4 Polynomial Functions

4.1 Graphing Polynomial Functions

4.2 Adding, Subtracting, and Multiplying Polynomials
4.3 Dividing Polynomials
4.4 Factoring Polynomials
4.5 Solving Polynomial Equations
4.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
4.7 Transformations of Polynomial Functions
4.8 Analyzing Graphs of Polynomial Functions
4.9 Modelingg with Polynomial
y Functions

SEE the Big Idea

Quonset H
Quonset ut ((p.
Hut p. 21
218)
8)

Zebra Mussels (p. 203)

Ruins of Caesarea (p. 195)

Basketball (p. 178)

Electric Vehicles (p. 161)

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 Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency
Simplifying Algebraic Expressions
Example 1 Simplify the expression 9x + 4x.

9x + 4x = (9 + 4)x Distributive Property

= 13x Add coefficients.

Example 2 Simplify the expression 2(x + 4) + 3(6 − x).

2(x + 4) + 3(6 − x) = 2(x) + 2(4) + 3(6) + 3(−x) Distributive Property

= 2x + 8 + 18 − 3x Multiply.

= 2x − 3x + 8 + 18 Group like terms.

= −x + 26 Combine like terms.

Simplify the expression.

1. 6x − 4x 2. 12m − m − 7m + 3 3. 3( y + 2) − 4y

4. 9x − 4(2x − 1) 5. −(z + 2) − 2(1 − z) 6. −x2 + 5x + x2

Finding Volume
Example 3 Find the volume of a rectangular prism with length 10 centimeters,
width 4 centimeters, and height 5 centimeters.

Volume = wh Write the volume formula.

5 cm = (10)(4)(5) Substitute 10 for , 4 for w, and 5 for h.

= 200 Multiply.
4 cm
10 cm
The volume is 200 cubic centimeters.

Find the volume of the solid.

7. cube with side length 4 inches

8. sphere with radius 2 feet

9. rectangular prism with length 4 feet, width 2 feet, and height 6 feet

10. right cylinder with radius 3 centimeters and height 5 centimeters

11. ABSTRACT REASONING Does doubling the volume of a cube have the same effect on the side
length? Explain your reasoning.

Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

155

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 Mathematical Mathematically proficient students use technological tools to

Practices explore concepts.

Using Technology to Explore Concepts

Core Concept Graph of a Graph of a function
Continuous Functions continuous function that is not continuous
A function is continuous y y
when its graph has no breaks,
holes, or gaps.

x x

Determining Whether Functions Are Continuous

Use a graphing calculator to compare the two functions. What can you conclude? Which function is
not continuous?
x3 − x2
f(x) = x2 g(x) = —
x−1

SOLUTION
The graphs appear to be identical, 2 2
but g is not defined when x = 1.
hole
There is a hole in the graph of g
at the point (1, 1). Using the table −3 3 −3 3
feature of a graphing calculator,
you obtain an error for g(x) when
x = 1. So, g is not continuous. −2 −2
x3 − x2
f(x) = x2 g(x) =
x−1
X Y1 X Y1
-1 1 -1 1
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 ERROR
2 4 2 4
3 9 3 9
4 16 4 16
5 25 5 25
Y1=1 Y1=ERROR

Monitoring Progress
Use a graphing calculator to determine whether the function is continuous. Explain your reasoning.
x2 − x —
1. f(x) = — 2. f(x) = x3 − 3 3. f(x) = √ x2 + 1
x
1 1
4. f(x) = ∣ x + 2 ∣ 5. f(x) = — 6. f(x) = —
—
x √ x2 −1
x
7. f(x) = x 8. f(x) = 2x − 3 9. f(x) = —
x

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 4.1 Graphing Polynomial Functions
Essential Question What are some common characteristics of the
graphs of cubic and quartic polynomial functions?
A polynomial function of the form
f(x) = an x n + an – 1x n – 1 + . . . + a1x + a0
where an ≠ 0, is cubic when n = 3 and quartic when n = 4.

Identifying Graphs of Polynomial Functions

Work with a partner. Match each polynomial function with its graph. Explain your
reasoning. Use a graphing calculator to verify your answers.
a. f(x) = x 3 − x b. f(x) = −x 3 + x c. f(x) = −x 4 + 1
d. f(x) = x 4 e. f(x) = x 3 f. f(x) = x 4 − x2

A. 4 B. 4

−6 6 −6 6

−4 −4

C. 4 D. 4

−6 6 −6 6

−4 −4

E. 4 F. 4

−6 6 −6 6

−4 −4

Identifying x-Intercepts of Polynomial Graphs

Work with a partner. Each of the polynomial graphs in Exploration 1 has
CONSTRUCTING x-intercept(s) of −1, 0, or 1. Identify the x-intercept(s) of each graph. Explain how
VIABLE ARGUMENTS you can verify your answers.
To be proficient in math,
you need to justify Communicate Your Answer
your conclusions and 3. What are some common characteristics of the graphs of cubic and quartic
communicate them polynomial functions?
to others.
4. Determine whether each statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
a. When the graph of a cubic polynomial function rises to the left, it falls to
the right.
b. When the graph of a quartic polynomial function falls to the left, it rises to
the right.
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 4.1 Lesson What You Will Learn
Identify polynomial functions.
Graph polynomial functions using tables and end behavior.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry
polynomial, p. 158 Polynomial Functions
polynomial function, p. 158
Recall that a monomial is a number, a variable, or the product of a number and one or
end behavior, p. 159
more variables with whole number exponents. A polynomial is a monomial or a sum
Previous of monomials. A polynomial function is a function of the form
monomial
f(x) = an xn + an−1x n−1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a1x + a0
linear function
quadratic function where an ≠ 0, the exponents are all whole numbers, and the coefficients are all real
numbers. For this function, an is the leading coefficient, n is the degree, and a0 is the
constant term. A polynomial function is in standard form when its terms are written in
descending order of exponents from left to right.
You are already familiar with some types of polynomial functions, such as linear and
quadratic. Here is a summary of common types of polynomial functions.

Common Polynomial Functions

Degree Type Standard Form Example
0 Constant f(x) = a0 f(x) = −14
1 Linear f(x) = a1x + a0 f(x) = 5x − 7
2 Quadratic f (x) = a2x2 + a1x + a0 f(x) = 2x2 + x − 9
3 Cubic f(x) = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0 f(x) = x3 − x2 + 3x
4 Quartic f(x) = a4x4 + a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0 f(x) = x4 + 2x − 1

Identifying Polynomial Functions

Decide whether each function is a polynomial function. If so, write it in standard form
and state its degree, type, and leading coefficient.
—
a. f(x) = −2x3 + 5x + 8 b. g(x) = −0.8x3 + √ 2 x4 − 12
c. h (x) = −x2 + 7x−1 + 4x d. k(x) = x2 + 3x

SOLUTION
a. The function is a polynomial function that is already written in standard form. It
has degree 3 (cubic) and a leading coefficient of −2.
—
b. The function is a polynomial function written as g (x) = √ 2 x4 − 0.8x—3 − 12 in

standard form. It has degree 4 (quartic) and a leading coefficient of √2 .

c. The function is not a polynomial function because the term 7x−1 has an exponent
that is not a whole number.
d. The function is not a polynomial function because the term 3x does not have a
variable base and an exponent that is a whole number.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Decide whether the function is a polynomial function. If so, write it in standard

form and state its degree, type, and leading coefficient.

1. f(x) = 7 − 1.6x2 − 5x 2. p(x) = x + 2x−2 + 9.5 3. q(x) = x3 − 6x + 3x4

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 Evaluating a Polynomial Function

Evaluate f (x) = 2x 4 − 8x2 + 5x − 7 when x = 3.

SOLUTION
f(x) = 2x 4 − 8x2 + 5x − 7 Write original equation.
f(3) = 2(3)4 − 8(3)2 + 5(3) − 7 Substitute 3 for x.
= 162 − 72 + 15 − 7 Evaluate powers and multiply.
= 98 Simplify.

The end behavior of a function’s graph is the behavior of the graph as x approaches
positive infinity (+∞) or negative infinity (−∞). For the graph of a polynomial
function, the end behavior is determined by the function’s degree and the sign of its
leading coefficient.

Core Concept
End Behavior of Polynomial Functions
READING Degree: odd Degree: odd
The expression “x → +∞” Leading coefficient: positive Leading coefficient: negative
is read as “x approaches
y f(x) +∞ f(x) +∞ y
positive infinity.”
as x +∞ as x −∞
x x
f(x) −∞ f(x) −∞
as x −∞ as x +∞

Degree: even Degree: even

Leading coefficient: positive Leading coefficient: negative
y y
f(x) +∞ f(x) +∞
as x −∞ as x +∞
x x
f(x) −∞ f(x) −∞
as x −∞ as x +∞

Describing End Behavior

Describe the end behavior of the graph of f (x) = −0.5x4 + 2.5x2 + x − 1.

Check
10 SOLUTION
The function has degree 4 and leading coefficient −0.5. Because the degree is even
and the leading coefficient is negative, f (x) → −∞ as x → −∞ and f(x) → −∞ as
−10 10
x → +∞. Check this by graphing the function on a graphing calculator, as shown.

−10 Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Evaluate the function for the given value of x.

4. f(x) = −x3 + 3x2 + 9; x = 4

5. f(x) = 3x5 − x 4 − 6x + 10; x = −2
6. Describe the end behavior of the graph of f (x) = 0.25x3 − x2 − 1.

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 Graphing Polynomial Functions
To graph a polynomial function, first plot points to determine the shape of the graph’s
middle portion. Then connect the points with a smooth continuous curve and use what
you know about end behavior to sketch the graph.

Graphing Polynomial Functions

Graph (a) f (x) = −x3 + x2 + 3x − 3 and (b) f (x) = x4 − x3 − 4x2 + 4.

SOLUTION
a. To graph the function, make a table of values and y
plot the corresponding points. Connect the points 3
with a smooth curve and check the end behavior. (−2, 3)
1 (1, 0)
x −2 −1 0 1 2 −3 3 5x
−1
(2, −1)
f(x) 3 −4 −3 0 −1
(0, −3)
(−1, −4)
The degree is odd and the leading coefficient is
negative. So, f(x) → +∞ as x → −∞ and
f(x) → −∞ as x → +∞.
y
b. To graph the function, make a table of values and (0, 4)
plot the corresponding points. Connect the points
with a smooth curve and check the end behavior.
(−1, 2)
1
(1, 0)
x −2 −1 0 1 2 −3 −1 5x

f(x) 12 2 4 0 −4
−3

The degree is even and the leading coefficient is (2, −4)

positive. So, f (x) → +∞ as x → −∞ and
f(x) → +∞ as x → +∞.

Sketching a Graph

Sketch a graph of the polynomial function f having these characteristics.

• f is increasing when x < 0 and x > 4.
• f is decreasing when 0 < x < 4.
• f(x) > 0 when −2 < x < 3 and x > 5.
• f(x) < 0 when x < −2 and 3 < x < 5.
Use the graph to describe the degree and leading coefficient of f.

SOLUTION
y
asing
de
sing

The graph is above the

cre

x-axis when f(x) > 0.

a

as

incre
incre

ing

x
−2 3 4 5 The graph is below the
x-axis when f(x) < 0.

From the graph, f (x) → −∞ as x → −∞ and f(x) → +∞ as x → +∞.

So, the degree is odd and the leading coefficient is positive.

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 Solving a Real-Life Problem

T estimated number V (in thousands) of electric vehicles in use in the United States
The
ccan be modeled by the polynomial function
V(t) = 0.151280t3 − 3.28234t2 + 23.7565t − 2.041
where
w t represents the year, with t = 1 corresponding to 2001.
a Use a graphing calculator to graph the function for the interval 1 ≤ t ≤ 10.
a.
Describe the behavior of the graph on this interval.
b What was the average rate of change in the number of electric vehicles in use
b.
from 2001 to 2010?
c Do you think this model can be used for years before 2001 or after 2010?
c.
Explain your reasoning.

SOLUTION
S
aa. Using a graphing calculator and a viewing 65
window of 1 ≤ x ≤ 10 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 65, you
obtain the graph shown.
From 2001 to 2004, the numbers of electric
vehicles in use increased. Around 2005, the
growth in the numbers in use slowed and 1 10
started to level off. Then the numbers in use 0

started to increase again in 2009 and 2010.

b. The years 2001 and 2010 correspond to t = 1 and t = 10.
Average rate of change over 1 ≤ t ≤ 10:
V(10) − V(1) 58.57 − 18.58444
—— = —— ≈ 4.443
10 − 1 9
The average rate of change from 2001 to 2010 is about 4.4 thousand
electric vehicles per year.
c. Because the degree is odd and the leading coefficient is positive, V(t) → −∞ as
t → −∞ and V(t) → +∞ as t → +∞. The end behavior indicates that the model
has unlimited growth as t increases. While the model may be valid for a few
years after 2010, in the long run, unlimited growth is not reasonable. Notice in
2000 that V(0) = −2.041. Because negative values of V(t) do not make sense
given the context (electric vehicles in use), the model should not be used for
years before 2001.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Graph the polynomial function.

7. f(x) = x4 + x2 − 3 8. f(x) = 4 − x3
9. f(x) = x3 − x2 + x − 1
10. Sketch a graph of the polynomial function f having these characteristics.
• f is decreasing when x < −1.5 and x > 2.5; f is increasing when −1.5 < x < 2.5.
• f(x) > 0 when x < −3 and 1 < x < 4; f (x) < 0 when −3 < x < 1 and x > 4.
Use the graph to describe the degree and leading coefficient of f.
11. WHAT IF? Repeat Example 6 using the alternative model for electric vehicles of
V(t) = −0.0290900t 4 + 0.791260t 3 − 7.96583t 2 + 36.5561t − 12.025.

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 4.1 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. WRITING Explain what is meant by the end behavior of a polynomial function.

2. WHICH ONE DOESN’T BELONG? Which function does not belong with the other three?
Explain your reasoning.

f(x) = 7x5 + 3x2 − 2x g(x) = 3x3 − 2x8 + —34

—
h(x) = −3x4 + 5x−1 − 3x2 k(x) = √ 3 x + 8x4 + 2x + 1

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3–8, decide whether the function is a In Exercises 11–16, evaluate the function for the given
polynomial function. If so, write it in standard form value of x. (See Example 2.)
and state its degree, type, and leading coefficient.
11. h(x) = −3x4 + 2x3 − 12x − 6; x = −2
(See Example 1.)
3. f(x) = −3x + 5x3 − 6x2 + 2 12. f(x) = 7x4 − 10x2 + 14x − 26; x = −7

1 13. g(x) = x6 − 64x4 + x2 − 7x − 51; x = 8

4. p(x) = —x2 + 3x − 4x3 + 6x 4 − 1
2
14. g(x) = −x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 1; x = −12
5. f(x) = 9x 4 + 8x3 − 6x−2 + 2x 1
15. p(x) = 2x3 + 4x2 + 6x + 7; x = —2
—
6. g(x) = √ 3 − 12x + 13x2 1
16. h(x) = 5x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 4; x = −—3
5 — 1
7. h(x) = —x2 − √ 7 x4 + 8x3 − — + x In Exercises 17–20, describe the end behavior of the
3 2
graph of the function. (See Example 3.)
5
8. h(x) = 3x4 + 2x − — + 9x3 − 7
x 17. h(x) = −5x4 + 7x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 2

ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 9 and 10, describe and 18. g(x) = 7x7 + 12x5 − 6x3 − 2x − 18
correct the error in analyzing the function.
19. f(x) = −2x4 + 12x8 + 17 + 15x2
9. f(x) = 8x3 − 7x4 − 9x − 3x2 + 11

20. f(x) = 11 − 18x2 − 5x5 − 12x4 − 2x

✗ f is a polynomial function.
The degree is 3 and f is a cubic function.
The leading coefficient is 8.
In Exercises 21 and 22, describe the degree and leading
coefficient of the polynomial function using the graph.
21. y 22. y
—
10. f(x) = 2x4 + 4x − 9√ x + 3x2 − 8

✗ f is a polynomial function.
The degree is 4 and f is a quartic function.
The leading coefficient is 2.
x x

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 23. USING STRUCTURE Determine whether the 38. • f is increasing when −2 < x < 3; f is decreasing
function is a polynomial function. If so, write it when x < −2 and x > 3.
in standard form and state its degree, type, and
• f (x) > 0 when x < −4 and 1 < x < 5; f(x) < 0
leading coefficient.
—
when −4 < x < 1 and x > 5.
f(x) = 5x3x + —52 x3 − 9x4 + √ 2 x2 + 4x −1 −x−5x5 − 4
39. • f is increasing when −2 < x < 0 and x > 2; f is
decreasing when x < −2 and 0 < x < 2.
24. WRITING Let f(x) = 13. State the degree, type, and
leading coefficient. Describe the end behavior of the • f (x) > 0 when x < −3, −1 < x < 1, and x > 3;
function. Explain your reasoning. f (x) < 0 when −3 < x < −1 and 1 < x < 3.

In Exercises 25–32, graph the polynomial function. 40. • f is increasing when x < −1 and x > 1; f is
(See Example 4.) decreasing when −1 < x < 1.
25. p(x) = 3 − x4 26. g(x) = x3 + x + 3 • f(x) > 0 when −1.5 < x < 0 and x > 1.5; f(x) < 0
when x < −1.5 and 0 < x < 1.5.
27. f(x) = 4x − 9 − x3 28. p(x) = x5 − 3x3 + 2
41. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS From 1980 to 2007
29. h(x) = x4 − 2x3 + 3x the number of drive-in theaters in the United States
can be modeled by the function
30. h(x) = 5 + 3x2 − x4
d(t) = −0.141t 3 + 9.64t 2 − 232.5t + 2421
31. g(x) = x5 − 3x4 + 2x − 4 where d(t) is the number of open theaters and t is the
number of years after 1980. (See Example 6.)
32. p(x) = x6 − 2x5 − 2x3 + x + 5
a. Use a graphing calculator to graph the function for
the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 27. Describe the behavior of
ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS In Exercises 33–36,
the graph on this interval.
describe the x-values for which (a) f is increasing or
decreasing, (b) f(x) > 0, and (c) f(x) < 0. b. What is the average rate of change in the number
of drive-in movie theaters from 1980 to 1995 and
33. y f 34. y
from 1995 to 2007? Interpret the average rates
4 f 4 of change.
c. Do you think this model can be used for years
2 4 6x −8 −4 4x
before 1980 or after 2007? Explain.
−4

−8

35. y f 36. y

2 f

1
−4 −2 x
−2 2 4x
−2
42. PROBLEM SOLVING The weight of an ideal round-cut
−4
diamond can be modeled by
w = 0.00583d 3 − 0.0125d 2 + 0.022d − 0.01
In Exercises 37–40, sketch a graph of the polynomial
function f having the given characteristics. Use the where w is the weight of the diameter
graph to describe the degree and leading coefficient of diamond (in carats) and d is
the function f. (See Example 5.) the diameter (in millimeters).
According to the model, what
37. • f is increasing when x > 0.5; f is decreasing when is the weight of a diamond with
x < 0.5. a diameter of 12 millimeters?
• f(x) > 0 when x < −2 and x > 3; f(x) < 0 when
−2 < x < 3.

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 43. ABSTRACT REASONING Suppose f (x) → ∞ as 48. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? The graph of a polynomial
x → −∞ and f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞. Describe the end function is shown.
behavior of g(x) = −f(x). Justify your answer.
y
6
f
44. THOUGHT PROVOKING Write an even degree
polynomial function such that the end behavior of f 4

is given by f(x) → −∞ as x → −∞ and f(x) → −∞ as

x → ∞. Justify your answer by drawing the graph of
your function.
−6 −2 2 x
45. USING TOOLS When using a graphing calculator to −2
graph a polynomial function, explain how you know
when the viewing window is appropriate.
a. Describe the degree and leading coefficient of f.
46. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend uses the table b. Describe the intervals where the function is
to speculate that the function f is an even degree increasing and decreasing.
polynomial and the function g is an odd degree
polynomial. Is your friend correct? Explain c. What is the constant term of the polynomial
your reasoning. function?

x f (x) g(x)
49. REASONING A cubic polynomial function f has a
−8 4113 497 leading coefficient of 2 and a constant term of −5.
When f(1) = 0 and f (2) = 3, what is f (−5)? Explain
−2 21 5
your reasoning.
0 1 1
50. CRITICAL THINKING The weight y (in pounds) of a
2 13 −3
rainbow trout can be modeled by y = 0.000304x3,
8 4081 −495 where x is the length (in inches) of the trout.
a. Write a function that relates the weight y and
47. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS The graph of a function length x of a rainbow trout when y is measured
is symmetric with respect to the y-axis if for each in kilograms and x is measured in centimeters.
point (a, b) on the graph, (−a, b) is also a point on Use the fact that 1 kilogram ≈ 2.20 pounds and
the graph. The graph of a function is symmetric with 1 centimeter ≈ 0.394 inch.
respect to the origin if for each point (a, b) on the
b. Graph the original function and the function from
graph, (−a, −b) is also a point on the graph.
part (a) in the same coordinate plane. What
a. Use a graphing calculator to graph the function type of transformation can you
y = xn when n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. In each case, apply to the graph of
identify the symmetry of the graph. y = 0.000304x3 to
produce the graph
b. Predict what symmetry the graphs of y = x10 and
from part (a)?
y = x11 each have. Explain your reasoning and
then confirm your predictions by graphing.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Simplify the expression. (Skills Review Handbook)

51. xy + x2 + 2xy + y2 − 3x2 52. 2h3g + 3hg3 + 7h2g2 + 5h3g + 2hg3

53. −wk + 3kz − 2kw + 9zk − kw 54. a2(m − 7a3) − m(a2 − 10)

55. 3x(xy − 4) + 3(4xy + 3) − xy(x2y − 1) 56. cv(9 − 3c) + 2c(v − 4c) + 6c

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 4.2 Adding, Subtracting, and
Multiplying Polynomials
Essential Question How can you cube a binomial?

Cubing Binomials
Work with a partner. Find each product. Show your steps.
a. (x + 1)3 = (x + 1)(x + 1)2 Rewrite as a product of first and second powers.
= (x + 1) Multiply second power.
= Multiply binomial and trinomial.
= Write in standard form, ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.

b. (a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)2 Rewrite as a product of first and second powers.

= (a + b) Multiply second power.
= Multiply binomial and trinomial.
= Write in standard form.

c. (x − 1)3 = (x − 1)(x − 1)2 Rewrite as a product of first and second powers.

= (x − 1) Multiply second power.
= Multiply binomial and trinomial.
= Write in standard form.

d. (a − b)3 = (a − b)(a − b)2 Rewrite as a product of first and second powers.

= (a − b) Multiply second power.
= Multiply binomial and trinomial.
LOOKING FOR = Write in standard form.
STRUCTURE
To be proficient in math,
you need to look closely Generalizing Patterns for Cubing a Binomial
to discern a pattern
Work with a partner. 1
or structure.
a. Use the results of Exploration 1 to describe a pattern for the
coefficients of the terms when you expand the cube of a 1 1
binomial. How is your pattern related to Pascal’s Triangle, 1 2 1
shown at the right?
1 3 3 1
b. Use the results of Exploration 1 to describe a pattern for
the exponents of the terms in the expansion of a cube 1 4 6 4 1
of a binomial.
c. Explain how you can use the patterns you described in parts (a) and (b) to find the
product (2x − 3)3. Then find this product.

Communicate Your Answer

3. How can you cube a binomial?
4. Find each product.
a. (x + 2)3 b. (x − 2)3 c. (2x − 3)3
d. (x − 3)3 e. (−2x + 3)3 f. (3x − 5)3

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 4.2 Lesson What You Will Learn
Add and subtract polynomials.
Multiply polynomials.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand binomials.
Pascal’s Triangle, p. 169
Previous Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
like terms Recall that the set of integers is closed under addition and subtraction because
identity every sum or difference results in an integer. To add or subtract polynomials,
you add or subtract the coefficients of like terms. Because adding or subtracting
polynomials results in a polynomial, the set of polynomials is closed under addition
and subtraction.

Adding Polynomials Vertically and Horizontally

a. Add 3x3 + 2x2 − x − 7 and x3 − 10x2 + 8 in a vertical format.

b. Add 9y3 + 3y2 − 2y + 1 and −5y2 + y − 4 in a horizontal format.

SOLUTION
a. 3x3 + 2x2 − x − 7
+ x3 − 10x2 +8
4x3 − 8x2 −x+1

b. (9y3 + 3y2 − 2y + 1) + (−5y2 + y − 4) = 9y3 + 3y2 − 5y2 − 2y + y + 1 − 4

= 9y3 − 2y2 − y − 3
To subtract one polynomial from another, add the opposite. To do this, change the sign
of each term of the subtracted polynomial and then add the resulting like terms.

COMMON ERROR Subtracting Polynomials Vertically and Horizontally

A common mistake is to a. Subtract 2x3 + 6x2 − x + 1 from 8x3 − 3x2 − 2x + 9 in a vertical format.
forget to change signs
correctly when subtracting
b. Subtract 3z2 + z − 4 from 2z2 + 3z in a horizontal format.
one polynomial from
SOLUTION
another. Be sure to add
the opposite of every a. Align like terms, then add the opposite of the subtracted polynomial.
term of the subtracted
8x3 − 3x2 − 2x + 9 8x3 − 3x2 − 2x + 9
polynomial.
− (2x3 + 6x2 − x + 1) + −2x3 − 6x2 + x − 1
6x3 − 9x2 − x + 8
b. Write the opposite of the subtracted polynomial, then add like terms.
(2z2 + 3z) − (3z2 + z − 4) = 2z2 + 3z − 3z2 − z + 4
= −z2 + 2z + 4

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Find the sum or difference.

1. (2x 2 − 6x + 5) + (7x 2 − x − 9)
2. (3t 3 + 8t 2 − t − 4) − (5t 3 − t 2 + 17)

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 Multiplying Polynomials
To multiply two polynomials, you multiply each term of the first polynomial by
each term of the second polynomial. As with addition and subtraction, the set of
polynomials is closed under multiplication.

Multiplying Polynomials Vertically and Horizontally

a. Multiply −x2 + 2x + 4 and x − 3 in a vertical format.

REMEMBER b. Multiply y + 5 and 3y2 − 2y + 2 in a horizontal format.
Product of Powers SOLUTION
Property
−x2 + 2x + 4
⋅a
a.
am n = am+n
× x− 3
a is a real number and
3x2 − 6x − 12 Multiply −x2 + 2x + 4 by −3.
m and n are integers.
−x3 + 2x2 + 4x Multiply −x2 + 2x + 4 by x.
−x3 + 5x2 − 2x − 12 Combine like terms.

b. ( y + 5)(3y2 − 2y + 2) = ( y + 5)3y2 − ( y + 5)2y + ( y + 5)2

= 3y3 + 15y2 − 2y2 − 10y + 2y + 10
= 3y3 + 13y2 − 8y + 10

Multiplying Three Binomials

Multiply x − 1, x + 4, and x + 5 in a horizontal format.

SOLUTION
(x − 1)(x + 4)(x + 5) = (x2 + 3x − 4)(x + 5)
= (x2 + 3x − 4)x + (x2 + 3x − 4)5
= x3 + 3x2 − 4x + 5x2 + 15x − 20
= x3 + 8x2 + 11x − 20
Some binomial products occur so frequently that it is worth memorizing their patterns.
You can verify these polynomial identities by multiplying.

COMMON ERROR
Core Concept
In general, Special Product Patterns
(a ± b)2 ≠ a2 ± b2 Sum and Difference Example
and (a + b)(a − b) = a2 − b2 (x + 3)(x − 3) = x2 − 9
(a ± b)3 ≠ a3 ± b3.
Square of a Binomial Example
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 (y + 4)2 = y2 + 8y + 16
(a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 (2t − 5)2 = 4t2 − 20t + 25

Cube of a Binomial Example

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 (z + 3)3 = z3 + 9z2 + 27z + 27
(a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3 (m − 2)3 = m3 − 6m2 + 12m − 8

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 Proving a Polynomial Identity

a. Prove the polynomial identity for the cube of a binomial representing a sum:
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab 2 + b3.
b. Use the cube of a binomial in part (a) to calculate 113.

SOLUTION
a. Expand and simplify the expression on the left side of the equation.
(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b)
= (a2 + 2ab + b2)(a + b)
= (a2 + 2ab + b2)a + (a2 + 2ab + b 2)b
= a3 + a2b + 2a2b + 2ab2 + ab 2 + b3

= a3 + 3a2b + 3ab 2 + b3 ✓
The simplified left side equals the right side of the original identity. So, the
identity (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 is true.
b. To calculate 113 using the cube of a binomial, note that 11 = 10 + 1.
113 = (10 + 1)3 Write 11 as 10 + 1.
= 103 + 3(10)2(1) + 3(10)(1)2 + 13 Cube of a binomial
= 1000 + 300 + 30 + 1 Expand.
= 1331 Simplify.

Using Special Product Patterns

REMEMBER
Power of a Product Find each product.
Property
a. (4n + 5)(4n − 5) b. (9y − 2)2 c. (ab + 4)3
(ab)m = ambm
SOLUTION
a and b are real numbers
and m is an integer. a. (4n + 5)(4n − 5) = (4n)2 − 52 Sum and difference
= 16n2 − 25 Simplify.
b. (9y − 2)2 = (9y)2 − 2(9y)(2) + 22 Square of a binomial
= 81y2 − 36y + 4 Simplify.
c. (ab + 4)3 = (ab)3 + 3(ab)2(4) + 3(ab)(4)2 + 43 Cube of a binomial
= a3b3 + 12a2b2 + 48ab + 64 Simplify.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Find the product.

3. (4x2 + x − 5)(2x + 1) 4. ( y − 2)(5y2 + 3y − 1)

5. (m − 2)(m − 1)(m + 3) 6. (3t − 2)(3t + 2)
7. (5a + 2)2 8. (xy − 3)3
9. (a) Prove the polynomial identity for the cube of a binomial representing a
difference: (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3.
(b) Use the cube of a binomial in part (a) to calculate 93.

168 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 Pascal’s Triangle
Consider the expansion of the binomial (a + b)n for whole number values of n. When
you arrange the coefficients of the variables in the expansion of (a + b)n, you will see
a special pattern called Pascal’s Triangle. Pascal’s Triangle is named after French
mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623−1662).

Core Concept
Pascal’s Triangle
In Pascal’s Triangle, the first and last numbers in each row are 1. Every number
other than 1 is the sum of the closest two numbers in the row directly above it. The
numbers in Pascal’s Triangle are the same numbers that are the coefficients of binomial
expansions, as shown in the first six rows.
n (a + b)n Binomial Expansion Pascal’s Triangle
0th row 0 (a + b)0 = 1 1
1st row 1 (a + b)1 = 1a + 1b 1 1
2nd row 2 (a + b)2 = 1a2 + 2ab + 1b2 1 2 1
3rd row 3 (a + b)3 = 1a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + 1b3 1 3 3 1
4th row 4 (a + b)4 = 1a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + 1b4 1 4 6 4 1
5th row 5 (a + b)5 = 1a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + 1b5 1 5 10 10 5 1

In general, the nth row in Pascal’s Triangle gives the coefficients of (a + b)n. Here are
some other observations about the expansion of (a + b)n.
1. An expansion has n + 1 terms.
2. The power of a begins with n, decreases by 1 in each successive term, and ends
with 0.
3. The power of b begins with 0, increases by 1 in each successive term, and ends
with n.
4. The sum of the powers of each term is n.

Using Pascal’s Triangle to Expand Binomials

Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand (a) (x − 2)5 and (b) (3y + 1)3.

SOLUTION
a. The coefficients from the fifth row of Pascal’s Triangle are 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, and 1.
(x − 2)5 = 1x5 + 5x4(−2) + 10x3(−2)2 + 10x2(−2)3 + 5x(−2)4 + 1(−2)5
= x5 − 10x4 + 40x3 − 80x2 + 80x − 32
b. The coefficients from the third row of Pascal’s Triangle are 1, 3, 3, and 1.
(3y + 1)3 = 1(3y)3 + 3(3y)2(1) + 3(3y)(1)2 + 1(1)3
= 27y3 + 27y2 + 9y + 1

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

10. Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand (a) (z + 3)4 and (b) (2t − 1)5.

Section 4.2 Adding, Subtracting, and Multiplying Polynomials 169

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 4.2 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. WRITING Describe three different methods to expand (x + 3)3.

2. WRITING Is (a + b)(a − b) = a2 − b2 an identity? Explain your reasoning.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3–8, find the sum. (See Example 1.) 16. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A farmer plants
a garden that contains corn and pumpkins. The total
3. (3x2 + 4x − 1) + (−2x2 − 3x + 2)
area (in square feet) of the garden is modeled by
the expression 2x2 + 5x + 4. The area of the corn
4. (−5x2 + 4x − 2) + (−8x2 + 2x + 1)
is modeled by the expression x2 − 3x + 2. Write an
expression that models the area of the pumpkins.
5. (12x5 − 3x 4 + 2x − 5) + (8x 4 − 3x3 + 4x + 1)
In Exercises 17–24, find the product. (See Example 3.)
6. (8x 4 + 2x2 − 1) + (3x3 − 5x2 + 7x + 1)
17. 7x3(5x2 + 3x + 1)
7. (7x6 + 2x5 − 3x2 + 9x) + (5x5 + 8x3 − 6x2 + 2x − 5)
18. −4x5(11x3 + 2x2 + 9x + 1)
8. (9x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 7) + (11x4 − 4x2 − 11x − 9)
19. (5x2 − 4x + 6)(−2x + 3)
In Exercises 9–14, find the difference. (See Example 2.)
20. (−x − 3)(2x2 + 5x + 8)
9. (3x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 8) − (5x3 + 12x2 − 3x − 4)
21. (x2 − 2x − 4)(x2 − 3x − 5)
10. (7x4 − 9x3 − 4x2 + 5x + 6) − (2x4 + 3x3 − x2 + x − 4)
22. (3x2 + x − 2)(−4x2 − 2x − 1)
11. (5x 6 − 2x 4 + 9x3 + 2x − 4) − (7x5 − 8x4 + 2x − 11)
23. (3x3 − 9x + 7)(x2 − 2x + 1)
12. (4x5 − 7x3 − 9x2 + 18) − (14x5 − 8x 4 + 11x2 + x)
24. (4x2 − 8x − 2)(x4 + 3x2 + 4x)
13. (8x5 + 6x3 − 2x2 + 10x) − (9x5 − x3 − 13x2 + 4)
ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 25 and 26, describe and
14. (11x 4 − 9x2 + 3x + 11) − (2x 4 + 6x3 + 2x − 9)
correct the error in performing the operation.
15. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS During a recent

✗
25.
period of time, the numbers (in thousands) of males M (x2 − 3x + 4) − (x3 + 7x − 2)
and females F that attend
= x2 − 3x + 4 − x3 + 7x − 2
degree-granting institutions
in the United States can be = −x3 + x2 + 4x + 2
modeled by
M = 19.7t2 + 310.5t + 7539.6

✗
26.
F = 28t2 + 368t + 10127.8
(2x − 7)3 = (2x)3 − 73
where t is time in years.
= 8x3 − 343
Write a polynomial to model
the total number of people
attending degree-granting
institutions. Interpret its
constant term.

170 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 In Exercises 27–32, find the product of the binomials. 49. COMPARING METHODS Find the product of the
(See Example 4.) expression (a2 + 4b2)2(3a2 − b2)2 using two different
methods. Which method do you prefer? Explain.
27. (x − 3)(x + 2)(x + 4)

28. (x − 5)(x + 2)(x − 6) 50. THOUGHT PROVOKING Adjoin one or more polygons
to the rectangle to form a single new polygon whose
29. (x − 2)(3x + 1)(4x − 3) perimeter is double that of the rectangle. Find the
perimeter of the new polygon.
30. (2x + 5)(x − 2)(3x + 4)

31. (3x − 4)(5 − 2x)(4x + 1) x+1

32. (4 − 5x)(1 − 2x)(3x + 2) 2x + 3

33. REASONING Prove the polynomial identity

(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − b2. Then give an example MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS In Exercises 51 and 52,
of two whole numbers greater than 10 that can be write an expression for the volume of the figure as a
multiplied using mental math and the given identity. polynomial in standard form.
Justify your answers. (See Example 5.)
51. V = wh 52. V = πr 2h
34. NUMBER SENSE You have been asked to order
textbooks for your class. You need to order
29 textbooks that cost $31 each. Explain how x+3 x−2
3x − 4
you can use the polynomial identity
(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − b2 and mental math to x+1
2x + 2
find the total cost of the textbooks.
53. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS Two people make
three deposits into their bank accounts earning the
same simple interest rate r.

Person A 2-5384100608

Transaction Amount
01/01/2012 Deposit $2000.00
01/01/2013 Deposit $3000.00
01/01/2014 Deposit $1000.00

Person B 1-5233032905

Transaction Amount
In Exercises 35–42, find the product. (See Example 6.) 01/01/2012 Deposit $5000.00
01/01/2013 Deposit $1000.00
35. (x − 9)(x + 9) 36. (m + 6)2 01/01/2014 Deposit $4000.00

37. (3c − 5)2 38. (2y − 5)(2y + 5)

Person A’s account is worth
39. (7h + 4)2 40. (9g − 4)2 2000(1 + r)3 + 3000(1 + r)2 + 1000(1 + r)
on January 1, 2015.
41. (2k + 6)3 42. (4n − 3)3
a. Write a polynomial for the value of Person B’s
In Exercises 43–48, use Pascal’s Triangle to expand the account on January 1, 2015.
binomial. (See Example 7.)
b. Write the total value of the two accounts as a
43. (2t + 4)3 44. (6m + 2)2 polynomial in standard form. Then interpret the
coefficients of the polynomial.
45. (2q − 3)4 46. (g + 2)5
c. Suppose their interest rate is 0.05. What is the total
value of the two accounts on January 1, 2015?
47. (yz + 1)5 48. (np − 1)4

Section 4.2 Adding, Subtracting, and Multiplying Polynomials 171

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 54. PROBLEM SOLVING 3 62. ABSTRACT REASONING You are given the function
The sphere is centered x+2 f(x) = (x + a)(x + b)(x + c)(x + d). When f(x) is
in the cube. Find an written in standard form, show that the coefficient of
expression for the x3 is the sum of a, b, c, and d, and the constant term is
volume of the cube the product of a, b, c, and d.
outside the sphere.
63. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Let g(x) = 12x4 + 8x + 9
and h(x) = 3x5 + 2x3 − 7x + 4.
55. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend claims the sum a. What is the degree of the polynomial g(x) + h(x)?
of two binomials is always a binomial and the product
b. What is the degree of the polynomial g(x) − h(x)?
of two binomials is always a trinomial. Is your friend
correct? Explain your reasoning. c. What is the degree of the polynomial g(x) h(x)? ⋅
d. In general, if g(x) and h(x) are polynomials such
56. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? You make a tin box by that g(x) has degree m and h(x) has degree n,
cutting x-inch-by-x-inch pieces of tin off the corners and m > n, what are the degrees of g(x) + h(x),
of a rectangle and folding up each side. The plan for g(x) − h(x), and g(x) h(x)?⋅
your box is shown.
64. FINDING A PATTERN In this exercise, you will
x x
explore the sequence of square numbers. The first
four square numbers are represented below.
x x
1 4 9 16
6 − 2x
x 12 − 2x x
x x
a. Find the differences between consecutive square
a. What are the dimensions of the original piece numbers. Explain what you notice.
of tin? b. Show how the polynomial identity
b. Write a function that represents the volume of the (n + 1)2 − n2 = 2n + 1 models the differences
box. Without multiplying, determine its degree. between square numbers.
c. Prove the polynomial identity in part (b).

USING TOOLS In Exercises 57–60, use a graphing 65. CRITICAL THINKING Recall that a Pythagorean triple
calculator to make a conjecture about whether the is a set of positive integers a, b, and c such that
two functions are equivalent. Explain your reasoning. a2 + b2 = c2. The numbers 3, 4, and 5 form a
Pythagorean triple because 32 + 42 = 52. You can use
57. f(x) = (2x − 3)3; g(x) = 8x3 − 36x2 + 54x − 27
the polynomial identity (x2 − y2)2 + (2xy)2 = (x2 + y2)2
58. h(x) = (x + 2)5; to generate other Pythagorean triples.
k(x) = x5 + 10x4 + 40x3 + 80x2 + 64x a. Prove the polynomial identity is true by showing
that the simplified expressions for the left and
59. f(x) = (−x − 3)4; right sides are the same.
g(x) = x4 + 12x3 + 54x2 + 108x + 80
b. Use the identity to generate the Pythagorean triple
60. f(x) = (−x + 5)3; g(x) = −x3 + 15x2 − 75x + 125 when x = 6 and y = 5.

61. REASONING Copy Pascal’s Triangle and add rows c. Verify that your answer in part (b) satisfies
for n = 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. Use the new rows to expand a2 + b2 = c2.
(x + 3)7 and (x − 5)9.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Perform the operation. Write the answer in standard form. (Section 3.2)
66. (3 − 2i) + (5 + 9i) 67. (12 + 3i) − (7 − 8i)
68. (7i)(−3i) 69. (4 + i)(2 − i)

172 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 4.3 Dividing Polynomials
Essential Question How can you use the factors of a cubic
polynomial to solve a division problem involving the polynomial?

Dividing Polynomials
Work with a partner. Match each division statement with the graph of the related
cubic polynomial f (x). Explain your reasoning. Use a graphing calculator to verify
your answers.
f(x) f (x)
a. — = (x − 1)(x + 2) b. — = (x − 1)(x + 2)
x x−1
f(x) f(x)
c. — = (x − 1)(x + 2) d. — = (x − 1)(x + 2)
x+1 x−2
f(x) f(x)
e. — = (x − 1)(x + 2) f. — = (x − 1)(x + 2)
x+2 x−3

A. 4 B. 8

−6 6
−8 8

−4 −4

C. 4 D. 6

−6 6

−8 8

−4 −2

E. 4 F. 4

−6 6 −6 6

REASONING
ABSTRACTLY
−4 −4
To be proficient in math,
you need to understand a
situation abstractly and Dividing Polynomials
represent it symbolically.
Work with a partner. Use the results of Exploration 1 to find each quotient. Write
your answers in standard form. Check your answers by multiplying.
a. (x3 + x2 − 2x) ÷ x b. (x3 − 3x + 2) ÷ (x − 1)
c. (x3 + 2x2 − x − 2) ÷ (x + 1) d. (x3 − x2 − 4x + 4) ÷ (x − 2)
e. (x3 + 3x2 − 4) ÷ (x + 2) f. (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) ÷ (x − 3)

Communicate Your Answer

3. How can you use the factors of a cubic polynomial to solve a division problem
involving the polynomial?

Section 4.3 Dividing Polynomials 173

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 4.3 Lesson What You Will Learn
Use long division to divide polynomials by other polynomials.
Use synthetic division to divide polynomials by binomials of the form x − k.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Use the Remainder Theorem.
polynomial long division,
p. 174
Long Division of Polynomials
synthetic division, p. 175
When you divide a polynomial f(x) by a nonzero polynomial divisor d(x), you get a
Previous quotient polynomial q (x) and a remainder polynomial r (x).
long division
f(x) r (x)
divisor — = q (x) + —
d(x) d(x)
quotient
remainder The degree of the remainder must be less than the degree of the divisor. When the
remainder is 0, the divisor divides evenly into the dividend. Also, the degree of
dividend
the divisor is less than or equal to the degree of the dividend f(x). One way to divide
polynomials is called polynomial long division.

Using Polynomial Long Division

Divide 2x4 + 3x3 + 5x − 1 by x2 + 3x + 2.

SOLUTION
Write polynomial division in the same format you use when dividing numbers. Include
a “0” as the coefficient of x2 in the dividend. At each stage, divide the term with the
highest power in what is left of the dividend by the first term of the divisor. This gives
the next term of the quotient.
2x2 − 3x + 5 quotient
x2 + 3x + 2 )‾‾‾
2x4 + 3x3 + 0x2 + 5x − 1
2x4
2x4 + 6x3 + 4x2 Multiply divisor by — = 2x2.
x2
COMMON ERROR −3x3 − 4x2 + 5x Subtract. Bring down next term.
−3x3
The expression added to −3x3 − 9x2 − 6x Multiply divisor by — = −3x.
the quotient in the result of x2
5x2 + 11x − 1 Subtract. Bring down next term.
a long division problem is 5x2
r(x) 5x2 + 15x + 10 Multiply divisor by — = 5.
—, not r(x). x2
d(x) −4x − 11 remainder
2x4 + 3x3+ 5x − 1 −4x − 11
—— = 2x2 − 3x + 5 + —
2 x + 3x + 2 2 x + 3x + 2

Check
You can check the result of a division problem by multiplying the quotient by
the divisor and adding the remainder. The result should be the dividend.
(2x2 − 3x + 5)(x2 + 3x + 2) + (−4x − 11)
= (2x2)(x2 + 3x + 2) − (3x)(x2 + 3x + 2) + (5)(x2 + 3x + 2) − 4x − 11
= 2x4 + 6x3 + 4x2 − 3x3 − 9x2 − 6x + 5x2 + 15x + 10 − 4x − 11

= 2x4 + 3x3 + 5x − 1 ✓

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Divide using polynomial long division.

1. (x3 − x2 − 2x + 8) ÷ (x − 1) 2. (x4 + 2x2 − x + 5) ÷ (x2 − x + 1)

174 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 Synthetic Division
There is a shortcut for dividing polynomials by binomials of the form x − k. This
shortcut is called synthetic division. This method is shown in the next example.

Using Synthetic Division

Divide −x3 + 4x2 + 9 by x − 3.

SOLUTION
Step 1 Write the coefficients of the dividend in order of descending exponents.
Include a “0” for the missing x-term. Because the divisor is x − 3, use k = 3.
Write the k-value to the left of the vertical bar.
k-value 3 −1 4 0 9 coefficients of −x 3 + 4x 2 + 9

Step 2 Bring down the leading coefficient. Multiply the leading coefficient by the
k-value. Write the product under the second coefficient. Add.
3 −1 4 0 9
−3
−1 1
Step 3 Multiply the previous sum by the k-value. Write the product under the third
coefficient. Add. Repeat this process for the remaining coefficient. The first
three numbers in the bottom row are the coefficients of the quotient, and the
last number is the remainder.
3 −1 4 0 9
−3 3 9
coefficients of quotient −1 1 3 18 remainder
−x3 + 4x2 + 9 18
—— = −x2 + x + 3 + —
x−3 x−3

Using Synthetic Division

Divide 3x3 − 2x2 + 2x − 5 by x + 1.

STUDY TIP SOLUTION

Note that dividing Use synthetic division. Because the divisor is x + 1 = x − (−1), k = −1.
polynomials does
not always result in a −1 3 −2 2 −5
polynomial. This means −3 5 −7
that the set of polynomials
is not closed under 3 −5 7 −12
division. 3x3 − 2x2 + 2x − 5 12
—— = 3x2 − 5x + 7 − —
x+1 x+1

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Divide using synthetic division.

3. (x3 − 3x2 − 7x + 6) ÷ (x − 2) 4. (2x3 − x − 7) ÷ (x + 3)

Section 4.3 Dividing Polynomials 175

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 The Remainder Theorem
The remainder in the synthetic division process has an important interpretation. When
you divide a polynomial f (x) by d(x) = x − k, the result is
f(x) r (x)
— = q(x) + — Polynomial division
d(x) d(x)
f(x) r(x)
— = q(x) + — Substitute x − k for d(x).
x−k x−k
f(x) = (x − k)q(x) + r(x). Multiply both sides by x − k.
Because either r (x) = 0 or the degree of r (x) is less than the degree of x − k, you
know that r(x) is a constant function. So, let r (x) = r, where r is a real number, and
evaluate f (x) when x = k.
f(k) = (k − k)q(k) + r Substitute k for x and r for r(x).
f(k) = r Simplify.
This result is stated in the Remainder Theorem.

Core Concept
The Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial f (x) is divided by x − k, then the remainder is r = f (k).

The Remainder Theorem tells you that synthetic division can be used to evaluate
a polynomial function. So, to evaluate f(x) when x = k, divide f (x) by x − k. The
remainder will be f (k).

Evaluating a Polynomial

Use synthetic division to evaluate f (x) = 5x3 − x2 + 13x + 29 when x = −4.

SOLUTION
−4 5 −1 13 29
−20 84 −388
5 −21 97 −359

The remainder is −359. So, you can conclude from the Remainder Theorem that
f(−4) = −359.

Check

Check this by substituting x = −4 in the original function.

f(−4) = 5(−4)3 − (−4)2 + 13(−4) + 29
= −320 − 16 − 52 + 29

= −359 ✓

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Use synthetic division to evaluate the function for the indicated value of x.
5. f(x) = 4x2 − 10x − 21; x = 5 6. f(x) = 5x 4 + 2x3 − 20x − 6; x = 2

176 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 4.3 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. WRITING Explain the Remainder Theorem in your own words. Use an example in your explanation.

2. VOCABULARY What form must the divisor have to make synthetic division an appropriate method for
dividing a polynomial? Provide examples to support your claim.

3. VOCABULARY Write the polynomial divisor, dividend, and quotient functions −3 1 −2 −9 18

represented by the synthetic division shown at the right. −3 15 −18
1 −5 6 0
4. WRITING Explain what the colored numbers represent in the
synthetic division in Exercise 3.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 5–10, divide using polynomial long division. ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS In Exercises 19–22, match
(See Example 1.) the equivalent expressions. Justify your answers.
5. ( x2 + x − 17 ) ÷ ( x − 4 ) 19. ( x2 + x − 3 ) ÷ ( x − 2 )

6. ( 3x2 − 14x − 5 ) ÷ ( x − 5 ) 20. ( x2 − x − 3 ) ÷ ( x − 2 )

7. ( x3 + x2 + x + 2 ) ÷ ( x2 − 1 ) 21. ( x2 − x + 3 ) ÷ ( x − 2 )

8. ( 7x3 + x2 + x ) ÷ ( x2 + 1 ) 22. ( x2 + x + 3 ) ÷ ( x − 2 )
1 9
9. ( 5x4 − 2x3 − 7x2 − 39 ) ÷ ( x2 + 2x − 4 ) A. x + 1 − — B. x + 3 + —
x−2 x−2
10. ( 4x4 + 5x − 4 ) ÷ ( x2 − 3x − 2 ) 5 3
C. x + 1 + — D. x + 3 + —
x−2 x−2
In Exercises 11–18, divide using synthetic division.
(See Examples 2 and 3.) ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 23 and 24, describe and
correct the error in using synthetic division to divide
11. ( x2 + 8x + 1 ) ÷ ( x − 4 )
x3 − 5x + 3 by x − 2.
12. ( 4x2 − 13x − 5 ) ÷ ( x − 2 )

✗
23.
2 1 0 −5 3
13. ( 2x2 − x + 7 ) ÷ ( x + 5 ) 2 4 −2

14. ( x3 − 4x + 6 ) ÷ ( x + 3 )
1 2 −1 1
x3 − 5x + 3
—— = x3 + 2x2 − x + 1
15. ( x2 + 9 ) ÷ ( x − 3 ) x−2

16. ( 3x3 − 5x2 − 2 ) ÷ ( x − 1 )

✗
24.
2 1 −5 3
17. ( x4 − 5x3 − 8x2 + 13x − 12 ) ÷ ( x − 6 )
2 −6
18. ( x4 + 4x3 + 16x − 35 ) ÷ ( x + 5 ) 1 −3 −3
x3 − 5x + 3 3
—— = x2 − 3x − —
x−2 x−2

Section 4.3 Dividing Polynomials 177

hsnb_alg2_pe_0403.indd 177 2/5/15 11:05 AM

 In Exercises 25–32, use synthetic division to evaluate the 36. COMPARING METHODS The profit P (in millions of
function for the indicated value of x. (See Example 4.) dollars) for a DVD manufacturer can be modeled by
P = −6x3 + 72x, where x is the number (in millions)
25. f(x) = −x2 − 8x + 30; x = −1
of DVDs produced. Use synthetic division to show
that the company yields a profit of $96 million when
26. f(x) = 3x2 + 2x − 20; x = 3
2 million DVDs are produced. Is there an easier
method? Explain.
27. f(x) = x3 − 2x2 + 4x + 3; x = 2
37. CRITICAL THINKING What is the value of k such that
28. f(x) = x3 + x2 − 3x + 9; x = −4 ( x3 − x2 + kx − 30 ) ÷ ( x − 5 ) has a remainder
of zero?
29. f(x) = x3 − 6x + 1; x = 6
A −14 B −2
30. f(x) = x3 − 9x − 7; x = 10
C 26 D 32
31. f(x) = x4 + 6x2 − 7x + 1; x = 3
38. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? The graph represents the
32. f(x) = −x4 − x3 − 2; x = 5 polynomial function f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − x − 3.

33. MAKING AN ARGUMENT You use synthetic division y

10
to divide f(x) by (x − a) and find that the remainder
equals 15. Your friend concludes that f(15) = a.
Is your friend correct? Explain your reasoning. −4 −2 2 4 x

−10
34. THOUGHT PROVOKING A polygon has an area
represented by A = 4x2 + 8x + 4. The figure has at −20
least one dimension equal to 2x + 2. Draw the figure
and label its dimensions.
a. The expression f (x) ÷ (x − k) has a remainder
of −15. What is the value of k?
35. USING TOOLS The total attendance A (in thousands) b. Use the graph to compare the remainders of
at NCAA women’s basketball games and the number ( x3 + 3x2 − x − 3 ) ÷ ( x + 3 ) and
T of NCAA women’s basketball teams over a period ( x3 + 3x2 − x − 3 ) ÷ ( x + 1 ).
of time can be modeled by
A = −1.95x3 + 70.1x2 − 188x + 2150
39. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS The volume
T = 14.8x + 725
V of the rectangular prism is given by
where x is in years and 0 < x < 18. Write a function for V = 2x3 + 17x2 + 46x + 40. Find an expression
the average attendance per team over this period of time. for the missing dimension.

x+2

x+4
?

40. USING STRUCTURE You divide two polynomials and

102
obtain the result 5x2 − 13x + 47 − —. What is the
x+2
dividend? How did you find it?

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Find the zero(s) of the function. (Sections 3.1 and 3.2)

41. f(x) = x2 − 6x + 9 42. g(x) = 3(x + 6)(x − 2)
43. g(x) = x2 + 14x + 49 44. h(x) = 4x2 + 36

178 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 4.4 Factoring Polynomials
Essential Question How can you factor a polynomial?

Factoring Polynomials
Work with a partner. Match each polynomial equation with the graph of its related
polynomial function. Use the x-intercepts of the graph to write each polynomial in
factored form. Explain your reasoning.
a. x2 + 5x + 4 = 0 b. x3 − 2x2 − x + 2 = 0
c. x3 + x2 − 2x = 0 d. x3 − x = 0
e. x 4 − 5x2 + 4 = 0 f. x 4 − 2x3 − x2 + 2x = 0

A. 4 B. 4

−6 6 −6 6

−4 −4

C. 4 D. 4

−6 6 −6 6

−4 −4

E. 4 F. 4

−6 6 −6 6

MAKING SENSE
OF PROBLEMS −4 −4
To be proficient in math,
you need to check your
answers to problems and Factoring Polynomials
continually ask yourself,
“Does this make sense?” Work with a partner. Use the x-intercepts of the graph of the polynomial function
to write each polynomial in factored form. Explain your reasoning. Check your
answers by multiplying.
a. f (x) = x2 − x − 2 b. f (x) = x3 − x2 − 2x
c. f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 3x d. f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − x + 3
e. f (x) = x 4 + 2x3 − x2 − 2x f. f (x) = x 4 − 10x2 + 9

Communicate Your Answer

3. How can you factor a polynomial?
4. What information can you obtain about the graph of a polynomial function
written in factored form?

Section 4.4 Factoring Polynomials 179

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 4.4 Lesson What You Will Learn
Factor polynomials.
Use the Factor Theorem.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry
factored completely, p. 180 Factoring Polynomials
factor by grouping, p. 181
Previously, you factored quadratic polynomials. You can also factor polynomials
quadratic form, p. 181
with degree greater than 2. Some of these polynomials can be factored completely
Previous using techniques you have previously learned. A factorable polynomial with integer
zero of a function coefficients is factored completely when it is written as a product of unfactorable
synthetic division polynomials with integer coefficients.

Finding a Common Monomial Factor

Factor each polynomial completely.

a. x3 − 4x2 − 5x b. 3y5 − 48y3 c. 5z4 + 30z3 + 45z2

SOLUTION
a. x3 − 4x2 − 5x = x(x2 − 4x − 5) Factor common monomial.
= x(x − 5)(x + 1) Factor trinomial.
b. 3y5 − 48y3 = 3y3(y2 − 16) Factor common monomial.
= 3y3(y − 4)(y + 4) Difference of Two Squares Pattern
c. 5z4 + 30z3 + 45z2 = 5z2(z2 + 6z + 9) Factor common monomial.
= 5z2(z + 3)2 Perfect Square Trinomial Pattern

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Factor the polynomial completely.

1. x3 − 7x2 + 10x 2. 3n7 − 75n5 3. 8m5 − 16m4 + 8m3

In part (b) of Example 1, the special factoring pattern for the difference of two squares
was used to factor the expression completely. There are also factoring patterns that you
can use to factor the sum or difference of two cubes.

Core Concept
Special Factoring Patterns
Sum of Two Cubes Example
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2) 64x3 + 1 = (4x)3 + 13
= (4x + 1)(16x2 − 4x + 1)

Difference of Two Cubes Example

a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2) 27x3 − 8 = (3x)3 − 23
= (3x − 2)(9x2 + 6x + 4)

180 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 Factoring the Sum or Difference of Two Cubes

Factor (a) x3 − 125 and (b) 16s5 + 54s2 completely.

SOLUTION
a. x3 − 125 = x3 − 53 Write as a3 − b3.
= (x − 5)(x2 + 5x + 25) Difference of Two Cubes Pattern
b. 16s5 + 54s2 = 2s2(8s3 + 27) Factor common monomial.
= 2s2 [(2s)3 + 33] Write 8s3 + 27 as a3 + b3.
= 2s2(2s + 3)(4s2 − 6s + 9) Sum of Two Cubes Pattern

For some polynomials, you can factor by grouping pairs of terms that have a
common monomial factor. The pattern for factoring by grouping is shown below.
ra + rb + sa + sb = r(a + b) + s(a + b)
= (r + s)(a + b)

Factoring by Grouping

Factor z3 + 5z2 − 4z − 20 completely.

SOLUTION
z3 + 5z2 − 4z − 20 = z2(z + 5) − 4(z + 5) Factor by grouping.
= (z2 − 4)(z + 5) Distributive Property
= (z − 2)(z + 2)(z + 5) Difference of Two Squares Pattern

An expression of the form au2 + bu + c, where u is an algebraic expression, is said to

be in quadratic form. The factoring techniques you have studied can sometimes be
used to factor such expressions.
LOOKING FOR
STRUCTURE Factoring Polynomials in Quadratic Form
The expression 16x 4 − 81 is
Factor (a) 16x4 − 81 and (b) 3p8 + 15p5 + 18p2 completely.
in quadratic form because
it can be written as u2 − 81 SOLUTION
where u = 4x2.
a. 16x4 − 81 = (4x2)2 − 92 Write as a2 − b2.
= (4x2 + 9)(4x2 − 9) Difference of Two Squares Pattern
= (4x2 + 9)(2x − 3)(2x + 3) Difference of Two Squares Pattern
b. 3p8 + 15p5 + 18p2 = 3p2( p6 + 5p3 + 6) Factor common monomial.
= 3p2( p3 + 3)( p3 + 2) Factor trinomial in quadratic form.

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Factor the polynomial completely.

4. a3 + 27 5. 6z5 − 750z2
6. x3 + 4x2 − x − 4 7. 3y3 + y2 + 9y + 3
8. −16n4 + 625 9. 5w6 − 25w4 + 30w2

Section 4.4 Factoring Polynomials 181

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 The Factor Theorem
When dividing polynomials in the previous section, the examples had nonzero
remainders. Suppose the remainder is 0 when a polynomial f (x) is divided by x − k.
Then,
f(x) 0
— = q(x) + — = q(x)
x−k x−k

⋅
where q(x) is the quotient polynomial. Therefore, f(x) = (x − k) q(x), so that x − k
is a factor of f(x). This result is summarized by the Factor Theorem, which is a special
case of the Remainder Theorem.

READING
In other words, x − k is a Core Concept
factor of f (x) if and only if
k is a zero of f.
The Factor Theorem
A polynomial f (x) has a factor x − k if and only if f (k) = 0.

STUDY TIP Determining Whether a Linear Binomial Is a Factor

In part (b), notice that
direct substitution would Determine whether (a) x − 2 is a factor of f (x) = x2 + 2x − 4 and (b) x + 5 is a factor
have resulted in more of f(x) = 3x4 + 15x3 − x2 + 25.
difficult computations
SOLUTION
than synthetic division.
a. Find f(2) by direct substitution. b. Find f (−5) by synthetic division.
f(2) = 22 + 2(2) − 4 −5 3 15 −1 0 25
=4+4−4 −15 0 5 −25
=4 3 0 −1 5 0

Because f(2) ≠ 0, the binomial Because f (−5) = 0, the binomial

x − 2 is not a factor of x + 5 is a factor of
f (x) = x2 + 2x − 4. f (x) = 3x4 + 15x3 − x2 + 25.

Factoring a Polynomial

Show that x + 3 is a factor of f (x) = x4 + 3x3 − x − 3. Then factor f (x) completely.

SOLUTION
Show that f (−3) = 0 by synthetic division.
ANOTHER WAY −3 1 3 0 −1 −3
Notice that you can factor
−3 0 0 3
f (x) by grouping.
f (x) = x3(x + 3) − 1(x + 3) 1 0 0 −1 0
= (x3 − 1)(x + 3) Because f (−3) = 0, you can conclude that x + 3 is a factor of f (x) by the
= (x + 3)(x − 1)
(x2 + x + 1)
⋅ Factor Theorem. Use the result to write f (x) as a product of two factors and then
factor completely.
f(x) = x 4 + 3x3 − x − 3 Write original polynomial.
= (x + 3)(x3 − 1) Write as a product of two factors.
= (x + 3)(x − 1)(x2 + x + 1) Difference of Two Cubes Pattern

182 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 Because the x-intercepts of the graph of a function are the zeros of the function, you
can use the graph to approximate the zeros. You can check the approximations using
the Factor Theorem.

Real-Life Application h(t) = 4t3 − 21t2 + 9t + 34

h
D
During the first 5 seconds of a roller coaster ride, the 80
ffunction h(t) = 4t 3 − 21t 2 + 9t + 34 represents the
height
h h (in feet) of the roller coaster after t seconds. 40
How
H long is the roller coaster at or below ground
level
l in the first 5 seconds?
1 5 t
SOLUTION
S
11. Understand the Problem You are given a function rule that represents the
height of a roller coaster. You are asked to determine how long the roller coaster
is at or below ground during the first 5 seconds of the ride.
22. Make a Plan Use a graph to estimate the zeros of the function and check using
the Factor Theorem. Then use the zeros to describe where the graph lies below
the t-axis.
33. Solve the Problem From the graph, two of the zeros appear to be −1 and 2.
The third zero is between 4 and 5.
Step 1 Determine whether −1 is a zero using synthetic division.
−1 4 −21 9 34
−4 25 −34
h(−1) = 0, so −1 is a zero of h
4 −25 34 0
and t + 1 is a factor of h(t).
Step 2 Determine whether 2 is a zero. If 2 is also a zero, then t − 2 is a factor of
STUDY TIP the resulting quotient polynomial. Check using synthetic division.
You could also check 2 4 −25 34
that 2 is a zero using 8 −34
the original function, The remainder is 0, so t − 2 is a
but using the quotient 4 −17 0
factor of h(t) and 2 is a zero of h.
polynomial helps you find
the remaining factor. So, h(t) = (t + 1)(t − 2)(4t − 17). The factor 4t − 17 indicates that the zero
17
between 4 and 5 is — 4
, or 4.25.

The zeros are −1, 2, and 4.25. Only t = 2 and t = 4.25 occur in the first
5 seconds. The graph shows that the roller coaster is at or below ground level
for 4.25 − 2 = 2.25 seconds.
4. Look Back Use a table of X Y1
.5 33.75
values to verify the positive zeros zero 1.25 20.25
2 0
and heights between the zeros. 2.75 -16.88
negative
3.5 -20.25
4.25 0
zero 5 54
X=2

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

10. Determine whether x − 4 is a factor of f (x) = 2x2 + 5x − 12.

11. Show that x − 6 is a factor of f (x) = x3 − 5x2 − 6x. Then factor f (x) completely.
12. In Example 7, does your answer change when you first determine whether 2 is a
zero and then whether −1 is a zero? Justify your answer.

Section 4.4 Factoring Polynomials 183

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 4.4 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept

p Check
1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE The expression 9x4 − 49 is in _________ form because it can be written
as u2 − 49 where u = _____.

2. VOCABULARY Explain when you should try factoring a polynomial by grouping.

3. WRITING How do you know when a polynomial is factored completely?

4. WRITING Explain the Factor Theorem and why it is useful.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 5–12, factor the polynomial completely. In Exercises 23–30, factor the polynomial completely.
(See Example 1.) (See Example 3.)
5. x3 − 2x2 − 24x 6. 4k5 − 100k3 23. y3 − 5y2 + 6y − 30 24. m3 − m2 + 7m − 7

7. 3p5 − 192p3 8. 2m6 − 24m5 + 64m4 25. 3a3 + 18a2 + 8a + 48

9. 2q4 + 9q3 − 18q2 10. 3r 6 − 11r 5 − 20r 4 26. 2k3 − 20k2 + 5k − 50

11. 10w10 − 19w9 + 6w8 27. x3 − 8x2 − 4x + 32 28. z3 − 5z2 − 9z + 45

12. 18v9 + 33v8 + 14v7 29. 4q3 − 16q2 − 9q + 36

In Exercises 13–20, factor the polynomial completely. 30. 16n3 + 32n2 − n − 2

(See Example 2.)
In Exercises 31–38, factor the polynomial
13. x3 + 64 14. y3 + 512
completely. (See Example 4.)
15. g3 − 343 16. c3 − 27 31. 49k 4 − 9 32. 4m4 − 25

17. 3h9 − 192h6 18. 9n6 − 6561n3 33. c 4 + 9c2 + 20 34. y 4 − 3y2 − 28

19. 16t 7 + 250t4 20. 135z11 − 1080z8 35. 16z4 − 81 36. 81a4 − 256

ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 21 and 22, describe and 37. 3r 8 + 3r 5 − 60r 2 38. 4n12 − 32n7 + 48n2
correct the error in factoring the polynomial.
In Exercises 39–44, determine whether the binomial is a

✗
21.
factor of the polynomial. (See Example 5.)
3x 3 + 27x = 3x(x2 + 9) 39. f(x) = 2x3 + 5x2 − 37x − 60; x − 4
= 3x(x + 3)(x − 3)
40. g(x) = 3x3 − 28x2 + 29x + 140; x + 7

41. h(x) = 6x5 − 15x4 − 9x3; x + 3

✗
22.
x 9 + 8x 3 = (x 3)3 + (2x)3
42. g(x) = 8x5 − 58x4 + 60x3 + 140; x − 6
= (x 3 + 2x)[(x 3)2 − (x 3)(2x) + (2x)2]
= (x 3 + 2x)(x6 − 2x 4 + 4x2) 43. h(x) = 6x 4 − 6x3 − 84x2 + 144x; x + 4

44. t(x) = 48x 4 + 36x3 − 138x2 − 36x; x + 2

184 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 In Exercises 45–50, show that the binomial is a factor of 56. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS The volume
the polynomial. Then factor the polynomial completely. (in cubic inches) of a rectangular birdcage can be
(See Example 6.) modeled by V = 3x3 − 17x2 + 29x − 15, where x
is the length (in inches). Determine the values of
45. g(x) = x3 − x2 − 20x; x + 4
x for which the model makes sense. Explain your
reasoning.
46. t(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 9x + 45; x − 5
V
47. f(x) = x 4 − 6x3 − 8x + 48; x − 6
2

48. s(x) = x 4 + 4x3 − 64x − 256; x + 4

−2 4 x

49. r(x) = x3 − 37x + 84; x + 7 −2

−4
50. h(x) = x3 − x2 − 24x − 36; x + 2

ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS In Exercises 51–54, match USING STRUCTURE In Exercises 57–64, use the method
the function with the correct graph. Explain your of your choice to factor the polynomial completely.
reasoning. Explain your reasoning.
51. f(x) = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 1) 57. a6 + a5 − 30a4 58. 8m3 − 343

52. g(x) = x(x + 2)(x + 1)(x − 2) 59. z3 − 7z2 − 9z + 63 60. 2p8 − 12p5 + 16p2

53. h(x) = (x + 2)(x + 3)(x − 1) 61. 64r 3 + 729 62. 5x5 − 10x 4 − 40x3

54. k(x) = x(x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 2) 63. 16n 4 − 1 64. 9k3 − 24k2 + 3k − 8

A. y B. y
65. REASONING Determine whether each polynomial is
4 4 factored completely. If not, factor completely.
a. 7z 4(2z2 − z − 6)
−4 4 x −4 4 x
b. (2 − n)(n2 + 6n)(3n − 11)
c. 3(4y − 5)(9y2 − 6y − 4)

C. y D. y 66. PROBLEM SOLVING The profit P

6
4
(in millions of dollars) for a
T-shirt manufacturer can be
modeled by P = −x3 + 4x2 + x,
−4 4 x −4 4 x
where x is the number
−4 (in millions) of T-shirts
produced. Currently the
company produces 4 million
55. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS The volume T-shirts and makes a profit
(in cubic inches) of a shipping box is modeled of $4 million. What lesser number
by V = 2x3 − 19x2 + 39x, where x is the length of T-shirts could the company produce
(in inches). Determine the values of x for which the and still make the same profit?
model makes sense. Explain your reasoning.
(See Example 7.) 67. PROBLEM SOLVING The profit P (in millions of
dollars) for a shoe manufacturer can be modeled
V by P = −21x3 + 46x, where x is the number (in
40
millions) of shoes produced. The company now
20 produces 1 million shoes and makes a profit of
$25 million, but it would like to cut back production.
2 4 6 8 x What lesser number of shoes could the company
produce and still make the same profit?

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 68. THOUGHT PROVOKING Find a value of k such that 74. REASONING The graph of the function
f(x)
— has a remainder of 0. Justify your answer. f(x) = x 4 + 3x3 + 2x2 + x + 3
x−k is shown. Can you use y
4
f(x) = x3 − 3x2 − 4x the Factor Theorem to
factor f (x)? Explain. 2

69. COMPARING METHODS You are taking a test −4 −2 2 4x

where calculators are not permitted. One question −2
asks you to evaluate g(7) for the function
g(x) = x3 − 7x2 − 4x + 28. You use the Factor −4
Theorem and synthetic division and your friend uses
direct substitution. Whose method do you prefer?
Explain your reasoning. 75. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS The standard
equation of a circle with radius r and center (h, k) is
70. MAKING AN ARGUMENT You divide f(x) by (x − a) (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2. Rewrite each equation of a
and find that the remainder does not equal 0. Your circle in standard form. Identify the center and radius
friend concludes that f (x) cannot be factored. Is your of the circle. Then graph the circle.
friend correct? Explain your reasoning. y
(x, y)
71. CRITICAL THINKING What is the value of k such that r
x − 7 is a factor of h(x) = 2x3 − 13x2 − kx + 105?
(h, k)
Justify your answer.

x
72. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Use the graph to write an
equation of the cubic function in factored form.
a. x2 + 6x + 9 + y2 = 25
Explain your reasoning.
b. x2 − 4x + 4 + y2 = 9
y
4
c. x2 − 8x + 16 + y2 + 2y + 1 = 36

76. CRITICAL THINKING Use the diagram to complete

−4 4x
parts (a)–(c).
−2 a. Explain why a3 − b3 is equal to the sum of the
volumes of the solids I, II, and III.
−4
b. Write an algebraic expression
for the volume of each of
the three solids. Leave II III
73. ABSTRACT REASONING Factor each polynomial your expressions in a
completely. b
factored form.
b b
a. 7ac2 + bc2 −7ad 2 − bd 2 c. Use the results from I
part (a) and part (b) a
b. x2n − 2x n + 1
to derive the factoring a
c. a5b2 − a2b4 + 2a 4b − 2ab3 + a3 − b2 pattern a3 − b3.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Solve the quadratic equation by factoring. (Section 3.1)

77. x2 − x − 30 = 0 78. 2x 2 − 10x − 72 = 0
79. 3x2 − 11x + 10 = 0 80. 9x 2 − 28x + 3 = 0
Solve the quadratic equation by completing the square. (Section 3.3)
81. x2 − 12x + 36 = 144 82. x 2 − 8x − 11 = 0
83. 3x2 + 30x + 63 = 0 84. 4x 2 + 36x − 4 = 0

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 4.1–4.4 What Did You Learn?

Core Vocabulary
polynomial, p. 158 Pascal’s Triangle, p. 169 factored completely, p. 180
polynomial function, p. 158 polynomial long division, p. 174 factor by grouping, p. 181
end behavior, p. 159 synthetic division, p. 175 quadratic form, p. 181

Core Concepts
Section 4.1
Common Polynomial Functions, p. 158 Graphing Polynomial Functions, p. 160
End Behavior of Polynomial Functions, p. 159

Section 4.2
Operations with Polynomials, p. 166 Pascal’s Triangle, p. 169
Special Product Patterns, p. 167

Section 4.3
Polynomial Long Division, p. 174 The Remainder Theorem, p. 176
Synthetic Division, p. 175

Section 4.4
Factoring Polynomials, p. 180 The Factor Theorem, p. 182
Special Factoring Patterns, p. 180

Mathematical Practices
1. Describe the entry points you used to analyze the function in Exercise 43 on page 164.
2. Describe how you maintained oversight in the process of factoring the polynomial in
Exercise 49 on page 185.

Study Skills

Keeping Your Mind

Focused
• When you sit down at your desk, review your notes from
the last class.
• Repeat in your mind what you are writing in your notes.
• When a mathematical concept is particularly difficult, ask
your teacher for another example.

187

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 4.1–4.4 Quiz

Decide whether the function is a polynomial function. If so, write it in standard form and
state its degree, type, and leading coefficient. (Section 4.1)

1
1. f(x) = 5 + 2x2 − 3x4 − 2x − x3 2. g(x) = —4 x 3 + 2x − 3x2 + 1 3. h(x) = 3 − 6x3 + 4x−2 + 6x

4. Describe the x-values for which (a) f is increasing or decreasing, y

4
(b) f(x) > 0, and (c) f(x) < 0. (Section 4.1) (2, 3)
2

(3, 0)
−2 2 4 6x
−2
(1, 0)
−4
f

5. Write an expression for the area and perimeter

for the figure shown. (Section 4.2) x+1

x+3 x
Perform the indicated operation. (Section 4.2)
6. (7x2 − 4) − (3x2 − 5x + 1) 7. (x2 − 3x + 2)(3x − 1) 8. (x − 1)(x + 3)(x − 4)

9. Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand (x + 2)5. (Section 4.2)

10. Divide 4x4 − 2x3 + x2 − 5x + 8 by x2 − 2x − 1. (Section 4.3)

Factor the polynomial completely. (Section 4.4)

11. a3 − 2a2 − 8a 12. 8m3 + 27 13. z3 + z2 − 4z − 4 14. 49b4 − 64

15. Show that x + 5 is a factor of f(x) = x3 − 2x2 − 23x + 60. Then factor f(x) completely.
(Section 4.4)

16. The estimated price P (in cents) of stamps in the United States can be modeled by the
polynomial function P(t) = 0.007t3 − 0.16t2 + 1t + 17, where t represents the number of
years since 1990. (Section 4.1)
a. Use a graphing calculator to graph the function for the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 20.
Describe the behavior of the graph on this interval.
b. What was the average rate of change in the price of stamps from 1990 to 2010? V(x) = 2x3 − 11x2 + 12x
V

17. The volume V (in cubic feet) of a rectangular wooden crate is modeled by the function 4
V(x) = 2x3 − 11x2 + 12x, where x is the width (in feet) of the crate. Determine the values
of x for which the model makes sense. Explain your reasoning. (Section 4.4) −2 x

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 4.5 Solving Polynomial Equations
Essential Question How can you determine whether a polynomial
equation has a repeated solution?

Cubic Equations and Repeated Solutions

Work with a partner. Some cubic equations have three distinct solutions. Others
have repeated solutions. Match each cubic polynomial equation with the graph of its
related polynomial function. Then solve each equation. For those equations that have
USING TOOLS repeated solutions, describe the behavior of the related function near the repeated zero
STRATEGICALLY using the graph or a table of values.

To be proficient in a. x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 8 = 0 b. x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 = 0

math, you need to use c. x3 − 3x + 2 = 0 d. x3 + x2 − 2x = 0
technological tools to
explore and deepen e. x3 − 3x − 2 = 0 f. x3 − 3x2 + 2x = 0
your understanding
A. 4 B. 4
of concepts.

−6 6 −6 6

−4 −4

C. 4 D. 4

−6 6 −6 6

−4 −4

E. 4 F. 4

−6 6 −6 6

−4 −4

Quartic Equations and Repeated Solutions

Work with a partner. Determine whether each quartic equation has repeated
solutions using the graph of the related quartic function or a table of values. Explain
your reasoning. Then solve each equation.
a. x 4 − 4x3 + 5x2 − 2x = 0 b. x 4 − 2x3 − x2 + 2x = 0
c. x 4 − 4x3 + 4x2 = 0 d. x 4 + 3x3 = 0

Communicate Your Answer

3. How can you determine whether a polynomial equation has a repeated solution?
4. Write a cubic or a quartic polynomial equation that is different from the equations
in Explorations 1 and 2 and has a repeated solution.

Section 4.5 Solving Polynomial Equations 189

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 4.5 Lesson What You Will Learn
Find solutions of polynomial equations and zeros of polynomial functions.
Use the Rational Root Theorem.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Use the Irrational Conjugates Theorem.
repeated solution, p. 190
Previous Finding Solutions and Zeros
roots of an equation You have used the Zero-Product Property to solve factorable quadratic equations. You
real numbers can extend this technique to solve some higher-degree polynomial equations.
conjugates
Solving a Polynomial Equation by Factoring

Solve 2x3 − 12x2 + 18x = 0.

SOLUTION
Check 12 2x3 − 12x2 + 18x = 0 Write the equation.
2x(x2 − 6x + 9) = 0 Factor common monomial.
2x(x − 3)2 = 0 Perfect Square Trinomial Pattern
−2 6
Zero 2x = 0 or (x − 3)2 = 0 Zero-Product Property
X=3 Y=0
−6 x=0 or x=3 Solve for x.

The solutions, or roots, are x = 0 and x = 3.

In Example 1, the factor x − 3 appears more than once. This creates a repeated
solution of x = 3. Note that the graph of the related function touches the x-axis
STUDY TIP (but does not cross the x-axis) at the repeated zero x = 3, and crosses the x-axis at the
zero x = 0. This concept can be generalized as follows.
Because the factor x − 3
appears twice, the root • When a factor x − k of f(x) is raised to an odd power, the graph of f crosses the
x = 3 has a multiplicity x-axis at x = k.
of 2.
• When a factor x − k of f(x) is raised to an even power, the graph of f touches the
x-axis (but does not cross the x-axis) at x = k.

Finding Zeros of a Polynomial Function

Find the zeros of f (x) = −2x4 + 16x2 − 32. Then sketch a graph of the function.

SOLUTION
(−2, 0) y (2, 0) 0 = −2x4 + 16x2 − 32 Set f(x) equal to 0.
−4 4 x
0 = −2(x4 − 8x2 + 16) Factor out −2.
0 = −2(x2 − 4)(x2 − 4) Factor trinomial in quadratic form.
0 = −2(x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 2)(x − 2) Difference of Two Squares Pattern
0 = −2(x + 2)2(x − 2)2 Rewrite using exponents.

Because both factors x + 2 and x − 2 are raised to an even power, the graph of f
−40
(0, −32) touches the x-axis at the zeros x = −2 and x = 2.
By analyzing the original function, you can determine that the y-intercept is −32.
Because the degree is even and the leading coefficient is negative, f(x) → −∞ as
x → −∞ and f(x) → −∞ as x → +∞. Use these characteristics to sketch a graph of
the function.

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 Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Solve the equation.

1. 4x4 − 40x2 + 36 = 0 2. 2x5 + 24x = 14x3

Find the zeros of the function. Then sketch a graph of the function.

3. f(x) = 3x4 − 6x2 + 3 4. f(x) = x3 + x2 − 6x

The Rational Root Theorem

5 3
The solutions of the equation 64x3 + 152x2 − 62x − 105 = 0 are −—2, −—4, and —78 .
Notice that the numerators (5, 3, and 7) of the zeros are factors of the constant term,
−105. Also notice that the denominators (2, 4, and 8) are factors of the leading
coefficient, 64. These observations are generalized by the Rational Root Theorem.

Core Concept
The Rational Root Theorem
If f (x) = an x n + ∙ ∙ ∙ + a1x + a0 has integer coefficients, then every rational
STUDY TIP solution of f (x) = 0 has the following form:
Notice that you can p factor of constant term a
use the Rational Root — = ———0
q factor of leading coefficient an
Theorem to list possible
zeros of polynomial
functions. The Rational Root Theorem can be a starting point for finding solutions of polynomial
equations. However, the theorem lists only possible solutions. In order to find the
actual solutions, you must test values from the list of possible solutions.

Using the Rational Root Theorem

Find all real solutions of x3 − 8x2 + 11x + 20 = 0.

SOLUTION
The polynomial f (x) = x3 − 8x2 + 11x + 20 is not easily factorable. Begin by using
ANOTHER WAY the Rational Root Theorem.
You can use direct
substitution to test Step 1 List the possible rational solutions. The leading coefficient of f(x) is 1 and
possible solutions, but the constant term is 20. So, the possible rational solutions of f (x) = 0 are
synthetic division helps 1 2 4 5 10 20
you identify other factors x = ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—.
1 1 1 1 1 1
of the polynomial.
Step 2 Test possible solutions using synthetic division until a solution is found.
Test x = 1: Test x = −1:
1 1 −8 11 20 −1 1 −8 11 20
1 −7 4 −1 9 −20
1 −7 4 24 1 −9 20 0

f(1) ≠ 0, so x − 1 is f(−1) = 0, so x + 1
not a factor of f(x). is a factor of f(x).
Step 3 Factor completely using the result of the synthetic division.
(x + 1)(x2 − 9x + 20) = 0 Write as a product of factors.
(x + 1)(x − 4)(x − 5) = 0 Factor the trinomial.
So, the solutions are x = −1, x = 4, and x = 5.

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 In Example 3, the leading coefficient of the polynomial is 1. When the leading
coefficient is not 1, the list of possible rational solutions or zeros can increase
dramatically. In such cases, the search can be shortened by using a graph.

Finding Zeros of a Polynomial Function

Find all real zeros of f (x) = 10x4 − 11x3 − 42x2 + 7x + 12.

SOLUTION
1 2 3 4 6 12
Step 1 List the possible rational zeros of f : ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—,
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 3 1 2 3 4 6 12 1 3
±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—
2 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 10
100
Step 2 Choose reasonable values from the list above
to test using the graph of the function. For f, f
the values −5 5
3 1 3 12
x = −—, x = −—, x = —, and x = —
2 2 5 5
are reasonable based on the graph shown
−100
at the right.
Step 3 Test the values using synthetic division until a zero is found.
3 1
−— 10 −11 −42 7 12 −— 10 −11 −42 7 12
2 2
9 69
−15 39 — −— −5 8 17 −12
2 4
23 21
10 −26 −3 — −— 10 −16 −34 24 0
2 4
1
− — is a zero.
2
Step 4 Factor out a binomial using the result of the synthetic division.

( ) 1
f (x) = x + — (10x3 − 16x2 − 34x + 24)
2
Write as a product of factors.

= ( x + ) (2)(5x − 8x − 17x + 12)

1
— 3 2 Factor 2 out of the second factor.
2
= (2x + 1)(5x3 − 8x2 − 17x + 12) Multiply the first factor by 2.

Step 5 Repeat the steps above for g(x) = 5x3 − 8x2 − 17x +12. Any zero of g will
also be a zero of f. The possible rational zeros of g are:
25
1 2 3 4 6 12
g
x = ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—
5 5 5 5 5 5
3 3
−5 5 The graph of g shows that — may be a zero. Synthetic division shows that — is
5 5
( 3
)
a zero and g(x) = x − — (5x2 − 5x − 20) = (5x − 3)(x2 − x − 4).
It follows that:
5
−25

⋅
f(x) = (2x + 1) g(x) = (2x + 1)(5x − 3)(x2 − x − 4)
Step 6 Find the remaining zeros of f by solving x2 − x − 4 = 0.
——
−(−1) ± √ (−1)2 − 4(1)(−4) Substitute 1 for a, −1 for b, and −4 for c
x = ———
2(1) in the Quadratic Formula.
—
1 ± √ 17
x=— Simplify.
2
— —
1 3 1 + √ 17 1 − √ 17
The real zeros of f are −—, —, — ≈ 2.56, and — ≈ −1.56.
2 5 2 2

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 Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

5. Find all real solutions of x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24 = 0.

6. Find all real zeros of f (x) = 3x4 − 2x3 − 37x2 + 24x + 12.

The Irrational Conjugates Theorem

—
In Example
—
4, notice that the irrational zeros are conjugates of the form a + √b and
a − √b . This illustrates the theorem below.

Core Concept
The Irrational Conjugates Theorem
Let f be a polynomial function —
with rational coefficients,
—
and let a and b be
rational
—
numbers such that √ b is irrational. If a + √ b is a zero of f, then
a − √ b is also a zero of f.

Using Zeros to Write a Polynomial Function

Write a polynomial function f of least degree

—
that has rational coefficients, a leading
coefficient of 1, and the zeros 3 and 2 + √ 5 .

SOLUTION
— —
Because the coefficients are rational and 2 + √5 is a zero, 2 − √5 must also be a zero
by the Irrational Conjugates Theorem. Use the three zeros and the Factor Theorem to
write f (x) as a product of three factors.
— —
f (x) = (x − 3)[x − ( 2 + √ 5 )][x − ( 2 − √ 5 )] Write f(x) in factored form.
— —
= (x − 3)[(x − 2) − √ 5 ][ (x − 2) + √5 ] Regroup terms.
= (x − 3)[(x − 2)2 − 5] Multiply.
= (x − 3)[(x2 − 4x + 4) − 5] Expand binomial.
= (x − 3)(x2 − 4x − 1) Simplify.
= x3 − 4x2 − x − 3x2 + 12x + 3 Multiply.
= x3 − 7x2 + 11x + 3 Combine like terms.

Check
You can check this result by evaluating f at each of its three zeros.
f(3) = 33 − 7(3)2 + 11(3) + 3 = 27 − 63 + 33 + 3 = 0 ✓
— — 3 — 2 —
f ( 2 + √ 5 ) = ( 2 + √ 5 ) − 7( 2 + √ 5 ) + 11( 2 + √ 5 ) + 3
— — —
= 38 + 17√5 − 63 − 28√ 5 + 22 + 11√ 5 + 3
=0 ✓
— —
Because f ( 2 + √5 ) = 0, by the Irrational Conjugates Theorem f ( 2 − √ 5 ) = 0. ✓

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

7. Write a polynomial function f of least degree that has

—
rational coefficients, a
leading coefficient of 1, and the zeros 4 and 1 − √ 5 .

Section 4.5 Solving Polynomial Equations 193

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 4.5 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept

p Check
1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE If a polynomial function f has integer coefficients, then every rational
p
solution of f(x) = 0 has the form — , where p is a factor of the _____________ and q is a factor of
q
the _____________.

2. DIFFERENT WORDS, SAME QUESTION Which is different? Find “both” answers.

Find the y-intercept of the graph Find the x-intercepts of the graph
of y = x3 − 2x2 − x + 2. of y = x3 − 2x2 − x + 2.

Find all the real solutions of Find the real zeros of

x3 − 2x2 − x + 2 = 0. f(x) = x3 − 2x2 − x + 2.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3–12, solve the equation. (See Example 1.) 21. USING EQUATIONS According to the Rational Root
Theorem, which is not a possible solution of the
3. z3 − z2 − 12z = 0 4. a3 − 4a2 + 4a = 0
equation 2x4 − 5x3 + 10x2 − 9 = 0?
5. 2x4 − 4x3 = −2x2 6. v3 − 2v2 − 16v = − 32 1 5
A −9 B −—2 C —2 D 3
7. 5w3 = 50w 8. 9m5 = 27m3
22. USING EQUATIONS According to the Rational Root
9. 2c4 − 6c3 = 12c2 − 36c Theorem, which is not a possible zero of the function
f (x) = 40x5 − 42x4 − 107x3 + 107x2 + 33x − 36?
10. p4 + 40 = 14p2 2 3 3 4
A −—3 B −—8 C —4 D —5

11. 12n2 + 48n = −n3 − 64

ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 23 and 24, describe and
12. y3 − 27 = 9y2 − 27y correct the error in listing the possible rational zeros of
the function.
In Exercises 13–20, find the zeros of the function. Then

✗
23.
sketch a graph of the function. (See Example 2.)
f(x) = x3 + 5x2 − 9x − 45
13. h(x) = x4 + x3 − 6x2
Possible rational zeros of f :
1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 45
14. f(x) = x4 − 18x2 + 81

15. p(x) = x6 − 11x5 + 30x4

✗
24.
f(x) = 3x3 + 13x2 − 41x + 8
16. g(x) = −2x5 + 2x4 + 40x3 Possible rational zeros of f :
1 1 1 3 3 3
17. g(x) = −4x4 + 8x3 + 60x2 ±1, ±3, ±—2, ±—4, ±—8 , ±—2, ±—4 , ±—8

18. h(x) = −x3 − 2x2 + 15x In Exercises 25–32, find all the real solutions of the
equation. (See Example 3.)
19. h(x) = −x3 − x2 + 9x + 9
25. x3 + x2 − 17x + 15 = 0
20. p(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 4x + 20
26. x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = 0

194 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 27. x3 − 10x2 + 19x + 30 = 0 49. PROBLEM SOLVING At a factory, molten glass is
poured into molds to make paperweights. Each mold
28. x3 + 4x2 − 11x − 30 = 0 is a rectangular prism with a height 3 centimeters
greater than the length of each side of its square base.
29. x3 − 6x2 − 7x + 60 = 0 Each mold holds 112 cubic centimeters of glass. What
are the dimensions of the mold?
30. x3 − 16x2 + 55x + 72 = 0
50. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS The volume of the
31. 2x3 − 3x2 − 50x − 24 = 0 cube shown is 8 cubic centimeters.
a. Write a polynomial
32. 3x3 + x2 − 38x + 24 = 0 equation that you can
x−3
use to find the value of x.
In Exercises 33–38, find all the real zeros of the
function. (See Example 4.) b. Identify the possible
x−3
rational solutions of the
33. f(x) = x3 − 2x2 − 23x + 60 x−3
equation in part (a).

34. g(x) = x3 − 28x − 48 c. Use synthetic division to find a rational solution of

the equation. Show that no other real solutions exist.
35. h(x) = x3 + 10x2 + 31x + 30 d. What are the dimensions of the cube?

36. f(x) = x3 − 14x2 + 55x − 42 51. PROBLEM SOLVING Archaeologists discovered a

huge hydraulic concrete block at the ruins of Caesarea
37. p(x) = 2x3 − x2 − 27x + 36 with a volume of
945 cubic meters.
38. g(x) = 3x3 − 25x2 + 58x − 40 The block is
x meters high by
USING TOOLS In Exercises 39 and 40, use the graph to 12x − 15 meters
shorten the list of possible rational zeros of the function. long by 12x − 21
Then find all real zeros of the function. meters wide. What
39. f(x) = 4x3 − 20x + 16 40. f(x) = 4x3 − 49x − 60 are the dimensions
of the block?
y y

40
−4 2 x
52. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend claims that
when a polynomial function has a leading coefficient
of 1 and the coefficients are all integers, every
−80 possible rational zero is an integer. Is your friend
−4 2 4x correct? Explain your reasoning.
−20 −120
53. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS During a 10-year
period, the amount (in millions of dollars) of athletic
In Exercises 41–46, write a polynomial function f of equipment E sold domestically can be modeled by
least degree that has rational coefficients, a leading E(t) = −20t 3 + 252t 2 − 280t + 21,614, where t is
coefficient of 1, and the given zeros. (See Example 5.) in years.
41. −2, 3, 6 42. −4, −2, 5 a. Write a polynomial equation to find the year
— — when about $24,014,000,000 of athletic
43. −2, 1 + √ 7 44. 4, 6 − √ 7 equipment is sold.
— —
45. −6, 0, 3 − √ 5 46. 0, 5, −5 + √ 8 b. List the possible whole-number solutions of the
equation in part (a). Consider the domain when
47. COMPARING METHODS Solve the equation making your list of possible solutions.
x3 − 4x2 − 9x + 36 = 0 using two different methods. c. Use synthetic division to find when
Which method do you prefer? Explain your reasoning. $24,014,000,000 of athletic equipment is sold.

48. REASONING Is it possible for a cubic function to have

more than three real zeros? Explain.

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 54. THOUGHT PROVOKING Write a third or fourth degree 58. WRITING EQUATIONS Write a polynomial function g
3
polynomial function that has zeros at ±—4 . Justify of least degree that has rational coefficients,
—
a leading
—
your answer. coefficient of 1, and the zeros −2 + √ 7 and 3 + √2 .

In Exercises 59–62, solve f(x) = g(x) by graphing and

55. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS You are designing a algebraic methods.
marble basin that will hold a fountain for a city park.
The sides and bottom of the basin should be 1 foot 59. f(x) = x 3 + x2 − x − 1; g(x) = −x + 1
thick. Its outer length should be twice its outer width
and outer height. What should the outer dimensions of 60. f(x) = x 4 − 5x3 + 2x2 + 8x; g(x) = −x2 + 6x − 8
the basin be if it is to hold 36 cubic feet of water?
61. f(x) = x3 − 4x2 + 4x; g(x) = −2x + 4
1 ft
62. f(x) = x 4 + 2x3 − 11x2 − 12x + 36;
x g(x) = −x2 − 6x − 9

x 63. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS You are building

2x a pair of ramps for a loading platform. The left ramp
is twice as long as the right ramp. If 150 cubic feet
of concrete are used to build the ramps, what are the
56. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Use the information in the dimensions of each ramp?
graph to answer the questions.
y f
6 3x
3x

4 x
21x + 6
2

64. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS Some ice sculptures

−4 −2 2 4 x are made by filling a mold and then freezing it. You
are making an ice mold for a school dance. It is to be
a. What are the real zeros of the function f ? shaped like a pyramid with a
b. Write an equation of the quartic function in height 1 foot greater than the
factored form. length of each side of its x+1
square base. The volume of the
ice sculpture is 4 cubic feet. x
57. REASONING Determine the value of k for each What are the dimensions x
equation so that the given x-value is a solution. of the mold?

a. x3 − 6x2 − 7x + k = 0; x = 4 65. ABSTRACT REASONING Let an be the leading

b. 2x 3 + 7x 2 − kx − 18 = 0; x = −6 coefficient of a polynomial function f and a0 be the
constant term. If an has r factors and a0 has s factors,
c. kx3 − 35x2 + 19x + 30 = 0; x = 5 what is the greatest number of possible rational
zeros of f that can be generated by the Rational Zero
Theorem? Explain your reasoning.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Decide whether the function is a polynomial function. If so, write it in standard form and
state its degree, type, and leading coefficient. (Section 4.1)
—
66. h(x) = −3x 2 + 2x − 9 + √ 4 x3 67. g(x) =2x3 − 7x2 − 3x−1 + x
1 — —
68. f(x) = —3 x2 + 2x 3 − 4x 4 − √ 3 69. p(x) = 2x − 5x3 + 9x 2 + √
4
x+1

Find the zeros of the function. (Section 3.2)

70. f(x) = 7x 2 + 42 71. g(x) = 9x 2 + 81 72. h(x) = 5x 2 + 40 73. f(x) = 8x 2 − 1

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 4.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Essential Question How can you determine whether a polynomial
equation has imaginary solutions?

Cubic Equations and Imaginary Solutions

Work with a partner. Match each cubic polynomial equation with the graph of its
related polynomial function. Then find all solutions. Make a conjecture about how you
can use a graph or table of values to determine the number and types of solutions of a
cubic polynomial equation.
a. x3 − 3x2 + x + 5 = 0 b. x3 − 2x2 − x + 2 = 0
c. x3 − x2 − 4x + 4 = 0 d. x3 + 5x2 + 8x + 6 = 0
e. x3 − 3x2 + x − 3 = 0 f. x3 − 3x2 + 2x = 0

A. 2 B. 6

−6 6

−6 6

−6 −2

C. 4 D. 6

−6 6

−6 6

−4 −2

E. 4 F. 6

−6 6

USING TOOLS −6 6

STRATEGICALLY −4 −2
To be proficient in math,
you need to use
technology to enable you Quartic Equations and Imaginary Solutions
to visualize results and
explore consequences. Work with a partner. Use the graph of the related quartic function, or a table of
values, to determine whether each quartic equation has imaginary solutions. Explain
your reasoning. Then find all solutions.
a. x4 − 2x3 − x2 + 2x = 0 b. x4 − 1 = 0
c. x4 + x3 − x − 1 = 0 d. x4 − 3x3 + x2 + 3x − 2 = 0

Communicate Your Answer

3. How can you determine whether a polynomial equation has imaginary solutions?
4. Is it possible for a cubic equation to have three imaginary solutions? Explain
your reasoning.

Section 4.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 197

hsnb_alg2_pe_0406.indd 197 5/3/17 4:10 PM

 4.6 Lesson What You Will Learn
Use the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.
Find conjugate pairs of complex zeros of polynomial functions.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Use Descartes’s Rule of Signs.
complex conjugates, p. 199
Previous The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
repeated solution The table shows several polynomial equations and their solutions, including
degree of a polynomial repeated solutions. Notice that for the last equation, the repeated solution x = −1
solution of an equation is counted twice.
zero of a function
conjugates Number of
Equation Degree Solution(s)
solutions
1
2x − 1 = 0 1 —2 1
—
x2 − 2 = 0 2 ±√ 2 2
—
x3 −8=0 3 2, −1 ± i √ 3 3
x3 + x2 − x − 1 = 0 3 −1, −1, 1 3

In the table, note the relationship between the degree of the polynomial f(x)
and the number of solutions of f (x) = 0. This relationship is generalized by the
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, first proven by German mathematician
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777−1855).

Core Concept
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Theorem If f(x) is a polynomial of degree n where n > 0, then the equation
STUDY TIP f (x) = 0 has at least one solution in the set of complex numbers.
The statements “the
Corollary If f(x) is a polynomial of degree n where n > 0, then the equation
polynomial equation
f (x) = 0 has exactly n solutions provided each solution repeated
f (x) = 0 has exactly n
twice is counted as two solutions, each solution repeated three times
solutions” and “the
is counted as three solutions, and so on.
polynomial function f
has exactly n zeros”
are equivalent.
The corollary to the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra also means that an nth-degree
polynomial function f has exactly n zeros.

Finding the Number of Solutions or Zeros

a. How many solutions does the equation x3 + 3x2 + 16x + 48 = 0 have?

b. How many zeros does the function f (x) = x4 + 6x3 + 12x2 + 8x have?

SOLUTION
a. Because x3 + 3x2 + 16x + 48 = 0 is a polynomial equation of degree 3, it has
three solutions. (The solutions are −3, 4i, and −4i.)
b. Because f(x) = x4 + 6x3 + 12x2 + 8x is a polynomial function of degree 4, it has
four zeros. (The zeros are −2, −2, −2, and 0.)

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 Finding the Zeros of a Polynomial Function

Find all zeros of f (x) = x5 + x3 − 2x2 − 12x − 8.

SOLUTION
Step 1 Find the rational zeros of f. Because f is a polynomial function of degree 5,
it has five zeros. The possible rational zeros are ±1, ±2, ±4, and ±8. Using
synthetic division, you can determine that −1 is a zero repeated twice and 2
STUDY TIP is also a zero.
Notice that you can use Step 2 Write f (x) in factored form. Dividing f (x) by its known factors x + 1, x + 1,
imaginary numbers to and x − 2 gives a quotient of x2 + 4. So,
write (x2 + 4) as
(x + 2i )(x − 2i ). In general, f (x) = (x + 1)2(x − 2)(x2 + 4).
(a2 + b2) = (a + bi )(a − bi ). Step 3 Find the complex zeros of f. Solving x2 + 4 = 0, you get x = ±2i. This
means x2 + 4 = (x + 2i )(x − 2i ).
f (x) = (x + 1)2(x − 2)(x + 2i )(x − 2i )

From the factorization, there are five zeros. The zeros of f are
−1, −1, 2, −2i, and 2i.
The graph of f and the real zeros are shown. Notice that only the real zeros appear
as x-intercepts. Also, the graph of f touches the x-axis at the repeated zero x = −1
and crosses the x-axis at x = 2.
5 5

−5 5 −5 5

Zero Zero
X=-1 Y=0 X=2 Y=0
−25 −25

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

1. How many solutions does the equation x 4 + 7x2 − 144 = 0 have?

2. How many zeros does the function f (x) = x3 − 5x2 − 8x + 48 have?
Find all zeros of the polynomial function.

3. f(x) = x3 + 7x2 + 16x + 12

4. f(x) = x5 − 3x4 + 5x3 − x2 − 6x + 4

Complex Conjugates
Pairs of complex numbers of the forms a + bi and a − bi, where b ≠ 0, are called
complex conjugates. In Example 2, notice that the zeros 2i and −2i are complex
conjugates. This illustrates the next theorem.

Core Concept
The Complex Conjugates Theorem
If f is a polynomial function with real coefficients, and a + bi is an imaginary
zero of f, then a − bi is also a zero of f.

Section 4.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 199

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 Using Zeros to Write a Polynomial Function

Write a polynomial function f of least degree that has rational coefficients, a leading
coefficient of 1, and the zeros 2 and 3 + i.

SOLUTION
Because the coefficients are rational and 3 + i is a zero, 3 − i must also be a zero by
the Complex Conjugates Theorem. Use the three zeros and the Factor Theorem to
write f(x) as a product of three factors.
f(x) = (x − 2)[x − (3 + i)][x − (3 − i)] Write f(x) in factored form.
= (x − 2)[(x − 3) − i][(x − 3) + i] Regroup terms.
= (x − 2)[(x − 3)2 − i2] Multiply.
= (x − 2)[(x2 − 6x + 9) − (−1)] Expand binomial and use i 2 = −1.
= (x − 2)(x2 − 6x + 10) Simplify.
= x3 − 6x2 + 10x − 2x2 + 12x − 20 Multiply.
= x3 − 8x2 + 22x − 20 Combine like terms.

Check
You can check this result by evaluating f at each of its three zeros.
f(2) = (2)3 − 8(2)2 + 22(2) − 20 = 8 − 32 + 44 − 20 = 0 ✓
f(3 + i) = (3 + i)3 − 8(3 + i)2 + 22(3 + i) − 20
= 18 + 26i − 64 − 48i + 66 + 22i − 20
=0 ✓
Because f (3 + i) = 0, by the Complex Conjugates Theorem f(3 − i) = 0. ✓

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Write a polynomial function f of least degree that has rational coefficients, a

leading coefficient of 1, and the given zeros.
— — —
5. −1, 4i 6. 3, 1 + i√ 5 7. √ 2 , 1 − 3i 8. 2, 2i, 4 − √ 6

Descartes’s Rule of Signs

French mathematician René Descartes (1596−1650) found the following relationship
between the coefficients of a polynomial function and the number of positive and
negative zeros of the function.

Core Concept
Descartes’s Rule of Signs
Let f (x) = an x n + an−1x n−1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a2 x2 + a1x + a0 be a polynomial function
with real coefficients.
• The number of positive real zeros of f is equal to the number of changes in
sign of the coefficients of f(x) or is less than this by an even number.
• The number of negative real zeros of f is equal to the number of changes in
sign of the coefficients of f(−x) or is less than this by an even number.

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 Using Descartes’s Rule of Signs

Determine the possible numbers of positive real zeros, negative real zeros, and
imaginary zeros for f (x) = x6 − 2x5 + 3x4 − 10x3 − 6x2 − 8x − 8.

SOLUTION
f(x) = x6 − 2x5 + 3x4 − 10x3 − 6x2 − 8x − 8.

The coefficients in f(x) have 3 sign changes, so f has 3 or 1 positive real zero(s).
f (−x) = (−x)6 − 2(−x)5 + 3(−x)4 − 10(−x)3 − 6(−x)2 − 8(−x) − 8
= x6 + 2x5 + 3x4 + 10x3 − 6x2 + 8x − 8

The coefficients in f(−x) have 3 sign changes, so f has 3 or 1 negative zero(s).

The possible numbers of zeros for f are summarized in the table below.

Positive real zeros Negative real zeros Imaginary zeros Total zeros
3 3 0 6
3 1 2 6
1 3 2 6
1 1 4 6

Real-Life Application

A tachometer measures the speed (in revolutions per minute, or RPMs) at which an
engine shaft rotates. For a certain boat, the speed x (in hundreds of RPMs) of the
engine shaft and the speed s (in miles per hour) of the boat are modeled by
50
0 60
40 70
s(x) = 0.00547x3 − 0.225x2 + 3.62x − 11.0.
30
0
80 What is the tachometer reading when the boat travels 15 miles per hour?
20
RPM
10
0
x100 SOLUTION
Substitute 15 for s(x) in the function. You can rewrite the resulting equation as
0 = 0.00547x3 − 0.225x2 + 3.62x − 26.0.
The related function to this equation is 40
f (x) = 0.00547x3 − 0.225x2 + 3.62x − 26.0. By
Descartes’s Rule of Signs, you know f has 3 or
1 positive real zero(s). In the context of speed, negative −10 40

real zeros and imaginary zeros do not make sense,

so you do not need to check for them. To approximate Zero
X=19.863247 Y=0
the positive real zeros of f, use a graphing calculator. −60
From the graph, there is 1 real zero, x ≈ 19.9.

The tachometer reading is about 1990 RPMs.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Determine the possible numbers of positive real zeros, negative real zeros, and
imaginary zeros for the function.

9. f(x) = x3 + 9x − 25 10. f(x) = 3x4 − 7x3 + x2 − 13x + 8

11. WHAT IF? In Example 5, what is the tachometer reading when the boat travels
20 miles per hour?

Section 4.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 201

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 4.6 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE The expressions 5 + i and 5 − i are _____________.

2. WRITING How many solutions does the polynomial equation (x + 8)3(x − 1) = 0 have? Explain.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3–8, identify the number of solutions or 19. Degree: 2 20. Degree: 3
zeros. (See Example 1.)
y y
3. x 4 + 2x3 − 4x2 + x = 0 4. 5y3 − 3y2 + 8y = 0 40

6 20
5. 9t 6 − 14t3 + 4t − 1 = 0 6. f(z) = −7z4 + z2 − 25
−4 −2 2 4x −4 −2 4x
7. g(s) = 4s5 − s3 + 2s7 − 2
−6 −20

8. h(x) = 5x 4 + 7x8 − x12

In Exercises 21–28, write a polynomial function f of
In Exercises 9–16, find all zeros of the polynomial
least degree that has rational coefficients, a leading
function. (See Example 2.)
coefficient of 1, and the given zeros. (See Example 3.)
9. f(x) = x 4 − 6x3 + 7x2 + 6x − 8
21. −5, −1, 2 22. −2, 1, 3
10. f(x) = x4 + 5x3 − 7x2 − 29x + 30
23. 3, 4 + i 24. 2, 5 − i
11. g(x) = x4 − 9x2 − 4x + 12 —
25. 4, −√ 5 26. 3i, 2 − i
12. h(x) = x3 + 5x2 − 4x − 20
— —
27. 2, 1 + i, 2 − √ 3 28. 3, 4 + 2i, 1 + √ 7
13. g(x) = x 4 + 4x3 + 7x2 + 16x + 12
ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 29 and 30, describe and
14. h(x) = x 4 − x3 + 7x2 − 9x − 18 correct the error in writing a polynomial function with
rational coefficients and the given zero(s).
15. g(x) = x 5 + 3x 4 − 4x3 − 2x2 − 12x − 16
29. Zeros: 2, 1 + i
16. f(x) = x5 − 20x3 + 20x2 − 21x + 20

ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS In Exercises 17–20,

determine the number of imaginary zeros for the
✗ f(x) = (x − 2)[ x − (1 + i ) ]
= x(x − 1 − i ) − 2(x − 1 − i )
function with the given degree and graph. Explain = x2 − x − ix − 2x + 2 + 2i
your reasoning. = x2 − (3 + i ) x + (2 + 2i )

17. Degree: 4 18. Degree: 5

30. Zero: 2 + i
y y

✗
40 40

20 20
f(x) = [ x − (2 + i ) ][ x + (2 + i ) ]
= (x − 2 − i )(x + 2 + i )
−4 4x −4 2 4x = x2 + 2x + ix − 2x − 4 − 2i − ix − 2i − i 2
−20 −20 = x2 − 4i − 3

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 31. OPEN-ENDED Write a polynomial function of degree 44. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS Over a period of
6 with zeros 1, 2, and −i. Justify your answer. 14 years, the number N of inland lakes infested with
zebra mussels in a certain state can be modeled by
32. REASONING Two zeros of f (x) = x3 − 6x2 − 16x + 96
N = −0.0284t4 + 0.5937t3 − 2.464t2 + 8.33t − 2.5
are 4 and −4. Explain why the third zero must also be
a real number. where t is time (in years). In which year did the
number of infested inland lakes first reach 120?
In Exercises 33–40, determine the possible numbers of
positive real zeros, negative real zeros, and imaginary
zeros for the function. (See Example 4.)
33. g(x) = x 4 − x2 − 6

34. g(x) = −x3 + 5x2 + 12

35. g(x) = x3 − 4x2 + 8x + 7

36. g(x) = x5 − 2x3 − x2 + 6

45. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS For the 12 years
37. g(x) = x5 − 3x3 + 8x − 10 that a grocery store has been open, its annual
revenue R (in millions of dollars) can be modeled
38. g(x) = x5 + 7x 4 − 4x3 − 3x2 + 9x − 15 by the function
R = 0.0001(−t 4 + 12t 3 − 77t 2 + 600t + 13,650)
39. g(x) = x6 + x5 − 3x 4 + x3 + 5x2 + 9x − 18
where t is the number of years since the store opened.
40. g(x) = x7 + 4x 4 − 10x + 25 In which year(s) was the revenue $1.5 million?

41. REASONING Which is not a possible classification of

zeros for f(x) = x5 − 4x3 + 6x2 + 2x − 6? Explain.
A three positive real zeros, two negative real
zeros, and zero imaginary zeros
B three positive real zeros, zero negative real
zeros, and two imaginary zeros
C one positive real zero, four negative real zeros,
and zero imaginary zeros
D one positive real zero, two negative real zeros,
46. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend claims that
and two imaginary zeros
2 − i is a complex zero of the polynomial function
f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + 2x + 5i, but that its conjugate is
42. USING STRUCTURE Use Descartes’s Rule of Signs
not a zero. You claim that both 2 − i and its conjugate
to determine which function has at least 1 positive
must be zeros by the Complex Conjugates Theorem.
real zero.
Who is correct? Justify your answer.
A f (x) = x 4 + 2x3 − 9x2 − 2x − 8
47. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS A solid monument
B f(x) = x 4 + 4x3 + 8x2 + 16x + 16
with the dimensions shown is to be built using
C f(x) = −x 4 − 5x2 − 4 1000 cubic feet of marble. What is the value of x?
D f(x) = x 4 + 4x3 + 7x2 + 12x + 12 x

43. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS From 1890 to 2000, x

the American Indian, Eskimo, and Aleut population
3 ft
P (in thousands) can be modeled by the function
P = 0.004t3 − 0.24t2 + 4.9t + 243, where t is the 2x
number of years since 1890. In which year did the 3 ft
population first reach 722,000? (See Example 5.) 3 ft 2x 3 ft

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 48. THOUGHT PROVOKING Write and graph a polynomial 52. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Find the zeros of each
function of degree 5 that has all positive or negative function.
real zeros. Label each x-intercept. Then write the
f(x) = x2 − 5x + 6
function in standard form.
g(x) = x3 − 7x + 6
49. WRITING The graph of the constant polynomial h(x) = x 4 + 2x3 + x2 + 8x − 12
function f(x) = 2 is a line that does not have any
k (x) = x 5 − 3x 4 − 9x3 + 25x2 − 6x
x-intercepts. Does the function contradict the
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra? Explain. a. Describe the relationship between the sum of the
zeros of a polynomial function and the coefficients
of the polynomial function.
50. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? The graph represents a
polynomial function of degree 6. b. Describe the relationship between the product
of the zeros of a polynomial function and the
y coefficients of the polynomial function.

y = f(x) 53. PROBLEM SOLVING You want to save money so you

can buy a used car in four years. At the end of each
summer, you deposit $1000 earned from summer jobs
x into your bank account. The table shows the value of
your deposits over the four-year period. In the table,
g is the growth factor 1 + r, where r is the annual
interest rate expressed as a decimal.
a. How many positive real zeros does the function
have? negative real zeros? imaginary zeros?
Deposit Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
b. Use Descartes’s Rule of Signs and your answers
1st Deposit 1000 1000g 1000g2 1000g3
in part (a) to describe the possible sign changes in
the coefficients of f(x). 2nd Deposit − 1000

3rd Deposit − − 1000

51. FINDING A PATTERN Use a graphing calculator to
graph the function f(x) = (x + 3)n for n = 2, 3, 4, 5, 4th Deposit − − − 1000
6, and 7.
a. Compare the graphs when n is even and n is odd. a. Copy and complete the table.

b. Describe the behavior of the graph near the zero b. Write a polynomial function that gives the value v
x = −3 as n increases. of your account at the end of the fourth summer in
terms of g.
c. Use your results from parts (a) and (b) to describe
the behavior of the graph of g(x) = (x − 4)20 near c. You want to buy a car that costs about $4300.
x = 4. What growth factor do you need to obtain this
amount? What annual interest rate do you need?

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Describe the transformation of f(x) = x2 represented by g. Then graph each function. (Section 2.1)
54. g(x) = −3x2 55. g(x) = (x − 4)2 +6
56. g(x) = −(x − 1)2 57. g(x) = 5(x + 4)2
Write a function g whose graph represents the indicated transformation of the graph of f.
(Sections 1.2 and 2.1)
1
58. f(x) = x; vertical shrink by a factor of —3 and a reflection in the y-axis
59. f(x) = ∣ x + 1 ∣ − 3; horizontal stretch by a factor of 9
60. f(x) = x2; reflection in the x-axis, followed by a translation 2 units right and 7 units up

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 4.7 Transformations of Polynomial
Functions
Essential Question How can you transform the graph of a
polynomial function?

Transforming the Graph of a Cubic Function

Work with a partner. The graph of the cubic function 4

f
f(x) = x3
is shown. The graph of each cubic function g −6 6
represents a transformation of the graph of f.
Write a rule for g. Use a graphing calculator
to verify your answers. −4

a. 4 b. 4
g g

−6 6 −6 6

−4 −4

c. 4 d. 4
g g

−6 6 −6 6

−4 −4

Transforming the Graph of a Quartic Function

Work with a partner. The graph of the quartic function 4

f(x) = x4 f

is shown. The graph of each quartic function g −6 6

represents a transformation of the graph of f.
Write a rule for g. Use a graphing calculator
to verify your answers. −4

a. 4 b. 4
g
LOOKING FOR
STRUCTURE −6 6 −6 6
To be proficient in
math, you need to see g
complicated things, −4 −4
such as some algebraic
expressions, as being
single objects or as Communicate Your Answer
being composed of 3. How can you transform the graph of a polynomial function?
several objects.
4. Describe the transformation of f (x) = x4 represented by g(x) = (x + 1)4 + 3.
Then graph g.

Section 4.7 Transformations of Polynomial Functions 205

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 4.7 Lesson What You Will Learn
Describe transformations of polynomial functions.
Write transformations of polynomial functions.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry
Previous Describing Transformations of Polynomial Functions
polynomial function
You can transform graphs of polynomial functions in the same way you transformed
transformations
graphs of linear functions, absolute value functions, and quadratic functions. Examples
of transformations of the graph of f(x) = x4 are shown below.

Core Concept
Transformation f(x) Notation Examples
Horizontal Translation g(x) = (x − 5)4 5 units right
f(x − h)
Graph shifts left or right. g(x) = (x + 2)4 2 units left
Vertical Translation g(x) = x 4 + 1 1 unit up
f (x) + k
Graph shifts up or down. g(x) = x 4 − 4 4 units down
Reflection f(−x) g(x) = (−x)4 = x 4 over y-axis
Graph flips over x- or y-axis. −f (x) g(x) = −x4 over x-axis

Horizontal Stretch or Shrink g(x) = (2x)4 shrink by a

factor of —12
f(ax)
Graph stretches away from ( )
g(x) = —12 x
4
stretch by a
or shrinks toward y-axis. factor of 2
Vertical Stretch or Shrink g(x) = 8x 4 stretch by a
factor of 8
Graph stretches away from ⋅
a f (x)
g(x) = —14 x 4 shrink by a
or shrinks toward x-axis. factor of —14

Translating a Polynomial Function

Describe the transformation of f (x) = x3 represented by g(x) = (x + 5)3 + 2.

Then graph each function.

SOLUTION
Notice that the function is of the form y
g(x) = (x − h)3 + k. Rewrite the function
4
to identify h and k. g

g(x) = ( x − (−5) )3 + 2 2
f
h k
−4 −2 2 x

Because h = −5 and k = 2, the graph of g −2

is a translation 5 units left and 2 units up
of the graph of f.

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1. Describe the transformation of f (x) = x 4 represented by g(x) = (x − 3)4 − 1.

Then graph each function.

206 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 Transforming Polynomial Functions

Describe the transformation of f represented by g. Then graph each function.

1
a. f(x) = x4, g(x) = −—4 x4 b. f(x) = x5, g(x) = (2x)5 − 3

SOLUTION
a. Notice that the function is of b. Notice that the function is of
the form g(x) = −ax4, where the form g(x) = (ax)5 + k, where
a = —14. a = 2 and k = −3.

So, the graph of g is a So, the graph of g is a

reflection in the x-axis and a horizontal shrink by a factor of
1
vertical shrink by a factor of —2 and a translation 3 units down
1
—4 of the graph of f. of the graph of f.

y y
2
f
4
f
−2 2 x
−2 2 x
g
−4
g

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

2. Describe the transformation of f (x) = x3 represented by g(x) = 4(x + 2)3. Then

graph each function.

Writing Transformations of Polynomial Functions

Writing Transformed Polynomial Functions

Let f (x) = x3 + x2 + 1. Write a rule for g and then graph each function. Describe the
graph of g as a transformation of the graph of f.
a. g(x) = f (−x) b. g(x) = 3f (x)

SOLUTION
a. g(x) = f (−x) b. g(x) = 3f (x)
= (−x)3 + (−x)2 + 1 = 3(x3 + x2 + 1)
= −x3 + x2 + 1 = 3x3 + 3x2 + 3
y y
4 8
g f
REMEMBER 4
g f
Vertical stretches and
shrinks do not change the
x-intercept(s) of a graph. −2 2 x 2 x

You can observe this using −2 −4

the graph in Example 3(b).
The graph of g is a reflection The graph of g is a vertical stretch
in the y-axis of the graph of f. by a factor of 3 of the graph of f.

Section 4.7 Transformations of Polynomial Functions 207

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 Writing a Transformed Polynomial Function

Let the graph of g be a vertical stretch by a factor of 2, followed by a translation 3

units up of the graph of f (x) = x4 − 2x2. Write a rule for g.

SOLUTION
Step 1 First write a function h that represents the vertical stretch of f.
Check
5
g
⋅
h(x) = 2 f (x) Multiply the output by 2.
= 2(x 4 − 2x2) Substitute x 4 − 2x2 for f(x).
f
= 2x 4 − 4x2 Distributive Property
−2 2
h Step 2 Then write a function g that represents the translation of h.

−3 g(x) = h(x) + 3 Add 3 to the output.

= 2x4 − 4x2 + 3 Substitute 2x 4 − 4x2 for h(x).

The transformed function is g(x) = 2x 4 − 4x2 + 3.

Modeling with Mathematics

(x − 3) ft The function V(x) = —13 x3 − x2 represents the volume (in cubic feet) of the square
pyramid shown. The function W(x) = V(3x) represents the volume (in cubic feet) when
x is measured in yards. Write a rule for W. Find and interpret W(10).
x ft SOLUTION
x ft 1. Understand the Problem You are given a function V whose inputs are in feet
and whose outputs are in cubic feet. You are given another function W whose inputs
are in yards and whose outputs are in cubic feet. The horizontal shrink shown by
W(x) = V(3x) makes sense because there are 3 feet in 1 yard. You are asked to write
a rule for W and interpret the output for a given input.
2. Make a Plan Write the transformed function W(x) and then find W(10).
3. Solve the Problem W(x) = V(3x)
= —13 (3x)3 − (3x)2 Replace x with 3x in V(x).
= 9x3 − 9x2 Simplify.
Next, find W(10).

W(10) = 9(10)3 − 9(10)2 = 9000 − 900 = 8100

When x is 10 yards, the volume of the pyramid is 8100 cubic feet.

4. Look Back Because W(10) = V(30), you can check that your solution is correct
by verifying that V(30) = 8100.

V(30) = —13 (30)3 − (30)2 = 9000 − 900 = 8100 ✓

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

3. Let f (x) = x5 − 4x + 6 and g(x) = −f (x). Write a rule for g and then graph each
function. Describe the graph of g as a transformation of the graph of f.
4. Let the graph of g be a horizontal stretch by a factor of 2, followed by a
translation 3 units to the right of the graph of f (x) = 8x3 + 3. Write a rule for g.
5. WHAT IF? In Example 5, the height of the pyramid is 6x, and the volume (in cubic
feet) is represented by V(x) = 2x3. Write a rule for W. Find and interpret W(7).

208 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 4.7 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE The graph of f (x) = (x + 2)3 is a ____________ translation of the
graph of f(x) = x3.

2. VOCABULARY Describe how the vertex form of quadratic functions is similar to the form
f(x) = a(x − h)3 + k for cubic functions.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3–6, describe the transformation In Exercises 11–16, describe the transformation
of f represented by g. Then graph each function. of f represented by g. Then graph each function.
(See Example 1.) (See Example 2.)
3. f(x) = x 4, g(x) = x4 + 3 11. f(x) = x 4, g(x) = −2x 4

4. f(x) = x 4, g(x) = (x − 5)4 12. f(x) = x 6, g(x) = −3x 6

5. f(x) = x5, g(x) = (x − 2)5 − 1 13. f(x) = x3, g(x) = 5x3 + 1

1
6. f(x) = x6, g(x) = (x + 1)6 − 4 14. f(x) = x 4, g(x) = —2 x 4 + 1

3
ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS In Exercises 7–10, match 15. f(x) = x5, g(x) = —4 (x + 4)5
the function with the correct transformation of the
graph of f. Explain your reasoning. 16. f(x) = x4, g(x) = (2x)4 − 3

y In Exercises 17–20, write a rule for g and then

f graph each function. Describe the graph of g as a
transformation of the graph of f. (See Example 3.)
x
17. f(x) = x4 + 1, g(x) = f (x + 2)

18. f(x) = x5 − 2x + 3, g(x) = 3f(x)

7. y = f(x − 2) 8. y = f (x + 2) + 2 19. f(x) = 2x3 − 2x2 + 6, g(x) = −—2 f(x)

1

9. y = f(x − 2) + 2 10. y = f (x) − 2 20. f(x) = x4 + x3 − 1, g(x) = f (−x) − 5

A. y B. y 21. ERROR ANALYSIS Describe and correct the error in

graphing the function g (x) = (x + 2)4 − 6.

x x
✗ 4
y

2 4 x
C. y D. y
−4

x x

Section 4.7 Transformations of Polynomial Functions 209

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 22. ERROR ANALYSIS Describe and correct the error in 30. THOUGHT PROVOKING Write and graph a
describing the transformation of the graph of f(x) = x5 transformation of the graph of f(x) = x5 − 3x4 + 2x − 4
represented by the graph of g(x) = (3x)5 − 4. that results in a graph with a y-intercept of −2.

✗ The graph of g is a horizontal shrink by

a factor of 3, followed by a translation
4 units down of the graph of f.
31. PROBLEM SOLVING A portion of the path that a
hummingbird flies while feeding can be modeled by
the function
1
f(x) = −—5 x(x − 4)2(x − 7), 0 ≤ x ≤ 7
In Exercises 23–26, write a rule for g that represents
where x is the horizontal distance (in meters) and f (x)
the indicated transformations of the graph of f.
is the height (in meters). The hummingbird feeds each
(See Example 4.)
time it is at ground level.
23. f(x) = x3 − 6; translation 3 units left, followed by a
a. At what distances does the hummingbird feed?
reflection in the y-axis
b. A second hummingbird feeds 2 meters farther
24. f(x) = x4 + 2x + 6; vertical stretch by a factor of 2, away than the first hummingbird and flies twice
followed by a translation 4 units right as high. Write a function to model the path of the
second hummingbird.
1
25. f(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 9; horizontal shrink by a factor of —3
and a translation 2 units up, followed by a reflection
in the x-axis

26. f(x) = 2x5 − x3 + x2 + 4; reflection in the y-axis

and a vertical stretch by a factor of 3, followed by a
translation 1 unit down

27. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS The volume V

(in cubic feet) of the pyramid is given
by V(x) = x3 − 4x. The function
x ft
W(x) = V(3x) gives the 32. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? y
8
volume (in cubic feet) Determine the f g
of the pyramid when x real zeros of each 4
is measured in yards. (2x − 4) ft (3x + 6) ft function. Then describe
Write a rule for W. the transformation of the −8 −4 8x
Find and interpret W(5). (See Example 5.) graph of f that results
in the graph of g.
28. MAKING AN ARGUMENT The volume of a cube with
side length x is given by V(x) = x3. Your friend claims
that when you divide the volume in half, the volume
decreases by a greater amount than when you divide
each side length in half. Is your friend correct? Justify 33. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS
your answer. Write a function V for the volume (x + 3) yd
(in cubic yards) of the right
29. OPEN-ENDED Describe two transformations of the circular cone shown. Then
graph of f(x) = x5 where the order in which the write a function W that gives
3x yd
transformations are performed is important. Then the volume (in cubic yards)
describe two transformations where the order is not of the cone when x is
important. Explain your reasoning. measured in feet. Find and interpret W(3).

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Find the minimum value or maximum value of the function. Describe the domain and range of the
function, and where the function is increasing and decreasing. (Section 2.2)
34. h(x) = (x + 5)2 − 7 35. f(x) = 4 − x2 36. f(x) = 3(x − 10)(x + 4)
1
37. g(x) = −(x + 2)(x + 8) 38. h(x) = —2 (x − 1)2 −3 39. f(x) = −2x2 + 4x − 1

210 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 4.8 Analyzing Graphs of Polynomial
Functions
Essential Question How many turning points can the graph of a
polynomial function have?
y
A turning point of the graph of
turning point
a polynomial function is a point 1
on the graph at which the
function changes from
1.5 x
• increasing to decreasing, or
−1
• decreasing to increasing. turning point

Approximating Turning Points

Work with a partner. Match each polynomial function with its graph. Explain
your reasoning. Then use a graphing calculator to approximate the coordinates of
the turning points of the graph of the function. Round your answers to the nearest
ATTENDING hundredth.
TO PRECISION a. f(x) = 2x2 + 3x − 4 b. f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2
To be proficient in math,
c. f(x) = x3 − 2x2 − x + 1 d. f(x) = −x3 + 5x − 2
you need to express
numerical answers with e. f(x) = x 4 − 3x2 + 2x − 1 f. f(x) = −2x5 − x2 + 5x + 3
a degree of precision
appropriate for the A. 4 B. 2
problem context.
−6 6
−6 6

−4 −6

C. 2 D. 3

−6 6 −6 6

−6 −7

E. 6 F. 4

−6 6

−6 6

−2 −4

Communicate Your Answer

2. How many turning points can the graph of a polynomial function have?
3. Is it possible to sketch the graph of a cubic polynomial function that has no
turning points? Justify your answer.

Section 4.8 Analyzing Graphs of Polynomial Functions 211

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 4.8 Lesson What You Will Learn
Use x-intercepts to graph polynomial functions.
Use the Location Principle to identify zeros of polynomial functions.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Find turning points and identify local maximums and local minimums
local maximum, p. 214 of graphs of polynomial functions.
local minimum, p. 214 Identify even and odd functions.
even function, p. 215
odd function, p. 215
Graphing Polynomial Functions
Previous
In this chapter, you have learned that zeros, factors, solutions, and x-intercepts are
end behavior closely related concepts. Here is a summary of these relationships.
increasing

Concept Summary
decreasing
symmetric about the y-axis
Zeros, Factors, Solutions, and Intercepts
Let f(x) = an x n + an−1x n−1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a1x + a0 be a polynomial function.
The following statements are equivalent.
Zero: k is a zero of the polynomial function f.
Factor: x − k is a factor of the polynomial f (x).
Solution: k is a solution (or root) of the polynomial equation f (x) = 0.
x-Intercept: If k is a real number, then k is an x-intercept of the graph of the
polynomial function f. The graph of f passes through (k, 0).

Using x-Intercepts to Graph a Polynomial Function

Graph the function

f(x) = —16 (x + 3)(x − 2)2.

SOLUTION
Step 1 Plot the x-intercepts. Because −3 and 2 are zeros y
4
of f, plot (−3, 0) and (2, 0). (−3, 0)
2
Step 2 Plot points between and beyond the x-intercepts.

x −2 −1 0 1 3 −4 −2 (2, 0) 4 x
8 2 −2
y —3 3 2 —3 1
−4

Step 3 Determine end behavior. Because f(x) has three factors of the form x − k and
a constant factor of —16 , f is a cubic function with a positive leading coefficient.
So, f(x) → −∞ as x → −∞ and f(x) → +∞ as x → +∞.
Step 4 Draw the graph so that it passes through the plotted points and has the
appropriate end behavior.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Graph the function.

1 1
1. f(x) = —2 (x + 1)(x − 4)2 2. f(x) = —4 (x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 3)

212 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 The Location Principle
You can use the Location Principle to help you find real zeros of
polynomial functions.

Core Concept
The Location Principle
If f is a polynomial function, and a and b are two real numbers such that f (a) < 0
and f(b) > 0, then f has at least one real zero between a and b.

To use this principle to locate real zeros of a polynomial y

function, find a value a at which the polynomial function
is negative and another value b at which the function is f(b)
positive. You can conclude that the function has at least
one real zero between a and b. a b x
f(a) zero

Locating Real Zeros of a Polynomial Function

Find all real zeros of

f(x) = 6x3 + 5x2 − 17x − 6.

SOLUTION
Step 1 Use a graphing calculator to make a table. X Y1
0 -6
1 -12
Step 2 Use the Location Principle. From the table 2 28
shown, you can see that f (1) < 0 and 3 150
4 390
f(2) > 0. So, by the Location Principle, 5 784
6 1368
f has a zero between 1 and 2. Because f is a X=1
polynomial function of degree 3, it has
three zeros. The only possible rational zero
between 1 and 2 is —32 . Using synthetic division,
you can confirm that —32 is a zero.
Step 3 Write f (x) in factored form. Dividing f (x) by its known factor x − —32 gives a
quotient of 6x2 + 14x + 4. So, you can factor f(x) as

Check ( )
f(x) = x − —32 (6x2 + 14x + 4)
20
( )
= 2 x − —32 (3x2 + 7x + 2)

= 2( x − — ) (3x + 1)(x + 2).

3
2
−5 5

Zero
From the factorization, there are three zeros. The zeros of f are
X=1.5 Y=0 3 1
−20 —2 , −—3 , and −2.

Check this by graphing f.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

3. Find all real zeros of f (x) = 18x3 + 21x2 − 13x − 6.

Section 4.8 Analyzing Graphs of Polynomial Functions 213

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 Turning Points
Another important characteristic of graphs of polynomial functions is that they have
turning points corresponding to local maximum and minimum values.
• The y-coordinate of a turning point is a y
READING local maximum of the function when the function is
decreasing
function is
point is higher than all nearby points. increasing
Local maximum and local
• The y-coordinate of a turning point is a local maximum
minimum are sometimes
referred to as relative local minimum of the function when the
x
maximum and relative point is lower than all nearby points.
minimum. local minimum
The turning points of a graph help determine function is
the intervals for which a function is increasing increasing
or decreasing.

Core Concept
Turning Points of Polynomial Functions
1. The graph of every polynomial function of degree n has at most n − 1
turning points.
2. If a polynomial function of degree n has n distinct real zeros, then its graph
has exactly n − 1 turning points.

Finding Turning Points

Graph each function. Identify the x-intercepts and the points where the local
maximums and local minimums occur. Determine the intervals for which each
function is increasing or decreasing.
a. f(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 6 b. g(x) = x 4 − 6x3 + 3x2 + 10x − 3

SOLUTION
25 a. Use a graphing calculator to graph the function. The graph of f has one x-intercept
and two turning points. Use the graphing calculator’s zero, maximum, and minimum
features to approximate the coordinates of the points.
The x-intercept of the graph is x ≈ −1.20. The function has a local maximum
−3 5 at (0, 6) and a local minimum at (2, 2). The function is increasing when
Maximum
X=0 Y=6 x < 0 and x > 2 and decreasing when 0 < x < 2.
−10
b. Use a graphing calculator to graph the function. The graph of g has four
40
x-intercepts and three turning points. Use the graphing calculator’s zero, maximum,
and minimum features to approximate the coordinates of the points.

−4 6 The x-intercepts of the graph are x ≈ −1.14, x ≈ 0.29, x ≈ 1.82, and

x ≈ 5.03. The function has a local maximum at (1.11, 5.11) and local
minimums at (−0.57, −6.51) and (3.96, −43.04). The function is increasing
Minimum
X=-0.569071 Y=-6.50858 when −0.57 < x < 1.11 and x > 3.96 and decreasing when x < −0.57 and
−70 1.11 < x < 3.96.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

4. Graph f(x) = 0.5x3 + x2 − x + 2. Identify the x-intercepts and the points where
the local maximums and local minimums occur. Determine the intervals for which
the function is increasing or decreasing.

214 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 Even and Odd Functions

Core Concept
Even and Odd Functions
A function f is an even function when f (−x) = f (x) for all x in its domain. The
graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis.
A function f is an odd function when f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in its domain. The
graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. One way to recognize
a graph that is symmetric about the origin is that it looks the same after a 180°
rotation about the origin.
Even Function Odd Function
y y

(x, y)
(−x, y) (x, y)

x x

(−x, −y)

For an even function, if (x, y) is on the For an odd function, if (x, y) is on the
graph, then (−x, y) is also on the graph. graph, then (−x, −y) is also on the graph.

Identifying Even and Odd Functions

Determine whether each function is even, odd, or neither.

a. f(x) = x3 − 7x b. g(x) = x 4 + x2 − 1 c. h(x) = x3 + 2

SOLUTION
a. Replace x with −x in the equation for f, and then simplify.
f(−x) = (−x)3 − 7(−x) = −x3 + 7x = −(x3 − 7x) = −f(x)
Because f (−x) = −f (x), the function is odd.
b. Replace x with −x in the equation for g, and then simplify.
g(−x) = (−x)4 + (−x)2 − 1 = x 4 + x2 − 1 = g(x)
Because g(−x) = g(x), the function is even.
c. Replacing x with −x in the equation for h produces
h(−x) = (−x)3 + 2 = −x3 + 2.
Because h(x) = x3 + 2 and −h(x) = −x3 − 2, you can conclude that
h(−x) ≠ h(x) and h(−x) ≠ −h(x). So, the function is neither even nor odd.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Determine whether the function is even, odd, or neither.

5. f(x) = −x2 + 5 6. f(x) = x 4 − 5x3 7. f(x) = 2x5

Section 4.8 Analyzing Graphs of Polynomial Functions 215

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 4.8 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE A local maximum or local minimum of a polynomial function occurs at
a ______________ point of the graph of the function.

2. WRITING Explain what a local maximum of a function is and how it may be different from the
maximum value of the function.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS In Exercises 3–6, match the ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 15 and 16, describe and
function with its graph. correct the error in using factors to graph f.
3. f(x) = (x − 1)(x −2)(x + 2) 15. f(x) = (x + 2)(x − 1)2

4. h(x) = (x + 2)2(x + 1)

5. g(x) = (x + 1)(x − 1)(x + 2)

✗ −4 −2
y

4x
−2
6. f(x) = (x − 1)2(x + 2)
−4
A. y B. y

2
3

2 x 16. f(x) = x2(x − 3)3

1
−2

✗
−3 −1 3x
y

4
C. y D. y
2

2 −2 2 4 6x
2 x
−2
2 x

In Exercises 17–22, find all real zeros of the function.

(See Example 2.)
In Exercises 7–14, graph the function. (See Example 1.)
17. f(x) = x3 − 4x2 − x + 4
7. f(x) = (x − 2)2(x + 1) 8. f(x) = (x + 2)2(x + 4)2
18. f(x) = x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12
9. h(x) = (x + 1)2(x − 1)(x − 3)
19. h(x) = 2x3 + 7x2 − 5x − 4
10. g(x) = 4(x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 1)

1
20. h(x) = 4x3 − 2x2 − 24x − 18
11. h(x) = —3 (x − 5)(x + 2)(x − 3)

1
21. g(x) = 4x3 + x2 − 51x + 36
12. g(x) = —
12
(x + 4)(x + 8)(x − 1)
22. f(x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 32x − 15
13. h(x) = (x − 3)(x2 + x + 1)

14. f(x) = (x − 4)(2x2 − 2x + 1)

216 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 In Exercises 23–30, graph the function. Identify the 38. • The graph of f has x-intercepts at x = −3, x = 1,
x-intercepts and the points where the local maximums and x = 5.
and local minimums occur. Determine the intervals for
• f has a local maximum value when x = 1.
which the function is increasing or decreasing.
(See Example 3.) • f has a local minimum value when x = −2 and
when x = 4.
23. g(x) = 2x3 + 8x2 − 3
In Exercises 39–46, determine whether the function is
24. g(x) = −x 4 + 3x
even, odd, or neither. (See Example 4.)
25. h(x) = x 4 − 3x2 + x 39. h(x) = 4x7 40. g(x) = −2x 6 + x2

26. f(x) = x5 − 4x3 + x2 + 2 41. f(x) = x 4 + 3x2 − 2

27. f(x) = 0.5x3 − 2x + 2.5 42. f(x) = x5 + 3x3 − x

28. f(x) = 0.7x 4 − 3x3 + 5x 43. g(x) = x2 + 5x + 1

29. h(x) = x5 + 2x2 − 17x − 4 44. f(x) = −x3 + 2x − 9

30. g(x) = x 4 − 5x3 + 2x2 + x − 3 45. f(x) = x 4 − 12x2

In Exercises 31–36, estimate the coordinates of each 46. h(x) = x5 + 3x 4

turning point. State whether each corresponds to a local
maximum or a local minimum. Then estimate the real 47. USING TOOLS When a swimmer does the
zeros and find the least possible degree of the function. breaststroke, the function
31. y 32. y S = −241t7 + 1060t 6 − 1870t 5 + 1650t 4
2
− 737t 3 + 144t 2 − 2.43t
4
models the speed S (in meters per second) of the
−2 2 x −4 4 x swimmer during one complete stroke, where t is the
number of seconds since the start of the stroke and
0 ≤ t ≤ 1.22. Use a graphing calculator to graph
the function. At what time during the stroke is the
y y
swimmer traveling the fastest?
33. 34.
10
2 4 x
−2 2 x
−2

−4

−6

35. y 36. y
6

2 x
2
−4
−3 −1 1 3x 48. USING TOOLS During a recent period of time, the
number S (in thousands) of students enrolled in public
schools in a certain country can be modeled by
S = 1.64x3 − 102x2 + 1710x + 36,300, where x is
OPEN-ENDED In Exercises 37 and 38, sketch a graph of time (in years). Use a graphing calculator to graph the
a polynomial function f having the given characteristics. function for the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 41. Then describe
how the public school enrollment changes over this
37. • The graph of f has x-intercepts at x = −4, x = 0, period of time.
and x = 2.
49. WRITING Why is the adjective local, used to describe
• f has a local maximum value when x = 1.
the maximums and minimums of cubic functions,
• f has a local minimum value when x = −2. sometimes not required for quadratic functions?

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 50. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? The graph of a polynomial 53. PROBLEM SOLVING Quonset huts are temporary,
function is shown. all-purpose structures shaped like half-cylinders.
You have 1100 square feet of material to build a
y quonset hut.
y = f(x) 10 a. The surface area S of a quonset hut is given by
S = πr 2 + πr . Substitute 1100 for S and then
write an expression for in terms of r.
−4 −2 2 x
b. The volume V of a quonset hut is given by
−10
V = —12 πr 2 . Write an equation that gives V as a
function in terms of r only.

a. Find the zeros, local maximum, and local c. Find the value of r that maximizes the volume of
minimum values of the function. the hut.

b. Compare the x-intercepts of the graphs of y = f (x)

and y = −f(x).
c. Compare the maximum and minimum values of
the functions y = f(x) and y = −f(x).

51. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend claims that the

product of two odd functions is an odd function. Is
your friend correct? Explain your reasoning.

52. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS You are making a

rectangular box out of a 16-inch-by-20-inch piece of
cardboard. The box will be formed by making the cuts 54. THOUGHT PROVOKING Write and graph a polynomial
shown in the diagram and folding up the sides. You function that has one real zero in each of the intervals
want the box to have the greatest volume possible. −2 < x < −1, 0 < x < 1, and 4 < x < 5. Is there a
maximum degree that such a polynomial function can
x x have? Justify your answer.
x x

16 in. 55. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS A cylinder is

inscribed in a sphere of radius 8 inches. Write an
x x
equation for the volume of the cylinder as a function
x x of h. Find the value of h that maximizes the volume of
20 in. the inscribed cylinder. What is the maximum volume
of the cylinder?
a. How long should you make the cuts?
b. What is the maximum volume?
c. What are the dimensions of the finished box?
h

8 in.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

State whether the table displays linear data, quadratic data, or neither. Explain. (Section 2.4)
56. 57.
Months, x 0 1 2 3 Time (seconds), x 0 1 2 3
Savings (dollars), y 100 150 200 250 Height (feet), y 300 284 236 156

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 4.9 Modeling with Polynomial Functions
Essential Question How can you find a polynomial model for
real-life data?

Modeling Real-Life Data

Work with a partner. The distance a baseball travels after it is hit depends on the
angle at which it was hit and the initial speed. The table shows the distances a
baseball hit at an angle of 35° travels at various initial speeds.

Initial speed, x
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
(miles per hour)

Distance, y (feet) 194 220 247 275 304 334 365 397

a. Recall that when data have equally-spaced x-values, you can analyze patterns in the
differences of the y-values to determine what type of function can be used to model
the data. If the first differences are constant, then the set of data fits a linear model.
If the second differences are constant, then the set of data fits a quadratic model.

Find the first and second differences of the data. Are the data linear or quadratic?
USING TOOLS Explain your reasoning.
STRATEGICALLY 194 220 247 275 304 334 365 397
To be proficient in
math, you need to use
technological tools to
explore and deepen
your understanding
of concepts. b. Use a graphing calculator to draw a scatter plot of the data. Do the data appear
linear or quadratic? Use the regression feature of the graphing calculator to find a
linear or quadratic model that best fits the data.
400

75 120
190

c. Use the model you found in part (b) to find the distance a baseball travels when it
is hit at an angle of 35° and travels at an initial speed of 120 miles per hour.

d. According to the Baseball Almanac, “Any drive over 400 feet is noteworthy.
A blow of 450 feet shows exceptional power, as the majority of major league
players are unable to hit a ball that far. Anything in the 500-foot range is
genuinely historic.” Estimate the initial speed of a baseball that travels a
distance of 500 feet.

Communicate Your Answer

2. How can you find a polynomial model for real-life data?
3. How well does the model you found in Exploration 1(b) fit the data? Do you
think the model is valid for any initial speed? Explain your reasoning.

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 4.9 Lesson What You Will Learn
Write polynomial functions for sets of points.
Write polynomial functions using finite differences.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Use technology to find models for data sets.
finite differences, p. 220
Previous Writing Polynomial Functions for a Set of Points
scatter plot You know that two points determine a line and three points not on a line determine
a parabola. In Example 1, you will see that four points not on a line or a parabola
determine the graph of a cubic function.

Writing a Cubic Function

Write the cubic function whose graph is shown. y

(−4, 0) (3, 0)
SOLUTION −2 2 4 x
(1, 0)
Step 1 Use the three x-intercepts to write the −4
function in factored form. (0, −6)
f(x) = a(x + 4)(x − 1)(x − 3)
Check Step 2 Find the value of a by substituting the
coordinates of the point (0, −6). −16
Check the end behavior of f.
The degree of f is odd and −6 = a(0 + 4)(0 − 1)(0 − 3)
a < 0. So, f(x) → +∞ as
x → −∞ and f(x) → −∞ as −6 = 12a
x → +∞, which matches 1
−—2 = a
the graph. ✓ 1
The function is f (x) = −—2 (x + 4)(x − 1)(x − 3).

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Write a cubic function whose graph passes through the given points.
1. (−4, 0), (0, 10), (2, 0), (5, 0) 2. (−1, 0), (0, −12), (2, 0), (3, 0)

Finite Differences
When the x-values in a data set are equally spaced, the differences of consecutive
y-values are called finite differences. Recall from Section 2.4 that the first and
second differences of y = x2 are:
equally-spaced x-values

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

first differences: −5 −3 −1 1 3 5

second differences: 2 2 2 2 2
Notice that y = x2 has degree two and that the second differences are constant and
nonzero. This illustrates the first of the two properties of finite differences shown on
the next page.

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 Core Concept
Properties of Finite Differences
1. If a polynomial function y = f (x) has degree n, then the nth differences of
function values for equally-spaced x-values are nonzero and constant.
2. Conversely, if the nth differences of equally-spaced data are nonzero and
constant, then the data can be represented by a polynomial function of
degree n.

The second property of finite differences allows you to write a polynomial function
that models a set of equally-spaced data.

Writing a Function Using Finite Differences

Use finite differences to

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
determine the degree of the
polynomial function that fits f (x) 1 4 10 20 35 56 84
the data. Then use technology
to find the polynomial function.

SOLUTION
Step 1 Write the function values. Find the first differences by subtracting
consecutive values. Then find the second differences by subtracting
consecutive first differences. Continue until you obtain differences that
are nonzero and constant.

f (1) f (2) f (3) f (4) f (5) f(6) f(7) Write function values for
1 4 10 20 35 56 84 equally-spaced x-values.

3 6 10 15 21 28 First differences

3 4 5 6 7 Second differences

1 1 1 1 Third differences

Because the third differences are nonzero and constant, you can model the
data exactly with a cubic function.
Step 2 Enter the data into a graphing calculator and use CubicReg
cubic regression to obtain a polynomial function. y=ax3+bx2+cx+d
a=.1666666667
b=.5
Because —16 ≈ 0.1666666667, —12 = 0.5, and c=.3333333333
1 d=0
—3 ≈ 0.333333333, a polynomial function that
R2=1
fits the data exactly is

f (x) = —16 x3 + —12 x2 + —13 x.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

3. Use finite differences to

determine the degree of the x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
polynomial function that fits f (x) 6 15 22 21 6 −29
the data. Then use technology
to find the polynomial function.

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 Finding Models Using Technology
In Examples 1 and 2, you found a cubic model that exactly fits a set of data. In many
real-life situations, you cannot find models to fit data exactly. Despite this limitation,
you can still use technology to approximate the data with a polynomial model, as
shown in the next example.

Real-Life Application

T table shows the total U.S. biomass energy consumptions y (in trillions of
The
British thermal units, or Btus) in the year t, where t = 1 corresponds to 2001. Find
B
a polynomial model for the data. Use the model to estimate the total U.S. biomass
eenergy consumption in 2013.

t 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 2622 2701 2807 3010 3117 3267

t 7 8 9 10 11 12
y 3493 3866 3951 4286 4421 4316

SOLUTION
S
Step 1 Enter the data into a graphing
S Step 2 Use the cubic regression feature.
calculator and make a scatter The polynomial model is
plot. The data suggest a
y = −2.545t3 + 51.95t2 − 118.1t + 2732.
cubic model.
According to the U.S. Department
4500 CubicReg
of Energy, biomass includes
y=ax3+bx2+cx+d
“agricultural and forestry a=-2.545325045
residues, municipal solid wastes, b=51.95376845
industrial wastes, and terrestrial c=-118.1139601
and aquatic crops grown solely d=2732.141414
R2=.9889472257
for energy purposes.” Among the
0 13
uses for biomass is production of 2500
electricity and liquid fuels such
as ethanol. Step 3 Check the model by graphing Step 4 Use the trace feature to
it and the data in the same estimate the value of the
viewing window. model when t = 13.
4500 5000
Y1=-2.5453250453256x^3+_

0 13 0 X=13 Y=4384.7677 14
2500 2000

The approximate total U.S. biomass energy consumption in 2013 was about
4385 trillion Btus.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Use a graphing calculator to find a polynomial function that fits the data.

4. 5.
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 0 2 4 6 8 10
y 5 13 17 11 11 56 y 8 0 15 69 98 87

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 4.9 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE When the x-values in a set of data are equally spaced, the differences of
consecutive y-values are called ________________.

2. WRITING Explain how you know when a set of data could be modeled by a cubic function.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3–6, write a cubic function whose graph is 11. (−2, 968), (−1, 422), (0, 142), (1, 26), (2, −4),
shown. (See Example 1.) (3, −2), (4, 2), (5, 2), (6, 16)
3. 4.
12. (1, 0), (2, 6), (3, 2), (4, 6), (5, 12), (6, −10),
y y
4 (−2, 4) (7, −114), (8, −378), (9, −904)
4
(0, 2)
(2, 0) 13. ERROR ANALYSIS Describe and correct the error in
(−1, 0) (2, 0) −4 −2 4x writing a cubic function whose graph passes through
−4 −2 4x the given points.
(1, 0) (−3, 0) (−1, 0)

5. 6.
−8

✗ (−6, 0), (1, 0), (3, 0), (0, 54)

54 = a(0 − 6)(0 + 1)(0 + 3)

y (−3, 0) y 54 = −18a
(−5, 0)
(−6, 0) 4 a = −3
(3, 0) f(x) = −3(x − 6)(x + 1)(x + 3)
(4, 0) −8 −4 4 8x
−8 8x
−4 (2, −2) 14. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS The dot patterns
(1, 0) (0, −9) show pentagonal numbers. The number of dots in the
−8
nth pentagonal number is given by f(n) = —12 n(3n − 1).
Show that this function has constant second-order
In Exercises 7–12, use finite differences to determine differences.
the degree of the polynomial function that fits the data.
Then use technology to find the polynomial function.
(See Example 2.)

7. x −6 −3 0 3 6 9
15. OPEN-ENDED Write three different cubic functions
f(x) −2 15 −4 49 282 803 that pass through the points (3, 0), (4, 0), and (2, 6).
Justify your answers.
8. x −1 0 1 2 3 4
16. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS The table shows
f (x) −14 −5 −2 7 34 91 the ages of cats and their corresponding ages in
human years. Find a polynomial model for the data
9. (−4, −317), (−3, −37), (−2, 21), (−1, 7), (0, −1), for the first 8 years of a cat’s life. Use the model to
(1, 3), (2, −47), (3, −289), (4, −933) estimate the age (in human years) of a cat that is 3
years old. (See Example 3.)
10. (−6, 744), (−4, 154), (−2, 4), (0, −6), (2, 16),
(4, 154), (6, 684), (8, 2074), (10, 4984) Age of cat, x 1 2 4 6 7 8
Human years, y 15 24 32 40 44 48

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 17. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS The data in the 20. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend states that it
table show the average speeds y (in miles per hour) is not possible to determine the degree of a function
of a pontoon boat for several different engine speeds given the first-order differences. Is your friend
x (in hundreds of revolutions per minute, or RPMs). correct? Explain your reasoning.
Find a polynomial model for the data. Estimate the
average speed of the pontoon boat when the engine 21. WRITING Explain why you cannot always use finite
speed is 2800 RPMs. differences to find a model for real-life data sets.

x 10 20 25 30 45 55
22. THOUGHT PROVOKING A, B, and C are zeros of a
y 4.5 8.9 13.8 18.9 29.9 37.7 cubic polynomial function. Choose values for A, B,
and C such that the distance from A to B is less than
or equal to the distance from A to C. Then write the
18. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? The graph shows typical function using the A, B, and C values you chose.
speeds y (in feet per second) of a space shuttle
x seconds after it is launched.
23. MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS Order the polynomial
Space Launch functions according to their degree, from least
to greatest.
(feet per second)

y
Shuttle speed

2000 A. f(x) = −3x + 2x2 + 1

1000 B. y g
2
0
20 40 60 80 100 x
Time (seconds) −2 2 4x
−2
a. What type of polynomial function models the
data? Explain.
b. Which nth-order finite difference should be C.
x −2 −1 0 1 2 3
constant for the function in part (a)? Explain.
h(x) 8 6 4 2 0 −2

19. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS The table shows the D.

number of diagonals for polygons x −2 −1 0 1 2 3
diagonal
with n sides. Find a polynomial k(x) 25 6 7 4 −3 10
function that fits the data. Determine
the total number of diagonals in
the decagon shown. 24. ABSTRACT REASONING Substitute the expressions
z, z + 1, z + 2, ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ , z + 5 for x in the function
f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d to generate six equally-
Number of
3 4 5 6 7 8 spaced ordered pairs. Then show that the third-order
sides, n
differences are constant.
Number of
0 2 5 9 14 20
diagonals, d

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Solve the equation using square roots. (Section 3.1)

25. x2 − 6 = 30 26. 5x2 − 38 = 187
27. 2(x − 3)2 = 24 28. —43 (x + 5)2 = 4
Solve the equation using the Quadratic Formula. (Section 3.4)
1
29. 2x2 + 3x = 5 30. 2x2 + —2 = 2x
31. 2x2 + 3x = −3x2 + 1 32. 4x − 20 = x2

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 4.5–4.9 What Did You Learn?

Core Vocabulary
repeated solution, p. 190 local minimum, p. 214 finite differences, p. 220
complex conjugates, p. 199 even function, p. 215
local maximum, p. 214 odd function, p. 215

Core Concepts
Section 4.5
The Rational Root Theorem, p. 191 The Irrational Conjugates Theorem, p. 193

Section 4.6
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, p. 198 Descartes’s Rule of Signs, p. 200
The Complex Conjugates Theorem, p. 199

Section 4.7
Transformations of Polynomial Functions, p. 206 Writing Transformed Polynomial Functions, p. 207

Section 4.8
Zeros, Factors, Solutions, and Intercepts, p. 212 Turning Points of Polynomial Functions, p. 214
The Location Principle, p. 213 Even and Odd Functions, p. 215

Section 4.9
Writing Polynomial Functions for Data Sets, p. 220 Properties of Finite Differences, p. 221

Mathematical Practices
1. Explain how understanding the Complex Conjugates Theorem allows you to construct your argument in
Exercise 46 on page 203.
2. Describe how you use structure to accurately match each graph with its transformation in Exercises 7–10
on page 209.

Performance Task
For the Birds --
Wildlife Management
How does the presence of humans affect the population of
sparrows in a park? Do more humans mean fewer sparrows?
Or does the presence of humans increase the number of sparrows
up to a point? Are there a minimum number of sparrows that
can be found in a park, regardless of how many humans
there are? What can a mathematical model tell you?

To explore the answers to these questions and more, go to

BigIdeasMath.com.
2
225
25

hsnb_alg2_pe_04ec.indd 225 2/5/15 11:02 AM

 4 Chapter Review
4.1 Graphing Polynomial Functions (pp. 157–164)
Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Graph f(x) = x3 + 3x2 − 3x − 10.

To graph the function, make a table of values and plot the corresponding (−3, −1) 4 y
points. Connect the points with a smooth curve and check the end behavior. (2, 4)
(−2, 0)
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −4 4x

f(x) −1 0 −5 −10 −9 4 35

(1, −9)
The degree is odd and the leading coefficient is positive.
So, f(x) → −∞ as x → −∞ and f(x) → +∞ as x → +∞. −12
(0, −10)

Decide whether the function is a polynomial function. If so, write it in standard form and state
its degree, type, and leading coefficient.
1. h(x) = −x3 + 2x2 − 15x7 2. p(x) = x3 − 5x 0.5 + 13x2 + 8

Graph the polynomial function.

3. h(x) = x2 + 6x5 − 5 4. f(x) = 3x 4 − 5x2 + 1 5. g(x) = −x 4 + x + 2

4.2 Adding, Subtracting, and Multiplying Polynomials (pp. 165–172)

a. Multiply (x − 2), (x − 1), and (x + 3) in a horizontal format.

(x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 3) = (x2 − 3x + 2)(x + 3)
= (x2 − 3x + 2)x + (x2 − 3x + 2)3
= x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 3x2 − 9x + 6
= x3 − 7x + 6
b. Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand (4x + 2)4.
The coefficients from the fourth row of Pascal’s Triangle are 1, 4, 6, 4, and 1.
(4x + 2)4 = 1(4x)4 + 4(4x)3(2) + 6(4x)2(2)2 + 4(4x)(2)3 + 1(2)4
= 256x 4 + 512x3 + 384x2 + 128x + 16

Find the sum or difference.

6. (4x3 − 12x2 − 5) − (−8x2 + 4x + 3)
7. (x 4 + 3x3 − x2 + 6) + (2x 4 − 3x + 9)
8. (3x2 + 9x + 13) − (x2 − 2x + 12)

Find the product.

9. (2y2 + 4y − 7)(y + 3) 10. (2m + n)3 11. (s + 2)(s + 4)(s − 3)

Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand the binomial.

12. (m + 4)4 13. (3s + 2)5 14. (z + 1)6

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 4.3 Dividing Polynomials (pp. 173–178)

Use synthetic division to evaluate f(x) = −2x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 10 when x = −3.

−3 −2 4 8 10
6 −30 66
−2 10 −22 76

The remainder is 76. So, you can conclude from the Remainder Theorem that f (−3) = 76.
You can check this by substituting x = −3 in the original function.

Check

f(−3) = −2(−3)3 + 4(−3)2 + 8(−3) + 10

= 54 + 36 − 24 + 10
= 76 ✓

Divide using polynomial long division or synthetic division.

15. (x3 + x2 + 3x − 4) ÷ (x2 + 2x + 1)

16. (x 4 + 3x3 − 4x2 + 5x + 3) ÷ (x2 + x + 4)
17. (x4 − x2 − 7) ÷ (x + 4)
18. Use synthetic division to evaluate g (x) = 4x3 + 2x2 − 4 when x = 5.

4.4 Factoring Polynomials (pp. 179–186)

a. Factor x4 + 8x completely.
x 4 + 8x = x(x3 + 8) Factor common monomial.
= x(x3 + 23) Write x3 + 8 as a3 + b3.
= x(x + 2)(x2 − 2x + 4) Sum of Two Cubes Pattern
b. Determine whether x + 4 is a factor of f(x) = x5 + 4x4 + 2x + 8.
Find f(−4) by synthetic division.
−4 1 4 0 0 2 8
−4 0 0 0 −8
1 0 0 0 2 0

Because f (−4) = 0, the binomial x + 4 is a factor of f (x) = x5 + 4x4 + 2x + 8.

Factor the polynomial completely.

19. 64x3 − 8 20. 2z5 − 12z3 + 10z 21. 2a3 − 7a2 − 8a + 28
22. Show that x + 2 is a factor of f (x) = x4 + 2x3 − 27x − 54. Then factor f (x) completely.

Chapter 4 Chapter Review 227

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 4.5 Solving Polynomial Equations (pp. 189–196)

a. Find all real solutions of x3 + x2 − 8x − 12 = 0.

Step 1 List the possible rational solutions. The leading coefficient of the polynomial
f(x) = x3 + x2 − 8x − 12 is 1, and the constant term is −12. So, the possible
rational solutions of f (x) = 0 are
1 2 3 4 6 12
x = ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—, ±—.
1 1 1 1 1 1
Step 2 Test possible solutions using synthetic division until a solution is found.
2 1 1 −8 −12 −2 1 1 −8 −12
2 6 −4 −2 2 12
1 3 −2 −16 1 −1 −6 0

f(2) ≠ 0, so x − 2 is not a factor of f(x). f(−2) = 0, so x + 2 is a factor of f(x).

Step 3 Factor completely using the result of synthetic division.
(x + 2)(x2 − x − 6) = 0 Write as a product of factors.
(x + 2)(x + 2)(x − 3) = 0 Factor the trinomial.

So, the solutions are x = −2 and x = 3.

b. Write a polynomial function f of —

least degree that has rational coefficients, a leading coefficient
of 1, and the zeros −4 and 1 + √ 2 .
—
By the Irrational Conjugates Theorem, 1 − √ 2 must also be a zero of f.
— —
f (x) = (x + 4)[ x − ( 1 + √ 2 ) ][ x − ( 1 − √ 2 )] Write f(x) in factored form.
— —
= (x + 4)[ (x − 1) − √ 2 ][ (x − 1) + √ 2 ] Regroup terms.
= (x + 4)[ (x − 1)2 − 2] Multiply.
= (x + 4)[ (x2 − 2x + 1) − 2 ] Expand binomial.
= (x + 4)(x2 − 2x − 1) Simplify.
= x3 − 2x2 − x + 4x2 − 8x − 4 Multiply.
= x3 + 2x2 − 9x − 4 Combine like terms.

Find all real solutions of the equation.

23. x3 + 3x2 − 10x − 24 = 0 24. x3 + 5x2 − 2x − 24 = 0

Write a polynomial function f of least degree that has rational coefficients, a leading coefficient
of 1, and the given zeros.
— — —
25. 1, 2 − √ 3 26. 2, 3, √ 5 27. −2, 5, 3 + √ 6
28. You use 240 cubic inches of clay to make a sculpture shaped as a rectangular prism. The width
is 4 inches less than the length and the height is 2 inches more than three times the length. What
are the dimensions of the sculpture? Justify your answer.

228 Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

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 4.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (pp. 197–204)

Find all zeros of f(x) = x 4 + 2x3 + 6x2 + 18x − 27.

Step 1 Find the rational zeros of f. Because f is a polynomial function of degree 4, it has four zeros.
The possible rational zeros are ±1, ±3, ±9, and ± 27. Using synthetic division, you can
determine that 1 is a zero and −3 is also a zero.
Step 2 Write f(x) in factored form. Dividing f (x) by its known factors x − 1 and x + 3 gives a
quotient of x2 + 9. So,
f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 3)(x2 + 9).
Step 3 Find the complex zeros of f. Solving x2 + 9 = 0, you get x = ±3i. This means
x2 + 9 = (x + 3i)(x − 3i).
f(x) = (x − 1)(x + 3)(x + 3i)(x − 3i)

From the factorization, there are four zeros. The zeros of f are 1, −3, −3i, and 3i.

Write a polynomial function f of least degree that has rational coefficients, a leading
coefficient of 1, and the given zeros.
—
29. 3, 1 + 2i 30. −1, 2, 4i 31. −5, −4, 1 − i√ 3

Determine the possible numbers of positive real zeros, negative real zeros, and imaginary
zeros for the function.
32. f(x) = x 4 − 10x + 8 33. f(x) = −6x 4 − x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 18

4.7 Transformations of Polynomial Functions (pp. 205–210)

Describe the transformation of f(x) = x3 represented by g(x) = (x − 6)3 − 2. Then graph

each function.
Notice that the function is of the form g(x) = (x − h)3 + k. y g
f
Rewrite the function to identify h and k.
4
g(x) = (x − 6)3 + (−2)

−4 4 8 x
h k

Because h = 6 and k = −2, the graph of g is a translation

6 units right and 2 units down of the graph of f.

Describe the transformation of f represented by g. Then graph each function.

34. f(x) = x3, g(x) = (−x)3 + 2 35. f(x) = x 4, g(x) = −(x + 9)4

Write a rule for g.

36. Let the graph of g be a horizontal stretch by a factor of 4, followed by a translation
3 units right and 5 units down of the graph of f(x) = x5 + 3x.
37. Let the graph of g be a translation 5 units up, followed by a reflection in the y-axis of
the graph of f (x) = x 4 − 2x3 − 12.

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 4.8 Analyzing Graphs of Polynomial Functions (pp. 211–218)

Graph the function f(x) = x(x + 2)(x − 2). Then estimate the points y
4
where the local maximums and local minimums occur. (0, 0)
Step 1 Plot the x-intercepts. Because −2, 0, and 2 are zeros of f,
plot (−2, 0), (0, 0), and (2, 0). (−2, 0) (2, 0)
−4 4x
Step 2 Plot points between and beyond the x-intercepts.
−2
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 (1, −3)
−4
y −15 0 3 0 −3 0 15
4
Step 3 Determine end behavior. Because f(x) has three factors of the
form x − k and a constant factor of 1, f is a cubic function
with a positive leading coefficient. So f(x) → −∞ as x → −∞ −6 6
and f(x) → +∞ as x → +∞.
Minimum
Step 4 Draw the graph so it passes through the plotted points and X=1.15 Y=-3.08
has the appropriate end behavior. −5

The function has a local maximum at (−1.15, 3.08) and a local minimum at (1.15, −3.08).

Graph the function. Identify the x-intercepts and the points where the local maximums and local
minimums occur. Determine the intervals for which the function is increasing or decreasing.
38. f(x) = −2x3 − 3x2 − 1 39. f(x) = x 4 + 3x3 − x2 − 8x + 2

Determine whether the function is even, odd, or neither.

40. f(x) = 2x3 + 3x 41. g(x) = 3x2 − 7 42. h(x) = x 6 + 3x5

4.9 Modeling with Polynomial Functions (pp. 219–224)

y
Write the cubic function whose graph is shown. 8
(−1, 0)
Step 1 Use the three x-intercepts to write the function in 4
factored form.
(−3, 0) (2, 0)
f(x) = a(x + 3)(x + 1)(x − 2) −4 −2 4 x

Step 2 Find the value of a by substituting the coordinates of

the point (0, −12).
(0, −12)
−12 = a(0 + 3)(0 + 1)(0 − 2)
−12
−12 = −6a
−16
2=a

The function is f(x) = 2(x + 3)(x + 1)(x − 2).

43. Write a cubic function whose graph passes through the points (−4, 0), (4, 0), (0, 6), and (2, 0).
44. Use finite differences to determine the degree of
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
the polynomial function that fits the data. Then use
technology to find the polynomial function. f(x) −11 −24 −27 −8 45 144 301

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 4 Chapter Test
Write a polynomial function f of least degree that has rational coefficients, a leading
coefficient of 1, and the given zeros.
—
1. 3, 1 − √ 2 2. −2, 4, 3i

Find the product or quotient.

3. (x 6 − 4)(x2 − 7x + 5) 4. (3x 4 − 2x3 − x − 1) ÷ (x2 − 2x + 1)
5. (2x3 − 3x2 + 5x − 1) ÷ (x + 2) 6. (2x + 3)3

7. The graphs of f(x) = x 4 and g(x) = (x − 3)4 are shown. y

a. How many zeros does each function have? Explain. 4

b. Describe the transformation of f represented by g.
f g
c. Determine the intervals for which the function g is increasing or decreasing. 2

−2 2 4 x

8. The volume V (in cubic feet) of an aquarium is modeled

by the polynomial function V(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10,
where x is the length of the tank.
a. Explain how you know x = 4 is not a possible rational zero.
b. Show that x − 1 is a factor of V(x). Then factor V(x) completely.
c. Find the dimensions of the aquarium shown.

Volume = 3 ft3
9. One special product pattern is (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2. Using
Pascal’s Triangle to expand (a − b)2 gives 1a2 + 2a(−b) + 1(−b)2.
Are the two expressions equivalent? Explain.

10. Can you use the synthetic division procedure that you learned in this chapter to
divide any two polynomials? Explain.

11. Let T be the number (in thousands) of new truck sales. Let C be the number
(in thousands) of new car sales. During a 10-year period, T and C can be modeled
by the following equations where t is time (in years).

T = 23t 4 − 330t3 + 3500t2 − 7500t + 9000

C = 14t 4 − 330t3 + 2400t2 − 5900t + 8900

a. Find a new model S for the total number of new vehicle sales.
b. Is the function S even, odd, or neither? Explain your reasoning.

12. Your friend has started a golf caddy business. The table shows the profits p (in dollars) of
the business in the first 5 months. Use finite differences to find a polynomial model for the
data. Then use the model to predict the profit after 7 months.

Month, t 1 2 3 4 5
Profit, p 4 2 6 22 56

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 4 Cumulative Assessment

1. The synthetic division below represents f(x) ÷ (x − 3). Choose a value for m so that
x − 3 is a factor of f (x). Justify your answer.

−3 3
3 1 −3 m 3
3 0
−2 2
1 0
−1 1

2. Analyze the graph of the polynomial function to determine the sign of the leading
coefficient, the degree of the function, and the number of real zeros. Explain.

y
4

−4 2 x

−4

3. Which statement about the graph of the equation 12(x − 6) = −( y + 4)2 is not true?
A The vertex is (6, −4).
B The axis of symmetry is y = −4.
C The focus is (3, −4).
D The graph represents a function.

4. A parabola passes through the point shown in the graph. The equation of the axis
of symmetry is x = −a. Which of the given points could lie on the parabola? If the
axis of symmetry was x = a, then which points could lie on the parabola? Explain
your reasoning.

y
x = −a

(1, 1) (0, 1) (−2, 1) (3, 1)

x
(−3, 1) (−4, 1) (−5, 1)

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 5. Select values for the function to model each transformation of the graph of
f(x) = x.
g(x) = (x − )+
a. The graph is a translation 2 units up and 3 units left.
b. The graph is a translation 2 units right and 3 units down.
c. The graph is a vertical stretch by a factor of 2, followed by a translation
2 units up.
d. The graph is a translation 3 units right and a vertical shrink by a factor of —12 ,
followed by a translation 4 units down.

6. The diagram shows a circle inscribed in a square. The area of the shaded region is
21.5 square meters. To the nearest tenth of a meter, how long is each side of the square?

A 4.6 meters B 8.7 meters C 9.7 meters D 10.0 meters

7. Classify each function as even, odd, or neither. Justify your answer.

a. f(x) = 3x5 b. f (x) = 4x3 + 8x
c. f(x) = 3x3 + 12x2 + 1 d. f(x) = 2x 4
e. f(x) = x11 − x7 f. f (x) = 2x 8 + 4x 4 + x2 − 5

8. The volume of the rectangular prism shown is given by V = 2x3 + 7x2 − 18x − 63.
Which polynomial represents the area of the base of the prism?
A 2x2 + x − 21
x−3
B 2x2 + 21 − x
C 13x + 21 + 2x2
D 2x2 − 21 − 13x

9. The number R (in tens of thousands) of retirees receiving Social Security benefits is
represented by the function
R = 0.286t 3 − 4.68t 2 + 8.8t + 403, 0 ≤ t ≤ 10
where t represents the number of years since 2000. Identify any turning points on the
given interval. What does a turning point represent in this situation?

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