature etal forces send the tip half flying into the atmo-
history. They are different from those predicted sphere, such that only one half of the fracture
by creep tests (with no reversals) and by stress- will be retained. Corrosion Damage
free (or constant-stress) oxidation tests. Micro- In fatigue, short, tight cracks can have frac-
structural degradation can occur under TMF in ture faces that remain in close contact over Corrosion damage and subsequent removal
the form of: many stress cycles, particularly in instances of corrosion product from fracture surfaces
of low-stress, high-cycle fatigue. In such cases, can obscure or remove the original fracto-
 Overaging, such as coarsening of precipi- graphic features. Sometimes vestiges of the
the fracture faces can be quite polished, and
tates or lamellae fine fracture features are no longer present. original fracture features can be faintly
 Strain aging in the case of solute-hardened observed during a careful stepwise or iterative
These scenarios are the plight of the fractogra-
systems pher, motivating them to perform fracture path corrosion product removal process. Figure 44
 Precipitation of second-phase particles shows an example of fatigue striation that
mapping and computer modeling to help
 Phase transformation within the tempera- had been obscured under layers of corrosion
understand the root cause of the failure.
ture limits of the cycle product. In another example, fractographic
analysis of a crude oil pipeline fracture
Local stresses and cracking also may result Microstructural Influences on revealed that the fracture initiated as environ-
from variations in mechanical properties or Microfracture Mechanisms mentally assisted cracks, which, upon blunting
thermal expansion coefficients between the just below the outside surface, transitioned to
matrix and strengthening particles. Inclusions, grain flow, and other attributes corrosion fatigue cracks that grew and coa-
Crack initiation within nickel-base superalloys of a microstructure can influence the fracture lesced (Ref 161, 162). The crude oil pipeline
can occur intergranularly at oxidized surface- micromorphology. For example, Fig. 55 shows fracture surface in Fig. 57 (Ref 163) shows
exposed grain boundaries or transgranularly.
Transgranular initiation can be caused by hetero-
geneous planar slip, which produces initiation
along persistent slip bands at free surfaces. Trans-
granular initiation can also occur at pores, in-
clusions, and carbides. Transgranular crack
initiation is more prominent at low temperatures Pearlite
and high frequencies. This is because contribu- colonies
tions from the creep and environmental compo-
nents of damage are minimal. The interaction of
creep damage and environmental attack and their
Fine dimple rupture
effects on crack propagation under TMF condi-
tions can be very complicated. In general, trans- 2 mm
granular crack propagation occurs with out-of-
phase creep-fatigue loading, while intergranular Fig. 56 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of a
Fig. 54 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of a steel fracture showing fracture features
fracture is observed for in-phase TMF loading fractured connecting rod from an aircraft through pearlite colonies compared with fine dimpled
within representative service temperatures at reciprocating engine. The rod is fabricated from rupture
moderate strain rates (10–3 to 10–6/s). quenched-and-tempered alloy steel, and the fracture
surface exhibits mechanical damage due to smearing.

Identification of False Features

Fracture-Surface Recontact Damage
(Smearing)
At the instance of fracture, the mating
halves of the fracture surface have the oppor-
tunity to contact or recontact each other,
sometimes repetitively, smearing surface fea-
tures and causing important microfeatures to
be damaged to the point of obliteration. In
overstress fractures, it is quite common for Fig. 57 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of the
the mating fracture faces to rub against each fracture surface near the origin in API 5LX
other or other adjacent structures after the Fig. 55 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of X52 transmission pipeline steel. The fracture initiated as
microvoid coalescence fracture in environmentally assisted cracking and then transitioned
halves of the component separate. An exam- American Association of Railroads (AAR) TC-128 grade to corrosion fatigue. Fine crack-arrest features were
ple of contact damage or rub damage on the B railroad tank car steel. The fracture was created in a observed within approximately 0.81 mm (0.032 in.)
fracture surface of an alloy steel radial engine transverse Charpy V-notch specimen at 65  C (150  F). from an origin.

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 Microscale Fracture Surface Morphologies / 113

Fig. 58 Secondary electron SEM fractograph of a

fractured turbine engine shaft. The shaft is
fabricated from GE1014 ultrahigh-strength steel. The
fracture exhibits cleavagelike transgranular features.
Original magnification: 3.46 k
. (See Fig. 59 for
reference fracture created under controlled conditions.)

the faint crack-arrest features that confirmed

the progressive nature of the fracture.

Creation of Reference Fracture

Surfaces
When little is known about the way in which
a material will fracture under certain condi-
tions, experienced failure analysts often create
a reference fracture under controlled condi-
tions to compare with an unknown fracture.
In some instances, a veritable fracture-surface
atlas may be created, mapping out specific
loading, environmental, and microstructural
conditions—sometimes in a combinatorial
manner. As an example, Fig. 58 (Ref 164)
shows a fracture surface exhibiting cleavage-
like transgranular features in a failed turbine
engine fan midshaft. To confirm the nature of
the fracture, reference specimens were
prepared and loaded in a controlled manner Fig. 59 Secondary electron SEM fractographs of a notched specimen used to create a reference fracture under
controlled hydrogen-charging parameters. The sample is fabricated from GE1014 ultrahigh-strength
under specifically controlled environmental steel. (a) Overall fracture. Original magnification: 37
. (b) Environmentally assisted fracture exhibiting cleavagelike
conditions. The fractographs in Fig. 59 transgranular features. Original magnification: 1000
. (c) Inner specimen exhibiting microvoid coalescence
(Ref 165) show a reference fracture that fracture. Original magnification: 1000
.
closely resembles the actual turbine engine
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