Chapter 9

Gases, Liquids and Solids

1
 Physical Characteristics of Gases
• Gases assume the volume and shape of their containers.
• Gases are the most compressible state of matter.
• Gases will mix evenly and completely when confined to
the same container.
• Gases have much lower densities than liquids and solids.

NO2 gas 2
 Force
Pressure = Area

(force = mass x acceleration)

Units of Pressure

1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2

1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr
1 atm = 101,325 Pa

3
Manometers Used to Measure Gas Pressures

closed-tube open-tube

4
 Boyle’s Law

P a 1/V
P x V = constant Constant temperature
Constant amount of gas
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
5
A sample of chlorine gas occupies a volume of 946 mL at a
pressure of 726 mmHg. What is the pressure of the gas (in
mmHg) if the volume is reduced at constant temperature to 154
mL?

P x V = constant
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
P1 = 726 mmHg P2 = ?
V1 = 946 mL V2 = 154 mL

P1 x V1 726 mmHg x 946 mL

P2 = = = 4460 mmHg
V2 154 mL
6
 Variation of Gas Volume with Temperature
at Constant Pressure

Charles’ &
Gay-Lussac’s
Law

VaT Temperature must be

V = constant x T in Kelvin
V1/T1 = V2 /T2 T (K) = t (0C) + 273.15 7
A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies 3.20 L at 125 0C.
At what temperature will the gas occupy a volume of 1.54 L if
the pressure remains constant?

V1 /T1 = V2 /T2

V1 = 3.20 L V2 = 1.54 L
T1 = 398.15 K T2 = ?
T1 = 125 (0C) + 273.15 (K) = 398.15 K

V2 x T1 1.54 L x 398.15 K
T2 = = = 192 K
V1 3.20 L
8
 Avogadro’s Law
V a number of moles (n) Constant temperature
Constant pressure
V = constant x n

V1 / n1 = V2 / n2

9
 Ideal Gas Equation
Boyle’s law: P a 1 (at constant n and T)
V
Charles’ law: V a T (at constant n and P)
Avogadro’s law: V a n (at constant P and T)

nT
Va
P
nT nT
V = constant x =R R is the gas constant
P P

PV = nRT
10
The conditions 0 0C and 1 atm are called standard
temperature and pressure (STP).

Experiments show that at STP, 1 mole of an ideal

gas occupies 22.414 L.

PV = nRT
PV (1 atm)(22.414L)
R= =
nT (1 mol)(273.15 K)

R = 0.082057 L • atm / (mol • K)

11
What is the volume (in liters) occupied by 49.8 g of HCl at STP?

T = 0 0C = 273.15 K
P = 1 atm
PV = nRT 1 mol HCl
n = 49.8 g x = 1.37 mol
V = nRT 36.45 g HCl
P
L•atm
1.37 mol x 0.0821 mol•K
x 273.15 K
V=
1 atm

V = 30.7 L

12
Argon is an inert gas used in lightbulbs to retard the
vaporization of the filament. A certain lightbulb containing argon
at 1.20 atm and 18 0C is heated to 85 0C at constant volume.
What is the final pressure of argon in the lightbulb (in atm)?

PV = nRT n, V and R are constant

nR
= P = constant P1 = 1.20 atm P2 = ?
V T
T1 = 291 K T2 = 358 K
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
T2
P2 = P1 x = 1.20 atm x 358 K = 1.48 atm
T1 291 K
13
 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
V and T are constant

P1 P2 Ptotal = P1 + P2
14
Consider a case in which two gases, A and B, are in a
container of volume V.

nART
PA = nA is the number of moles of A
V
nBRT nB is the number of moles of B
PB =
V
nA nB
PT = PA + PB XA = XB =
nA + nB nA + nB

PA = XA PT PB = XB PT

ni
Pi = Xi PT mole fraction (Xi ) =
nT
15
A sample of natural gas contains 8.24 moles of CH4, 0.421
moles of C2H6, and 0.116 moles of C3H8. If the total pressure
of the gases is 1.37 atm, what is the partial pressure of
propane (C3H8)?

Pi = Xi PT PT = 1.37 atm

0.116
Xpropane = = 0.0132
8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116

Ppropane = 0.0132 x 1.37 atm = 0.0181 atm

16
Gas diffusion is the gradual mixing of molecules of one gas
with molecules of another by virtue of their kinetic properties.


r1 M2
=
r2 M1

molecular path
NH4Cl

NH3 HCl
17 g/mol 36 g/mol
17
Gas effusion is the is the process by which gas under
pressure escapes from one compartment of a container to
another by passing through a small opening.


r1 t2 M2
= =
r2 t1 M1

Nickel forms a gaseous compound of the formula Ni(CO)x What

is the value of x given that under the same conditions methane
(CH4) effuses 3.3 times faster than the compound?
r1 2
r1 = 3.3 x r2 M2 = ( ) r2
x M1 = (3.3)2 x 16 = 174.2

M1 = 16 g/mol 58.7 + x • 28 = 174.2 x = 4.1 ~ 4 18

 Deviations from Ideal Behavior

1 mole of ideal gas

Repulsive Forces
PV = nRT
n= PV = 1.0
RT
Attractive Forces

19
Van der Waals equation
nonideal gas

an 2
( P + V2 ) (V – nb) = nRT
}

corrected corrected
pressure volume

20
 Properties of Liquids

Surface tension is the amount of energy required to stretch

or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area.

Strong
intermolecular
forces

High
surface
tension

21
 Properties of Liquids

Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules

Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules

Adhesion

Cohesion

22
 Properties of Liquids

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.

Strong
intermolecular
forces

High
viscosity

23
A crystalline solid possesses rigid and long-range order. In a
crystalline solid, atoms, molecules or ions occupy specific
(predictable) positions.
An amorphous solid does not possess a well-defined
arrangement and long-range molecular order.

A unit cell is the basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline

solid.

lattice
point At lattice points:
• Atoms
• Molecules
• Ions
Unit Cell Unit cells in 3 dimensions 24
Seven Basic Unit Cells

25
Three Types of Cubic Unit Cells

26
Arrangement of Identical Spheres in a Simple Cubic Cell

27
Arrangement of Identical Spheres in a Body-Centered
Cubic Cell

28
A Corner Atom, a Edge-Centered Atom and a
Face-Centered Atom

Shared by 4 Shared by 2
Shared by 8
unit cells unit cells
unit cells

29
 Number of Atoms Per Unit Cell

1 atom/unit cell 2 atoms/unit cell 4 atoms/unit cell

(8 x 1/8 = 1) (8 x 1/8 + 1 = 2) (8 x 1/8 + 6 x 1/2 = 4)
30
Relation Between Edge Length and Atomic Radius

31
Closet Packing: Hexagonal and Cubic

hexagonal cubic 32
Exploded Views

33
An Arrangement for Obtaining the X-ray Diffraction Pattern
of a Crystal.

34
 Reflection of X rays from Two Layers of Atoms.

Extra distance = BC + CD = 2d sinq = nl (Bragg Equation)

35
X rays of wavelength 0.154 nm are diffracted from a crystal at an
angle of 14.17o. Assuming that n = 1, what is the distance (in pm)
between layers in the crystal?

nl = 2d sin q n=1 q = 14.17o l = 0.154 nm = 154 pm

nl 1 x 154 pm
d= = = 314.0 pm
2sinq 2 x sin14.17

36
 Types of Crystals
Ionic Crystals
• Lattice points occupied by cations and anions
• Held together by electrostatic attraction
• Hard, brittle, high melting point
• Poor conductor of heat and electricity

CsCl ZnS CaF2

37
 Types of Crystals
Covalent Crystals
• Lattice points occupied by atoms
• Held together by covalent bonds
• Hard, high melting point
• Poor conductor of heat and electricity
carbon
atoms

38
diamond graphite
 Types of Crystals
Molecular Crystals
• Lattice points occupied by molecules

• Held together by intermolecular forces

• Soft, low melting point

• Poor conductor of heat and electricity

water benzene

39
 Types of Crystals
Metallic Crystals
• Lattice points occupied by metal atoms
• Held together by metallic bonds
• Soft to hard, low to high melting point
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
Cross Section of a Metallic Crystal
nucleus &
inner shell e-

mobile “sea”
of e-

40
Types of Crystals

41
An amorphous solid does not possess a well-defined
arrangement and long-range molecular order.

A glass is an optically transparent fusion product of inorganic

materials that has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing

Crystalline Non-crystalline
42
quartz (SiO2) quartz glass
The boiling point is the temperature at which the
(equilibrium) vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the
external pressure.

The normal boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid

boils when the external pressure is 1 atm.

43
 The critical temperature (Tc) is the temperature above which
the gas cannot be made to liquefy, no matter how great the
applied pressure.

The critical pressure

(Pc) is the minimum
pressure that must be
applied to bring about
liquefaction at the
critical temperature.

44
 The Critical Phenomenon of SF6

T < Tc T > Tc T ~ Tc T < Tc

45