9: Evolution by natural selection

Introduction Formation of a new species

Origin of ideas about origins (Speciation)

Evidences for evolution Geographical speciation

Genetic evidence and variation Generic account of speciation

Theories of evolution Activity 4: Speciation

Lamarckism Artificial selection

Darwin’s theory of evolution by Artificial selection in a

natural selection domesticated animal

Evolution by natural selection Artificial selection in crops

How does natural selection Differences between natural

work? selection and artificial selection

Activity 1: Natural Activity 5: Artificial

Selection selection and
domestication
Punctuated equilibrium
Mechanisms for reproductive isolation
Activity 2: Punctuated
equilibrium Evolution in present times

Lamarckism vs Darwinism Resistance to antibiotics in TB

Activity 3: Theories of Enrichment

Evolution
End of topic exercises

258
CHAPTER 9: EVOLUTION BY NATURAL
SELECTION

Introduction

Topics for this unit:

 origin of ideas about origins
 theories of evolution
 Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
 formation of a new species
 artificial selection
 mechanisms of reproductive isolation
 evolution in present times

Key terminology
any genetic change in a population that is inherited over
biological evolution
several generations

a group of organisms with similar characteristics that

biological species
interbreed with one another to produce fertile offspring

a group of individuals of the same species occupying a

population
particular habitat
punctuated evolution characterised by long periods of little or no
equilibrium change followed by short periods of rapid change
mechanism of evolution - organisms survive if they have
natural selection
characteristics that make them suited to the environment
human-driven selective force, e.g. breeding of plants and
artificial selection
animals to produce desirable traits
inbreeding mating of individuals that are closely related
outbreeding mating of individuals that are not closely related
speciation the formation of a new species
geographic formation of a new species when the parent population
speciation separated by a geographical barrier
reproductive a mechanism that prevents two species from mating with
isolation one another and making fertile hybrids

259
Origin of ideas about origins
The theory of evolution has been developed over many years by many different
scientists and is regarded as a scientific theory since various hypotheses relating to
evolution have been tested and verified over time.

Theory vs Hypothesis
A theory is an explanation of something that has been observed in nature which
can be supported by facts, generalisations, tested hypotheses, models and laws.
A hypothesis is a possible solution to a problem.

The word evolution simply means change over time. Evolution is the process by
which organisms develop over time from earlier forms. Biological evolution refers
to any genetic change in a population that is inherited and becomes a characteristic
of that population over several generations.

Evidence for evolution

Fossils covered in Grade 10

 Different fossils are found in different rock layers with the oldest
fossils in the oldest rock layers with transitional fossils present.
 This systematic change through time is termed descent with
modification.
 The evidence shows characteristics that make organisms
similar to one another largely from the study of fossils
Bio- covered in Grade 10
geography  Biogeography is the study of where species are found and why
they are found there.
 There are many different collections of plants and animals in
regions of the same line of latitude, with similar climates and
conditions, suggesting such organisms have a shared
ancestor.
Genetics new concept for Grade 12 – see below
 Species that are closely related have a greater genetic
similarity to each other than distant species and therefore share
a more recent common ancestor.
Other not studied in school – embryology, vestigial organs, comparative
evidence anatomy

260
Genetic evidence and variation

The study of genetics deals with the similarities in and differences of related
organisms. Genetic evidence that organisms are closely related and are likely to have
a common ancestor includes:
 identical DNA structure
 similar sequence of genes
 similar portions of DNA with no functions
 similar mutations (mitochondrial DNA)

Species that are closely related have a greater similarity to each other than more
distantly related species.

There is also some degree of variation between individuals of the same species in a
population. This variation may be caused by:

 Crossing over during Prophase I of meiosis involves an exchange of genetic

material, leading to new combinations of maternal and paternal genetic
materials in each new cell / gamete resulting from meiosis.
 Random arrangement of maternal and paternal chromosomes at the
equator during metaphase allows different combinations of chromosomes /
chromatids to go into each new cell / gamete resulting from meiosis, making
them different.
 Random fertilisation between different egg cells and different sperm cells
formed by meiosis result in offspring that are different from each other.
 Random mating between organisms within a species leads to a different set
of offspring from each mating pair.
 A mutation changes the structure of a gene or chromosome and therefore the
organism’s genotype. Since the genotype influences the phenotype, it creates
organisms with new, different characteristics from one generation to the next

Theories of evolution

The most significant advocates of the idea that species are not static, but have
changed over time, were Jean Baptiste de Lamarck and Charles Darwin. Of these,
Charles Darwin is best known, particularly as a result of his famous book called “The
Origin of Species”.

261
Lamarckism
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was a naturalist and proposed that species were not fixed
but that they change over time. During his investigations, he observed that:
 living species were different to those found in the fossil record
 domestication of wild plants and animals and selective breeding resulted in
plants and animals changing
 cross breeding plants often led to new characteristics appearing in the
offspring

Figure 1: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

The Law of Use and Disuse

Lamarck suggested that animals changed over time in order to survive in a new
environment. He argued that if a structure was used more often, that structure then
became bigger in the following generations. Similarly, if a structure was not being
used, then this structure would become smaller and might eventually disappear. He
called this the “law of use and disuse”.

The Law of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics

Lamarck also explained that organisms could inherit these changed structures from
their parents. This he called “inheritance of acquired characteristics”.
Characteristics developed during the life of an individual (acquired characteristics)
could be passed on to its offspring. A classic example that Lamarck used to explain
his law of use and disuse was the elongation of the giraffe’s neck (Figure 2). According
to Lamarck, the original giraffes must have found themselves in an environment
where, in order to reach food at the tops of trees, they continually needed to stretch

262
their necks. Over a lifetime, a giraffe could develop an elongated neck, allowing it to
get more food. Parents could then pass on this elongated neck to their offspring.

Figure 2: Elongation of a giraffe’s neck over time according to Lamarck

Why Lamarck was wrong

Lamarck argued that traits acquired by parents could be passed on to offspring. He

did, however, not provide any mechanisms of how this would happen, merely stating
that the change happened because the organisms wanted or needed it. We now know
that changes to organisms can only come about as a result of a genetic change which
is then passed on to offspring.
For this reason, Lamarckism is not accepted today as an explanation for evolutionary
change. His work did, however, set the groundwork for scientists like Charles Darwin.

Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection

Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection is one of the basic concepts
for understanding evolution and is based on the four main observations made by him
while on his around-the-world trip on the ship, the HMS Beagle.

 Populations can produce far more offspring than needed.

 Sizes of most natural populations and resources remain relatively constant.

263
  There is a natural variation of characteristics among members of the same
species.
 Some characteristics are inherited and are passed on to the next generation

Figure 3: Charles Darwin

Based on his observations, Darwin came to three main conclusions:

 All organisms are involved in a struggle for survival and only those best suited
to the environment would survive there.
 Organisms that survive are more likely to reproduce, and therefore pass on
their useful characteristics to their offspring.
 Over many generations, reproduction between individuals with different genetic
makeup changes the overall genetic composition of the population.

Evolution by natural selection

Natural selection is one of the mechanisms that explains how evolution takes place.
Those organisms best suited to a particular environment produce the most
offspring. This is commonly referred to as “survival of the fittest” – where “fittest”
does not mean the strongest, but the best suited to the environment.
Some species are better equipped to face to changing conditions in their environment.
Such changes include the type and availability of food and shelter, competition or
predation.

264
Having favourable traits that are suitable to the changing environmental conditions
may lead to the formation of new species (speciation). Natural selection always acts
on variation already present in a population and the environment is the selective
pressure for change.

How does natural selection work?

A generic explanation of natural selection is given in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Natural selection

There is a lot of variation among offspring as offspring differ from their
1
parents (due to crossing over, random arrangement of chromosomes, etc.).
2 When the environment changes or there is competition (for food, space, etc.).
The offspring with characteristics or traits that make them better suited to the
3
new environment or competition will be most likely to survive and reproduce.
The organisms without the desired characteristic or trait are less able to
4
survive in the new environment or competition and so will die out.
This means that more offspring in the next generation will have the
5 advantageous characteristic(s). The next generation will have a higher
proportion of individuals with the new trait or characteristic.
These differences accumulate and eventually all individuals in a population
6
have the new trait or characteristic.

Activity 1: Natural selection

Question 1
A scientist used guppies (Poecilia reticulata) in an investigation to test Darwin's
theory of natural selection. Male guppies have brightly coloured spots to attract
females, but these spots also attract predators.
It was previously observed that males living in streams where there were many
predatory fish tended to have fewer spots. This reduced their risk of being eaten.
Those males living in streams with fewer predators had more spots.

Guppy showing spots (adapted from www.decodedscience.org)

265
The procedure for the investigation was as follows:
 Equal numbers of male and female guppies were put into two ponds (pond 1
and pond 2).
 In pond 1, predatory fish that prey on guppies were introduced.
 In pond 2, predatory fish that do not feed on guppies were introduced.
 The guppies were allowed to breed for 20 months, representing several
generations of guppies. (Guppies reproduce when they are about three
months old.)

The result of the investigation:

The male guppies in pond 2 had significantly more spots than the male guppies in
pond 1.

1.1 How could the validity of this investigation be increased? (2)

1.2 Identify the:
(a) independent variable (1)
(b) dependent variable (1)
1.3 Explain why the scientist included pond 2 in this investigation. (3)
1.4 Describe how Darwin's theory of natural selection can be used to explain why
the guppies in pond 1 had fewer spots. (5)

Question 2
2.1. What type of characteristics does nature select during evolution? (1)
2.2 In nature, there is always a fight for survival due to competition, predation
and adverse weather conditions. Suggest a collective term for all these
factors. (1)
2.3 Why is the concept of natural selection so important? (2)
2.4 Why is natural selection not a random process? (2)
2.5 In a population of mice, half were light in colour and half were dark.
a) If an owl, hunts in the area at night, which mice have the more
favourable characteristic? Explain your answer in terms of natural
selection. (3)
b) If the predator was a snake that detects the body heat of its prey, which
mice would probably have the more favourable variation? Explain your
answer. (3)

266
Question 3
Before the industrial revolution, light-coloured moths were far more common in
England than dark-coloured moths. Trees were covered by a pale lichen which
provided camouflage for the lighter moth. Dark moths were much more visible and
were eaten by birds.
Due to pollution from factories in the 19th century, the environment changed. Lichen
was killed off, and a black soot covered the bark on the trees. This provided good
camouflage for the dark-coloured moths, but the light-coloured moths stood out from
their background and were ready prey for birds.
The following is a graph showing the changes in the percentage of dark-coloured
moths over a number of years.

Changes in the percentage of dark-coloured moths in relation to pollution over a

period of time.
Percentage dark-coloured moths

Pollutants in air (μg/m )

3

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985

Key: dark-coloured moths pollutants in the air

3.1 What is the general relationship between the dark-coloured moth

population and the pollution from 1965 to 1985? (1)
3.2 Explain the relationship mentioned in question 3.1 (1)
3.3 Why did the population of the light-coloured moths decrease during the 19th
century? (2)
3.4 Once the air pollution had decreased, what do you think happened to the
population of the light-coloured moths? Give a reason for your answer. (2)
(30)

267
Punctuated equilibrium

Punctuated equilibrium refers to a form of evolution characterised by long periods of

little or no change followed by short periods of rapid change. This concept was
developed by Niles Eldredge and Stephen J. Gould in 1972.
Darwin had proposed that species evolve gradually with small changes over a period
of time. This is called gradualism. In gradualism, the physical (phenotypic)
characteristics of a population change gradually because of the accumulation of
small genetic changes.
Eldredge and Gould noticed that in the fossil record, there were long periods of time
where species did not change or changed very little. This was interspersed with
periods of rapid change. Accordingly, new species were formed over a short period
of time. The main evidence for this type of evolution was the absence of transitional
fossils (the “missing-links”).

phyletic gradualism

morphology

time

punctuated
equilibrium
Figure 4: Punctuated equilibrium (Gould) versus gradualism (Darwin)

When a new species branched off from a parent species, changes occurred quickly,
but thereafter, the organism changed very little.
In a fast-changing environment, species needed to change rapidly to adapt to the
environment, failing which, they would become extinct.

268
Activity 2: Punctuated equilibrium
The graph below shows the speed at which evolution occurs in a species of butterfly.

B
evolution

time

1. Explain the trend in evolution represented by:

a) phase A (2)
b) phase B (2)
2. In view of the trend represented by A and B, what type of evolution is
represented by the graph? (1)
3. Explain why the chances of speciation are great during phase B. (2)
(7)

Lamarckism vs Darwinism
Table 2 below outlines the differences between Lamarckism and Darwinism.

Table 2: Lamarckism vs Darwinism

Lamarckism Darwinism
members have similar
make-up of a members of population are
characteristics with a
population all the same
measure of variation
populations, not individuals,
transformation of a individuals are able to
transform over time and only
species/population transform during a life time
through genetic means
natural selection – the envi-
individual chooses which
ronment exercises selective
traits to pass on to offspring
mechanism of pressure causing change
change
changes are directed to
variation exists regardless of
meet survival
organisms needs.

269
Activity 3: Theories of evolution
1. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was a French naturalist who proposed his theory
of evolution in 1809.
a) Name the two ideas on which Lamarck’s theory was based. (2)
b) Why was his theory considered incorrect and therefore subsequently
rejected? (1)
c) Was Lamarck’s work entirely without value because his theory had
been rejected? (2)

2. Charles Darwin, a British naturalist, made his most important observations

regarding evolution on the Galapagos islands.
a) List four observations his evolutionary theory was based on. (4)
b) Describe how Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection would have
explained the development of long necks in giraffes. (7)
c) Tabulate two differences between the theories of Charles Darwin and
Lamarck. (5)

3. Below are statements referring to the evolution of species. Decide if the

statement applies to Darwin, Lamarck or to both scientists.
a) Only the fittest individuals with the most advantageous characteristics
survive in a changing environment. (1)
b) All members are slightly different and these differences accumulate
over time, changing their appearance. (1)
c) A whale’s hind limbs were severely reduced because they no longer
used legs in the water. (1)
d) Species acquire bigger and better structures by the increase in their use
and pass these structures on to their offspring. (1)
(25)

Formation of a new species (Speciation)

The formation of a new species is called speciation. You have already learnt that
variation in individuals is caused by sexual reproduction, genetic mutations, crossing
over, random arrangement, etc. If enough of these variations occur and are kept within
a population, the more likely it is that a species can change.

270
 Biological species concept - a group of organisms with similar characteristics
that interbreed with one another to produce fertile offspring.

Every population has some sort of genetic variation and these variations are important
as they increase a species chance of surviving in a changing environment (natural
selection). Geographic speciation is one way speciation occurs.

Geographic speciation

Geographic speciation occurs when part of a population becomes isolated from the
parent population due to physical barriers. Such barriers could be continental drift,
oceans, rivers, mountains, or other natural disturbances such as volcanos or
earthquakes.
The images below show how two new species can arise as a result of being separated,
over a long period of time, due to a geographic barrier.

1. Early stage of separation (300 000 years ago)

individuals of the species

separated from …
… the parent population

river that only flows

in the rainy season

2. Later stage of complete isolation (150 000 years ago)

Landscape features have altered over time: the river has widened, deepened
and flows all year round, resulting in geographic isolation.
As a result, the gene flow between the two populations stops. The two
populations are exposed to different environmental conditions.
Natural selection now takes place independently in each of the 2 populations –

271
 they change genotypically and then phenotypically from each other.

3. Speciation has occurred (3000 years ago).

Climate change over time has altered the landscape: the river had dried up
enabling a meeting of the species.

The two new species may mix but are genetically

unable to breed with each other because of
evolutionary changes.

Figure 5: Process of geographic speciation in a population of lizards,

separated by a river

Generic account of speciation

 A population is separated by a geographical barrier and splits into two

populations.
 The two populations cannot mate and so gene flow between the two
populations stops.

272
  The two populations are exposed to different environmental conditions and
selective forces.
 Natural selection works independently on both populations simultaneously
 The two populations become different from the original population both
genotypically and phenotypically.
 Even if the populations were to come together again, they would not interbreed
with one another and therefore would have become different species.

Activity 4: Speciation

Question 1
1. Bontebok are antelope that are found in the Western Cape. Two main
populations exist, one at the Bontebok National Park and the other at Table
Mountain National Park. These two national parks are hundreds of
kilometres apart. Scientists believe that due to geographical separation,
speciation may occur.
1.1 Define the term “speciation”. (2)
1.2 Define the term ‘species’. (3)
1.3 Name the type of speciation that may occur in the bontebok
populations. (2)

2. For each of the statements below, state whether the statement is TRUE or
FALSE. Where false, correct the statement so that it is true.
2.1 Genetic barriers cause divided populations to remain the same. (2)
2.2 Reproductive isolation prevents two or more populations from changing
genes. (2)
2.3 Populations that become isolated by means of a geographic barrier will
not differ from their ancestral species. (2)
2.4 Competition, predation, climatic factors and disease are all
selective forces / environmental pressures. (2)

Question 2
Darwin discovered two different species of tortoises on two different island in the
Galapagos. One had a domed shell and short neck, the other had an elongated shell
and a longer neck. The two islands had very different vegetation. One of the islands
(island X) was rather barren, dry and arid. It had no grass but rather short tree-like
cactus plants. On the other island (island Y), there were no cactus plants but it had a
good supply of water and grass grew freely. The diagram below shows the two main

273
species of tortoise.

Tortoise 1 Tortoise 2

1.1 Which tortoise (1 or 2) would have been found on:

a) Island X (1)
b) Island Y (1)
1.2 Describe how the two tortoise species became different species. (5)
1.3 Scientists believe that the variation in populations lead to the formation of
new species. List four sources of variation in populations. (4)
(26)

Cladogram of speciation

On a cladogram or phylogenetic tree (diagrams showing evolutionary relationships

amongst organisms), one can easily see where a species has split into two different
species. This is known as a speciation event (Figure 6).
Over time, some species have remained alive (they are extant) while others have died
off (become extinct). Cladograms also show extinction events. If the lineage line does
not reach the top of the tree, then the species became extinct. The longer the line of
lineage, the more unchanged the species has remained.

Speciation
events

Figure 6: Cladogram showing speciation events

274
Artificial selection
Humans have long exploited the variation in wild and cultivated organisms to develop
crops or new breeds of livestock, through a process called artificial selection.

Artificial selection is a human-driven selective force and occurs at a faster rate than
natural selection. Favourable traits are artificially selected for by scientists and farmers
and then bred out to produce offspring with those traits. Artificial selection mimics
natural selection, with the exception that artificial selection is a much faster process
and results in less variation than natural selection.

Artificial selection in a domesticated animal

All dog varieties (see Figure 7) originated from the Grey wolf, Canis familaris. The first
few domesticated wolves would have been selected for traits such as tameness,
submissiveness and ones that were easy to work with. Five ancient breeds of dog
arose from inbreeding which gave rise to the large number of distinct dog breeds that
we have today. The extremely large genetic variability in the ancestral species made
it a perfect choice for domestication as different traits could be expressed under
different selective pressures.

Figure 7: Domestic dogs

Pedigree dogs, born from two dogs of the same breed, sometimes suffer from
deformations and can be vulnerable to diseases and parasites. This is due to their
decreased genetic variation.
Mongrel dogs (“pavement specials” as they are commonly referred to in South Africa)
are dogs that were outbreed and so their genetic variation is far greater than a pure-
bred dog. This makes mongrel dogs quite robust (healthy) and they do not die very
easily from natural diseases or parasites and they are very fertile.

Artificial selection in crops

Domestication in plants has resulted in wide variety of new species with large

275
phenotypic differences amongst species. Most of these crops are very dependent on
humans for survival.

The domestication of maize (Zea mays spp) is one of the greatest success stories in
agriculture. The modern day maize plant was bred from a multi-stemmed wild grass.
Over the past thousand years, farmers selected and planted seeds from those maize
plants that had bigger ears of corn and that required less space to grow. Over time, all
the undesirable traits were bred out of the plant, leaving only the large ears of corn
and less stems.

Figure 8: The evolution in the size of the ear of corn. The first image is the original
size of the Zea mays spp and the one on the far right is the modern day maize.

The following characteristics were considered favourable traits in a maize plant:

 reduced seed coat
 retention of seeds on the cob so that seeds did not just fall off
 a tall plant with a single stalk and less stems
 large ear structure resulting in more food production

Differences between natural and artificial selection

For a long time, humans have been doing breeding experiments to develop organisms
with a selected set of desirable characteristics, for example increased quality and
quantity of milk produced by cows, or drought resistance and increased sugar content
in sugar cane. This is achieved by artificial selection, which is a similar process to
natural selection.

276
However, artificial selection differs from natural selection. Some of the differences are
listed in Table 3 below.

Table 3: Difference between natural and artificial selection

Natural selection Artificial selection
The environment or nature is the
Humans represent the selective force
selective force
Selection is in response to suitability to Selection is in response to satisfying
the environment human needs
May involve one or more species (as
Occurs within a species
in cross breeding)

Activity 5: Artificial selection and domestication

Question 1
1.1 List four ways in which artificial selection has been used in agriculture. (4)
1.2 Copy the table below and complete it showing the differences between
artificial selection and natural selection. (9)

Artificial selection Natural Selection

Driven by...
Rate of change...
Amount of variation achieved
End result
1.3 Humans have been domesticating plants for years and today, most
agricultural species come from domesticated varieties.
a) Define the term “domestication”. (2)
b) What was one of the first crops to be domesticated in the world? (1)
c) Name two characteristics that were selected for in the domestication of
the crop mentioned in (b) above. (2).

Question 2
Decide if the statements below are TRUE or FALSE.
2.1 Cultivated plants show higher degrees of phenotypic variation than wild
plants (1)
2.2 Natural selection is a random process. (1)

277
 2.3 Artificial selection is similar to natural selection, except the process is driven
by man and is a quicker process. (1)
2.4 The final product of artificial selection is the adaptation of populations of
organisms to their environment. (1)
2.5 All hybrids are infertile. (1)
2.6 Artificial selection has been used by humans to speed up evolution. (1)
(24)

Mechanisms for reproductive isolation

Reproductive isolation is the mechanism that prevents two species from mating with
one another and making fertile hybrids, even when not separated by a geographic
barrier. Such mechanisms are used mostly to separate species that live in the same
environment.

Strategy Description
Different species will have different breeding seasons or, in
breeding at different
the case of plants, will flower at different times of the year,
times of the year
in order to prevent cross-pollination.

Some animals have very specific courtship behaviours that

do not attract individuals of other species, even if they are
closely related species.
species-specific Courtship behaviour is a physical or chemical signal that
courtship behaviour an organism is ready to mate. This can include anything
from being brightly coloured, to singing elaborate mating
songs or mating dances, to the secretion of pheromones in
order to attract a mate.

Many plants and their flowers are specifically adapted for

specific pollinators. Some closely related species of plants
adaptation to
have different characteristics such as flower shape, size,
different pollinators
colour, reward type (nectar or pollen), scent and timing of
(plants)
flowering all play a role in attracted certain pollinators to
them. Also, cross-pollination between the different species
is prevented.
infertile offspring in Even if two species are able to physically mate and
cross-species produce offspring, they will still be reproductively isolated
hybrids due to the fact the most hybrid offspring are infertile.

278