28

Organization Development

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to
. Define organization development (OD)
2. Enumerate the various phases of OD and the conditions for its success

3. Suggest guidelines for effective OD

4. Present different OD interventions, using a framework for their classification
5. Explain ways of developing internal OD facilitation

Organization development (OD) has been widely used in recent years as an approach
to introducing planned change in organizations. Several researchers have defined
OD in different ways. Although there are several points of agreement across definitions
special emphases are also reflected in them. The following definition is proposed by
the author': OD is a planned effort initiated by process specialist{s) to help an
organization develop its diagnostic skills, coping capabilities, linkage strategies (in
the form of temporary and semi-permanent systems), and a culture of mutuality.

DEFINITION OF OD
Several important dimensions of OD are contained in the above definition. Some
elaboration of these dimensions may be useful.
Planned effort OD is a planned effort and therefore requires a great deal of
thinking and planning on the part of the OD expert.

Initiated by process specialists Knowledge and skills of the applied behavioural

sciences are used in OD. It is, therefore, best initiated by an expert who has bon
knowledge of the applied behavioural sciences and the skill of applying this knowleage
in the organizational situation. This effort
may be taken over by the organization in
the long run and an internal resource be
developed to carry on the work. However,
in the beginning, behavioural science consultants are usually called in.
Diagnostic skills The emphasis in OD is on planning change on the basis of
Data is collected over a daa
period of time about several
aspects of the
its problems as
part of this effort. OD tries to develop the organization a
diagnose its problems. The emphasis is not only on the organization's capacity
developing these skills in the organization sodiagnosis
but also on of current problems
that it can diagnose its ow"
problems in the course of its regular functioning.
 Organization Development 757

Coping capabilities The main thrust in OD is

solving abilities.
on the organization's
The organization is thus helped to develop its ability to problem
confront
cope with oroblems it faces, but OD does not stop there.

OD emphasises the
Linkage strategies building of links between individual goals
nd organizational goals, between individuals who work in the various roles, and
hetween various groups that function in the organization. Problems in the organization
ean be resolved only through collaborative effort. One emphasis of OD, therefore, is
an building such collaboration in the organization. This is done, among other ways,
hy setting up temporary systems such as task forces and by making structural changes
collaboration.
that ensure continuing
Culture and mutuality OD is based on certain values that are important for the
development of organizations as open and proactive systems. OD fosters a set of
sDecific values: openness, confrontation, trust, authenticity, proactivity, autonomy
collaboration, and experimentation (OCTAPACE). Openness implies confronting
problems rather than avoiding them. Confrontation means exploring ways of
improving relationships among individuals and searching for solutions to the problems
the organization faces together. Trust is both the result of these values and an aid to

generating mutuality in the organization. Authenticity is the value underlying trust

it is the willingness of a person to acknowledge his or her own feelings and accept
both himself or herself and others. This value is important for the development of a
culture of mutuality. Another value emphasised by OD is proactivity. Instead of
merely reacting to situations, the organization should take the initiative in influencing
the situation. Autonomy is another value emphasised. An individual who does
not

feel threatened in seeking help from others to cope with problems is an autonomous
because only an autonomous
person. Autonomy involves collaboration and mutuality,
her collaborative initiative as a sign of
person can collaborate and not perceive his or
that individuals
weakness or inferiority. Collaboration is itself emphasised as a value so
Work in teams instead of working independently to solve their problems and develop
commitment to their roles and to the organization.

OPERATIONAL GOALS OF OD
In this respect, OD
he OD approach to change treats the organization as a system.
1s ditferent from action research. While the latter may attempt to tind solutions to a

without much regard for related organization, the former takes

issues in the
PrODlem the organization in
a whole. This means understanding
ew of the organization as
of the organization. A
elation to the environment as well as the internal dynamics
the various dynamics
Lematic view of the organization would imply understanding
stable systems in the
its interface with the environment; the
organization: various
the collaborative working relationships among
o n ; interteams, that is, the organization consists;
the organization; teams, that is, groups of which a team; and
nte the various members of
interpers
Ons, that is, the relationship among
758 The Organization

finally, the most important, the individuals who work in the organization. To
accomplish all this, OD has to work with certain operational goals.

Person The individual is the central entity in OD. Although the goal of OD is to
produce change in the organization, the individual working in the organization is the
most important vehicle of change and hence the best target. The development of
Sell-awareness and self-acceptance is the main goal in working with the individuals in
an organization.
Often, individuals are alienated and OD must focus on their integration into the
organization. It then focuses on the individuals' motivation by helping them to learn
how to set realistic and challenging goals so that they have a sense of satisfaction and
a taste of challenge. This helps individuals develop the skills of planning so that goals
can be divided into smaller, achievable units. OD thus attempts to develop the skills,
knowledge, and ability of individuals.

Interperson The individual's competence depends on his or her interpersonal

effectiveness. OD tries to open up communication among the various people working
in the organization with a view to increasing their interpersonal competence. It tries
to foster what we have called the OCTAPACE values.

Teams Teams' implies both temporary systems as well as permanent or semi-

permanent groups in the organization. By developing teams, OD tries to work on
establishing continuous improvement mechanisms in the organization. These are
mainly in the form of temporary systems. These mechanisms can help the organization
build its ability to cope with problems.

Interteams Regarding the interface between teams and groups in the organization,
OD aims at developing the ability of teams to manage conflicts and developing
collaboration among them in order to further the attainment of individual and
organizational goals.
Organization The organization is the stable entity that uses the individuals and
the various teams ior the attainment of its goals. OD helps the organization as a
whole in its goal-setting process. It also helps the organization develop internal
resources to carry on the work, which may be started by an outside expert. However,
the new role of an internal OD facilitator is important for the continuing growth or
development of the organization.

Interface with environment OD deals with the organization's ability t to transact

with the environment through both adaptive as well as
proactive behaviours.
Adaptation is not the same as adjustment. The changing environment may demand
certain changes within the organization so that it can continue an effective transaction
with the environment. Proactive behaviour is equally important when the
needs to produce change and initiate new action. organization
Compared to several other countries,
India seems to be in a better position given that several of its
organizations, especially
 Organization Development 759
the
those in the public sector, are in a
position to
that may have
long-term and influence national issues and policies
widespread
al for taking proactive action effects.
Organizations should
uld realise their
ootential and help
the country.
to
develop a congenial environment in

NDITIONS
FORTHE SUCCESs OF OD
Be we discuss the various
phases of OD
eoranizations, it may be useful to
programmes and how OD works in
orga consider the various conditions
essful use of OD in an
organization. In the absence of these necessary for
tikely to succeed. One way to create these conditions is to conditions, OD 1s
start an OD
OD may then attempt to create the programme.
conditions are as follows:
preconditions for full-scale OD work. These

Commitment from top OD cannot succeed unless

the
peoplefrom the top at the are
committed to what is being done. By definition, OD has to begin top. In
many organizations, the top people may
be in favour of OD but are not in favour
of
making changes in certain aspects and avoid getting involved themselves in the
effort of change. In the absence of such a commitment, OD cannot succeed.

Strong linkpins OD can succeed only if what Likert describes as 'linkpins are
strengthened. These are the roles that connect various levels and various parts of the
organization. These roles are extremely important because change can flow through
these key roles and they can become the main media of communication in the
organization. In some organizations, these roles may not be visible and several parts
of the organization may be functioning almost independently of each other, with
only the head of the organization coordinating the various parts. An absence of
strong linkpins is not conducive to the use of OD in the organization.

Wilingness and resources in a department OD can be successful if at least one

and has resources that
department in the organization is both willing to experiment
can be used to stabilise the changes introduced through
OD. It is necessary to

stabilise change in the organization and this can

be done by making sure that the
If at least one
will continue in at least one part of the organization.
nnovation into the organization
is for this kind of work, OD can make an entry
aepartment ready see the effect of OD in
that one
later be spread out when other departments
nd in which there are
If organization does not have any department
partment. an
this kind of change, OD
is not likely
to effect
wingness as well as resources

succeed.
for various reasons, an
consultant In the beginning,
OIvement of external OD effort. He or she not only brings
a successful for that an
consultant is necessary
issues in the organization
a several skill
s e , but is helpful in
confronting
e v e n though
he or she has the
to deal with, certain risks and can
person may find difficult c a n take
An
and external OD
consultant
to do so. An
y
 confront the organization to some extent. In due course,, however, the external
and internal members can take over.
consultant withdraws from the organization
is to develop strong
internal resources One of the objectives of OD
Strong
internal resources in the organization, enabling it to continue the work the external
consultant may start. For this, it is necessary that such internal resources are identified
These people should be able to replace the external consultant. Such a replacemert
has to be properly phased so that there is an overlapping between the external
consultant and the internal facilitator. In organizations where such people have been
identified and developed, OD efforts are stabilised and the organization is able to
continue to develop along the lines laid down by the consultant.

PHASES OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

The OD programme develops through certain phases. The purpose of discussing
these phases is to see how the OD programme flows. Although there will be variations,
and some elements of these phases may either overlap or come in a different order,
OD generally goes through the following phases.

Entry into the Organization

The first phase of OD is the establishment of a rapport between the external consultant
and the organization. During this phase, the external consultant enters an organization
and establishes both his or her identity and understanding with the organization
regarding the purpose of OD. There are several ways in which a consultant enters an
organization. He or she may either be called in by the organization for a specific
problem or may be called to discuss the possibility of a general OD programme
leading on to various kinds of OD activities. In any case, the following may occur
during the first phase:

Obtaining preliminary information The external consultant collects preliminary

information about the organization in order to understand its nature. În orderto
have an overview of the organization, he or she may look at various reports and
other papers or may go round the organization so as to acquaint himself or herself
with its technology and get a general view of its size and type, etc.

Interviewing key persons The consultant collects information not only through a
general survey and reading of the available material but also through interviews with
those who determine the culture of the
organization. The main purposes or
interviewing these key people is to understand their value systems and the various
roles in the organization and to
develop a shared understanding about mainly two
things: first, the assumptions which they are operating and performing their roles
on
and second, the chief actors in the
to understand the
organization. It is necessary for the organization
assumptions on which the consultant will
operate and for the
consultant to understand how the chief
people
helps to develop a healthy relationship between
in the organization
operate. This
the consultant and these
key people.
 Organizati Development 761
a impse of
glimpse of the
Dr process
etting The
look inside the OD
process. consultant may also have
One useful
to
s
of
meetings of
people,
top in the way to
do this is to sit
an
opportunity
agrs and the
organization as well
as some
other
in on a few
way difterences are voiced
in
in me
sight tha
more insight than an interview can. It and resolved groups. Discussions
may therefore be useful sometimes give much
nnOrtunity to observe the
dynamics of the interactional for consultants to find
process.
Making a presentation on the OD approach
arcanization, the consultant makes a Finally, before OD is taken up in
volves. The presentation may be made topresentation
the top
on what OD is
and what it
hey have an opportunity to ask questions and raisepeople in the organization so that
doubts. Such a meeting is
11Seful to allay any fearS about OD. In some cases, a very
top person from another
Tganization where OD has been used can be invited to
experiences with the group on how OD
share his orinformally
her
was introduced in his
her organization or
and what it did and did not do. As a result of such a
meeting, the consultant may
either be finally invited to initiate the OD programme or the
top group may feel that
their organization is not yet ready for OD programmes.

Problem Identification
After the first phase is over and if the OD consultant has been invited to work with
the organization, the second phase begins. The main purpose of the second phase is
to understand the main problems facing the organization. This understanding has to
be developed by working with several people in the organization. In addition to
collecting preliminary data, the consultant now gives his or her detailed attention to
OD strategy. The following elements are involved in this phase.
Interview The consultant interviews people at several stages. In addition to

interviewing the top people, he or she interviews people at various other levels and
collects information based on these interviews. The consultant keeps his or her eyes
in the organization. For example,
pen to see what would ordinarily be neglected
the supervisor, the consultant may observe
ue crossing the shop floor to interview at another person or of people busy
in
1Ours such as that of a person shouting
small group, etc. The
consultant notes down important
Tried conversation in a
observations.
the consultant will
Data collection As a result of interviews with several people,
Collection the organization to
havODtained enough information to select certain aspects of
in the organization
work o r she may, for example,
find that the main problem
is lae He find that people
feel they do not get enough
t r u s t in another, or may
one data in order to go
consultant then collects m o r e
respo
int Dility in their roles. The collection is to use various
The usual way of data
inst details of the problem. instruments
Such yield data about
may
ents to be filled out by individuals.
ind
ndividuals as well as grou processes.
 The instruments used may focus on such aspects ot the
organization
motivational patterns, perception of leadership styles,
problems, delay, work satisfaction and role tension. They are
eption
perception ofof various
varioe t e
kinds of
cimate,
standard instruments or are especially prepared by the
either availof
consultant. Data o
through structured instruments helps systematically getting information okon
in
organization. Many things that may not come out in the interview can be
such data. In many cases, it learnt
may not be possible to interview the
the large number
people in the organization, and data collection through instrumentslarge numbe
may he.
of
convenient. more

Diagnosis After data collection, the consultant tries to diagnose the main
Diagnosis takes into account not only the data collected through the problems
also the data from the interviews well
instruments hutut
as as observations and notes made.
consultant gains The
a
preliminary understanding of the diagnosis, prepares notes on t
and obtains some
understanding of what the problems are and which of them are
more
important than others.

Strategy planning The consultant then sits with the main

people in the organization
in order to give feedback to them first and
work with them on deciding what to do.
During this part of the second phase, a shared understanding of where the
will go from here is organization
necessary. During strategy planning, the first step is
feedback on the consultant's giving
diagnostic
Then the consultant works out various understanding to the top
people.
alternatives for dealing with the problem
that was identified and
agreed on. He discusses the consequences of using different
alternatives. This helps the client group
get involved in the decision about the
intervention to be used. At this stage, the choice of
the consultant is always terminating the relationship with
open. The consultant helps the client to commit himself or
herself to the OD work. Once the
strategy is planned, it is a strategy to whicn
client is committed; the client can commit
to a particular action plan only when ie
or she is clear about what is
involved.
Specific Intervention
After planning the strategy for
selected and implemented. An
change, specific intervention should be desigmed
intervention is a planned structural group of acuivities
to achieve the goals of OD. Such
an intervention specitic
structural changes, working on may be in the torm o
work at the top level, etc. Eachconflicts,
team building in a particular
depa
intervention requires a detailed plan. Two
aspects of interventions are as follows:
Team building One of the is d
goals
of any intervention used in organization

build the teams in it. Team

building may be done either
an
orgaua mmes

or
through specific activity on which they have to through specia es team
building exercises are held in quick succession work together. 01ing and
culture of mutuality so that a shared
may be developed and the teams understa nction

effectively in the intervention chosen. be may

 Collaborative work n Organization Development 763
Ork
continued work on
on team intervention Both
one jointly by the building,
nsultant
it is as a
result of
and the necessary that the workteam building and for
areable to collect.
data, and work out variousis teams that on the intervention is
the
ay
result in further
strategy planning. details. In practice,have
such
been identified
and
Building a Collaborative Culture collaborative work
ale work on the
Whil
intervention is going
lture in the on, it is
OD effort. organizaion. necessary
l his is
culmination of andbuild collaborative
both the to a
The following
steps are
involved during this a
necessary part of
Data collection After the phase:
use of an
teams that have been formed
jointly
intervention,
the consultant and
collect data the various
has taken place and to what extent if in
order to see whether
Data may be collected any change
interviews and/or through the use of yes. again, through
specific instruments.
Review The consultant looks at all the
data collected and holds
with the groups of the client
organization in order to review and joint meetings
assess what OD
work has been effective so far. In such reviews, either the
the various teams are involved. It top people or members of
depends on what is being reviewed and for what
purpose.

Formation of temporary teams As a result of the review work to sustain the OD

eforts, teams are formed with theresponsibility of continuously collecting data and
planning a strategy to continue OD by having subsequent and frequent meetings.

Planning of next phase The organization and the consultant together plan the
next phase. This is done mainly by the top people and the consultant in a joint

meeting. They may, for example,decide that the next phase should have more to do
are needed, or that a particular
with process work, that specific structural changeswork. At this stage, it is necessary
uepartment should be taken for more intensive
up
involvement he or she would like to have in
1Or the consultant to decide how much take on some responsibility.
internal person is able to
e process and to ensure that an

Resources
Development of Internal this in fact continues through
the last phase,
Altho
ough this has been mentioned as
consultant identifies
an internal resource

mentioned. The e n s u r e his or

her
as to
r p h a s e s already him or her so
works with the person is If
the beginning and of OD programmes.
ac various aspects
plans are worked out
acceptability as consultant on

of his or her professional

abilities,
Investment of the
nothstrong
o 8 enough
in terms
professionally
as an
OD
consultant.

internal
resource

to
help E person develop
in the
development

work and
of an

sustained
efforts. HRD
external consultant's time time and
energy
of speedy major bank,
HRD
In one
perso OD is paid off in terms

effective
OD
resources.

often
manag and trainers
rs are
764 The Organization

managers and trainers in its training institutions have been extensively

involved in
functioning not only as internal OD resource people but also as external consultants
to various branches and other sub-systems of the bank.

SOME GUIDELINES FOR ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Experience has shown that certain considerations are important in a pragmatic

approach to OD programmes in an organization. These may help to increase the

probability of success of an OD effort. The following suggestions may be made in
this regard:
Choose receptive points for entry Only a few points of entry should be chosen
for OD. Instead of either attempting to introduce change in the entire organization at
once or taking up departments in which there are difficulties, it may be useful to
enter an organization through those departments that are willing to change and want
to do something about their problems. These are the healthy parts of the organization
and may, therefore, provide greater facility for introducing change.
AppendixB

A GUIDE
FOR TRAINERS TO
THE TECHNIQUES
OF ORGANIZATION
DEVELOPMENT (OD).

MACRO OD INTERVENTIONS

Diagnostic and Planning Approaches

interventions Survey/feedback interventions con-
Survey/feedback
perceptions of an organization by
tof a process of collecting systematic face-to-face interviews. The
through written questionnaires or
embers members foor
is summarized and fed back to organization
thus gathered used to identify organi-
of the results. It is typically
nterpretation ss groups
across groups and
compare perceptions
and problems, a baseline
baseline to be
hieradl strengths within the organization, and to establisha
hierarchical leve
usednical levels ions. Organization mem-
subsequent actions. Organization
used to evaluate following
plans to address the issues
bere evaluate change to formulate action
themselves are expected (Feedback andOrganiza-
identifie Nadler's 1977 book
ionalthrough the survey.
Methods) provided a
handy reference
Using Data Based intervention.
for evelopment: as an OD
for using approach of as a diag.
ethe su thought
survey/feedback be
meetings should intervention.
AS an OD
Sensingg meetings
meetings Sensing information.

nostic
nostic ttool
to for
r an organized
collection of

357
358 Appendix B
tape
recorded group
unstructured but
the format of a series
of units. The manager or
takes
t similar rank but differing to gain
of general questions
nterviews of employees interviews asks
conducting the a s seen by a broad
Cnange agent issues, and r e s o u r c e s
used to assess the
on the needs, c o n c e r n s , methods a r e
u Ormatuon Polling are
organization members. tape recoraings
spectrum of and
issues the
relative strength of feelings regarding feelings of the members. Fordyce
epitomize the
to find quotes that to utilize
this approach.
reviewed description of how the per-
and
weil (1971) provided a
Organizational
mirroring
utilizes

Organizational mnirroring clients, customers,

and/or organizations (e.g.,
spectives of individuals with the focal organiza-
etc.) who interface
Vendors, divisional
counterparts,
time directly observing
examined. They are asked
to spend s o m e
tion being are
back to the
then fed
as it functions. Perceptions in his book
a group or organization described this technique
tocal organization. McGill (1977)
Managers.
Organization Development for Operating of the scientific
research is an application
Action research Action
identification, solution exploration,
method of a data gathering, problem the use of the
a framework for
experimentation, evaluation cycle. It provides an OD inter-
a framework for
survey/feedback approach but represents
collection and action planning.
vention that includes any form of data
a clear description of the cycles
of the action
Frohman et al. (1976) provided
research model.
The force field analysis This is a framework for the examination of
behavior. It
perceptions, goals, problems, and causes of organizational
culminates in action plans aimed at reducing obstacles to change and
capitalizing on forces that would support movement toward desired goals.
The model, originally designed by Kurt Lewin (1951) to analyze grouap
dynamics, recommends that members describe the organization's present
and ideal state; estimate the strength of each of the forces; and develop
action plans emphasizing the reduction of the restraining forces. Hall et al.
(1982) described the application of these procedures for the interested
reader.
The confrontation meeting This is four to eight hour
a
meeting of a
total management group drawn from all levels of the
quick reading on the organization's
organization to take a
health and set action
it. After top management has explained the
plans for
improving
goals for the
meeting and set a
tone of openness, managers are
assigned to small groups
diagonal slice" of the organization s hierarchy. The representing a
and discuss what they see as the groups are to identity
major concerns facing organization
members and what the causes of these concerns
records the main points of their discussion on seem to be. Each
group
the sheets are posted
and reviewed by the totallarge newsprint sheets. After
reassigned to functional/ natural work group, managers are
manufacturing to another, etc.)units (e.g., all sales managers
to discuss in one
how the concerns as
 A Guide for Trainers to the Techniques of OD 35

affect their area. The groups then prioritize the concerns according
ed
Pshe order they feel toP management should address them. Action plans
toveloped.
developed.
The total group is reconvened and each unit reports to a
a r e

of top managers. This panel provides immediate reactions to the

paner

pas and ma
rts and makes commitments to action as they see fit. All managers are
e d to make_plans TOr reporting what went on at the meeting to tneir
asked t o
Subordinates.
nates. Ton
Top managers are expected to follow through on their
sumitments immediately. Beckhard (1969) provided interested readers
readers
0provided

with a short
but excellent reference.
that
Open systems planning Open systems planning is an approach
highlights the need to understand the external as well as the internal
envir
uironment of an organization in order to assess and plan changes.
are formed and asked to create a description of the
Planning groups interactions
orcanization's present situation in terms of expectations for and
its external and The groups are then asked
internal environments.
hetween external and internal
on the tuture and predict changes in the
to focus
intervention is instituted ('realistic future
enyironments if no deliberate
and executed ("idealistic future
scenario") and again if changes are planneddiscussed and plans are developed
Scenario"). The scenarios are shared and of
action programs. Jayaram (1976) presented examples
across groups for
an alternative approach.
how to use this model. Adams (1975) presented Grid OD repre-
Grid OD As presented by Blake and Mouton (1969),
sents a comprehensive strategy
that involves virtually the entire organization
are assessed along two dimensions:
in a longitudinal effort. Leader's styles
concern for people.
Individual development
concern for productivity and
on both dimensions.
plans established to encourage leaders to improve
are

Each leader c o n v e n e s his or her team to identify

strengths and problems
schedule tor
established and a
Goals are realistic
experienced by the team. Representatives from all groups
achievement of these goals is developed. and
a model of
desired relationships between groups
then meet to identify toward that model. A planning grouup
drawn to m o v e the groups
plans are up
information generated by
the Grid process and
S formed to utilize the the entire organization's
procedures,
uvelop a strategic plan
to move
an ídeal model. The
structure, policy, etc., toward becoming The process
Cves, monitored, and critiqued.
uategic plan is implemented, if all phases are
a three to six year span
erally takes place across

attempted. popular goal-setting and planning

approach
Futuring Futuring is a
future direction their organi-
used to encourage
enco influence the
members to to a series of
share answers
zation take. Participants respond and from today. Will this
organization
quest it is 10 years
such as "Imagine to belong to it? Why?"
different? Would you want
texist? How will it be Participants may
also be asked to describe
Lindaman &Lipp p. 9).
theiran & Lippitt, 1979, their organization is
like n o w and how they feel
DServations of what
360 Appendix B

about
that, to quickly share what they areproud and sorry about regarding
current activities, nonactivities, and characteristics of their organization, as
well as
to fantasize what they would prefer their organization to be like at
Some point
in the future. Lindaman and Lippitt (1979) provided the
interested reader with whole series of
a questions and exercises to facilitate
this process. Once some future goals are
agreed to, task forces are formed to
plan what is needed to assist the organization's effort to achieve these
Public celebrations of progress toward goal attainment
goals.
are recommended
by most futurists.

Technostructural Approaches
Job enrichment/job redesign This includes
increase the motivating factors of a any systematic effort to
job order to enhance the job holder's
in
satisfaction and performance levels
"Two Factor Theory of Job Satisfaction"simultaneously. Herzberg's famous
for many of these efforts. (Herzberg, 1968) provided the basis
According to the theory, "hygiene factors" (e.g.,
pay, job security, working conditions,
motivation in workers, but merely safety) do not create satisfaction or
prevent dissatisfaction if provided for.
"Motivator factors" (e.g., responsibility,
learning, growth opportunities) available to
achievement, accomplishment,
determine job satisfaction/motivation. So
a worker on his or her job
the jobs of
changed that more motivator factor
so targeted workers are
performance of the job. If the job is opportunities are built into the
are improved and/or changed such that only
hygiene factors
variety increased by
in the person's
assignments, it is referred including new, but routine, tasks
to
as job
Hackman and Oldham (1980) enlargement.
suggested
assessing the characteristics of the job(s) a
strategy that involves
dimensions (skill variety, task identity, targeted for change on five core
feedback) using the Job Diagnostic Surveytask significance, autonomy,
autonomy, and
ana
Survey generates a measure of (Hackman
the motivation & Oldham, 1975). The
iob holder's motivation,
satistaction, growth
potential of a given job. 1nc
are also assessed to determine uhot needs, and performance leyas
 ORIENTED OD
R O U P - O )

INTERVENTIONS
Teambuilding

This is a set of team development activities aimed at accomplishing one

m o r e
ofthe following purposes:
or

. To set goals and/or priorities.

2
Ta analyze
allcate the way work is
or
performed.
Ta examine the way a group is working; its processes (such as norms,
decision making, communications).
To examine relationships among the people doing the work (Beckhard,
1972, p. 23).
Teambuilding methodologies can be applied to any group of people with
cammon organizational relationships (committees, departments, top manage
and/or c o m m o n purpose. Dyer's 1977 book served as a useful
ment, etc.)
involved.
overview of the methodologies and procedures

QWL/EI Processes
Joint Union-Management Quality of Work Life (QWL/Employee Involve
unionized
arealmost any OD intervention in a
actually
ment (El) Approaches interven-
most QWL/EI efforts rely heavily on small group
setting. However, r e a s o n s . Nadler
and Lawler (1983)
tions for structural and developmental
effort are "(1) a
distinctive elements of a QWL/EI
Suggested that the as well as on
organization
of work on people
Concern for the impact of participation in organizational problem
effectiveness and (2) the idea whether to commit to
After exploring
SOIving and decision making"
(p. 26). entitled a QWL/EI Steering
QWL/EI, a group (usually function.
caperimenting with attempts to help
the group
consultant the principles
Ommittee) is formed and
a
mission of the QWL/EI effort,
the
Its
Purpose is to determine
sites where experiments
will be attempted,
continue the
the pilot needed to
LOVern the process,
and
resources

all organiza
the progres of the effort, the support process
throughout
ef gress diffuse the
QWL ement inin matters
matters

effort,
tiona
and the m e a n s to
expected
involvement
to avoid is usually
subsystem This p r o c e s s is bargaining process. The process
tional systems.
und
der the doma of the collective (one fron
om manage-
co-facilitators

COOrd:C domain by committee.

the steering
Coordinated day-to-day
process

union)
who report
to
departmental
(often
(often called
called

ent and oneone from

from the
the developed
at

Problem-solving
Ving groups groups
are
employee participation groups, or employee involvement groups, or core
groups) or hierarchical levels on a permanent basis or cross-functional, ad
hoc task forces focused on
a specific problem on a temporary basis. These
groups generally meet once a week for one to one and one-half hours. The
steering committee generally meets once a month, but more frequently prior
to the launch of the other
groups.

Quality Control Circles

Q circles are an intervention developed by Americans, such as Drs.
Deming and Juran, to address the quaity control problems in Japanese
industries after World War II. Employees working together in small problem
solving groups (circles) are trained primarily in statistical prOcess control
and problem-solving techniques. The groups apply the training to identify
problems (especially quality control problems) occurring in their group's
work pertormance. Solutions to the problems are developed by the groups
and presented to management who retains the power to accept or reject the
solutions. Most implementations of QCs are not truly OD efforts, but can
assist job enrichment, QWL, and other OD approaches (Yager, 1981). Any of
several recent books will provide the interested reader with comprehensive
views on QC circles (e.g., Dewar, 1982; Ingle, 1982; Barra, 1983).

The increased popularity of teambuilding interventions has also resulted

in the development of a number of other OD interventions aimed at
enhancing teambuilding efforts. In particular, techniques to clarify teamn
goals, roles, decision-making procedures, and group processes have been
successfully advanced. In addition, methods to assist coordination and
reduce conflict between groups have also been developed. These two sets of
techniques belong here in our discussion of group-oriented OD techniques
and include the following.

Collaborative Management-By-0bjectives (CMBO)

This isteam-centered approach to goal setting. It is modeled after
a
the management-by-objectives (MBO) approach (see section
on Individual
Oriented OD techniques) but emphasizes the
development of mutual
support systems within a group and attempts to utilize
these informal
networks in order to accomplish agreed upon team goals. A
oroanization members are asked to cross-section of
identify and analyze problems facing the
organization as a whole. A series of
workshops are then
out the organization to explain the CMBO process andconducted through-
share the group's
analysis of the organization s problems. The readiness of the organization for
CMBO is assessed and, ifready, the top management team is asked to
by consensus what the organization s
overall decide
goals and objectives will be.
 A Guide for Trainers
to the Techniques of OD 365
t then meets and decides
gach abiectives are essential to(by consensustheagain, if possible) what unit
iectives.
jectives. Individual achieving overall organization
nd oorientedIndividual managers
a n d

are then
that also address expected to develop specitic,
goals
results-
objectives
f theto achieve responsibilities of team members
roles and re career and
development goals.
are unclear, time
b etaken clarity on these matters must first
tives
ard objecti should be reviewed throughout the team. Progress
to on a
hordinate must schedule a formal continuous basis, but superior
agreed upon time period. The CMBOperformance review at the end of
the agre
adjuststed, and recycled on a yearly basis. Theprocess
an should be rediagnosed,
French and Hollman (1975). interested reader is referred to

JET and RAT

job expectation technique (JET) and role

The
are two very similar analysis technique (RAT)
techniques used to enhance a teambuilding
rlarifying the roles and expectations of every member of a effort by
its manager. They can be very useful when a group including
new team is formed, a new
member is added to an
existing team, or as a
resolvemeans to
stemming from role ambiguity or role conflict. After verifying the problems
need for
RAT or JET, enough time must be found to address the issues
(allowing
approximately three hours per role) at an off-site session. A
clear commit
ment to the process must be gained and confirmed
bymanagement. Each
job incumbent, beginning with the manager, describes his or her own duties,
responsibilities, and what expectations he or she has of other group
members. Group members comment on the incumbent's perceptions and
Suggest additions and deletions. The incumbent then agrees to write up his
or her new job description to incorporate any changes decided on and
Submit it to the group for approval. Each member in turn goes through the
dne process. Interested readers will find Dayal and Thomas (1968) a useful
ererence on the RAT and Huse and Barebo (1980) on the JET. Huse (1980)
pointed out that "JET and RAT both appear in the literature, but are
LIErent terms for what is essentially an identical process (p. 293).

Role Negotiation Method

he role negotiation method was depicted as a "tough minded
Proach to role clarification by Harrison (1973). Individuals institute
roles pertormed by other
indS, through direct negotiation, in the
ividuals of the same group. Negotiations on elements listed on a person's
tormal JOD
job description,
descrif as well as informal understandings, arrangements,
and expectations, as they are directly
related to the work
Perfor duons, are allowed as long
be used to deal with interpersonal
Pertormance.
SSues su ance. This technique is not tofeel about each other. Under a very
u c n as how group members
 366 Appendix B

lists of what they want each ofho.

procedure, individuals develop
structured
member to do less often, more often,
or ditterently.
ListS
are exchanged and
agreed to on a
one-to-one, quia pro quo basi
behavioral changes are
identitied and all
Sanctions for failing to live up to an agreement are each
and signed by party. Tha
negotiations are described in writing and based on the premise
procedures are clear cut and logical
echniques state ot
settlement to a unresolved
that most people prefer a fair, negotiated
conflict. Interested readers should refer to Harrison's 1973 article for more

details.

The Transition Meeting

The transition meeting is a team goals and roles clarification techniaue
utilized when there is a change in team leadership. Its purpose is to reduce
misconceptions, alleviate subordinates apprehension, and reduce the time
needed for the new leader to effectively work with the group. Premeeting
interviews are conducted by a consultant or staff person with the outgoing
leader, the new leader, and possibly one or two group members. Issues
identified through these interviews help establish the agenda for the
meeting. The meeting itself should primarily clarify expectations. Follow-up
discussions should be arranged to encourage support for actions and to
identify new problem areas. Mitchell (1976) provides the interested reader
with more information.

Process Consultation
Process consultation is a feedback and
agenda-setting intervention
whereby consultant describes his or her observations of how the
a
works as a team and/or sets aside some time for group
the group to address
process issues listed by the consultant. The
purpose is to raise awareness of
strengths as well obstacles the group
as

together. The discussion is not to address thegeneratates

in efforts to work
is attempting nor content of the work the group
merely to evaluate the group's overall effectiveness. It is to
help the group improve its own
can be used with individuals as problem-solving capacity. The intervention
well as groups. Once
how it goes about the group is aware of
functioning
how to capitalize on
a
as team, should generate action
it
plans for
its
has been written on this
strengths and how to
overcome its obstacles. Much
approach to OD work. The interested
best start with Schein's 1969 book
on the reader might
topic.
The Nominal Group Technique
The nominal group technique is a
carefully structured,
technique to gain ideas or make decisions
issue or problem is defined for a in a
chosen group of
problem-solving
time-efficient manner. An
people and each member
 A Guide for Trainers to the Techniques of OD 367
silently
asked to silent write down his or her response
ns may be to
identify to the matter.
instruct causes of the
problem The
itator
The facilitator. asks each member to read aloud the most
or solutions to the
p r o b r

his or her list and the important

nse
respons:
on
facilitator posts the respon
veral rounds ot
chart. Several r o u n d
having each onse on a flip
person read elements off his or her
ducted and members
are c o n d u c t e d ar
are
asked list
in the group has already listed. not to provide a response that
sOmeon
Group members may question
ondents inorder to clarity the meaning of an item
provided but they are
resSpnat to discuss whether they agree or disagree. After all responses trom
he group exhausted,
exh
are each member is
given certain numb of votes
a
the 10) to cast for the items he or she feels are the
unses to the isue. The votes are tabulated and used asmost important
a reflection of
Te grouun's decision on thenmatter. Interested readers are referred to Van de
and Delbecq (1971) for more information on this technique.

Intergroup Mirroring or Image Exchange

This is a technique used to uncover misperceptions and sources of
conflict between two groups. Groups tirst work separately to complete
three lists in response to these questions: (1) How do we perceive ourselves
as a group? (2) How do we perceive the other group? and (3) What do we
predict that the other group will say about our group? The two groups
exchange lists and sufficient time is allocated to read each other's responses.
A discussion is then facilitated by the OD practitioner (or staff person,
were held in common by both
manager, etc.) to identify what perceptions
to exist. Subgroups
groups and what misperceptions and problems appear
with the
are formed with equal representation from the original groups
uncovered in the discus-
purpose of identifying solutions for the problems
Sion. The solutions are later presented at a meeting with all parties to agree
refer to Burke (1975) for
of action. The interested reader should
to a course
more information.

Third-Party Peacemaking the OD practi-

conflict resolution effort where
This is an intergroup establish his
The consultant attempts to
role of mediator.
Oer takes on the involved in the conflict
to develop an
the parties
ner neutrality and get the dispute. Attempting to use
rational

v e statement defining facilitates

skills, the consultant
methods and active listening should avoid
th -solving The consultant
themselves.
solution rather
coming to a
comment
herselt, but
attem to solve the problem
himself or to
ng progressing (or failing
thr the parties
are
turn to, but
ughout
Progrece
the on how
process
variety of s o u r c e s to
progress). nterested readers have a large matter.
might
might best start with Walton's book (1969) on the