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Third Edition

Practical
Bomb Scene
Investigation
 CRC SERIES IN
PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF CRIMINAL
AND FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS

VERNON J. GEBERTH, BBA, MPS, FBINA Series Editor

Practical Homicide Investigation: Tactics, Procedures, and

Forensic Techniques, Fifth Edition
Vernon J. Geberth
Practical Homicide Investigation Checklist and Field Guide,
Second Edition
Vernon J. Geberth
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Practical Bomb Scene Investigation, Third Edition
James T. Thurman
Analyzing 911 Homicide Calls: Practical Aspects and Applications
Tracy Harpster and Susan H. Adams
Practical Aspects of Rape Investigation: A Multidisciplinary Approach,
Fifth Edition
Robert R. Hazelwood and Ann Wolbert Burgess
Munchausen by Proxy and Other Factitious Abuse: Practical and
Forensic Investigative Techniques
Robert R. Hazelwood and Ann Wolbert Burgess
Practical Analysis and Reconstruction of Shooting Incidents,
Second Edition
Edward E. Hueske
Gunshot Wounds: Practical Aspects of Firearms, Ballistics,
and Forensic Techniques, Third Edition
Vincent J. M. DiMaio
Informants, Cooperating Witnesses, and Undercover Investigations:
A Practical Guide to Law, Policy, and Procedure, Second Edition
Dennis G. Fitzgerald
Practical Military Ordnance Identification
Tom Gersbeck
Practical Cold Case Homicide Investigations Procedural Manual
Richard H. Walton
Autoerotic Deaths: Practical Forensic and Investigative Perspectives
Anny Sauvageau and Vernon J. Geberth
Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation, Second Edition
Ross M. Gardner
The Counterterrorism Handbook: Tactics, Procedures, and Techniques,
Fourth Edition
Frank Bolz Jr., Kenneth J. Dudonis, and David P. Schulz
Practical Forensic Digital Imaging: Applications and Techniques
Patrick Jones
Practical Crime Scene Investigations for Hot Zones
Jacqueline T. Fish, Robert N. Stout, and Edward Wallace
Sex-Related Homicide and Death Investigation: Practical and Clinical
Perspectives, Second Edition
Vernon J. Geberth
Handbook of Forensic Toxicology for Medical Examiners
D. K. Molina
Practical Crime Scene Analysis and Reconstruction
Ross M. Gardner and Tom Bevel
Serial Violence: Analysis of Modus Operandi and Signature
Characteristics of Killers
Robert D. Keppel and William J. Birnes
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: With an Introduction to Crime Scene
Reconstruction, Third Edition
Tom Bevel and Ross M. Gardner
Tire Tread and Tire Track Evidence: Recovery and Forensic Examination
William J. Bodziak
Officer-Involved Shootings and Use of Force: Practical Investigative
Techniques, Second Edition
David E. Hatch and Randy Dickson
Practical Drug Enforcement, Third Edition
Michael D. Lyman
Cold Case Homicides: Practical Investigative Techniques
Richard H. Walton
Principles of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: Theory and Practice
Stuart James, Paul Kish, and T. Paulette Sutton
Global Drug Enforcement: Practical Investigative Techniques
Gregory D. Lee
Practical Investigation of Sex Crimes: A Strategic and Operational
Approach
Thomas P. Carney
Principles of Kinesic Interview and Interrogation, Second Edition
Stan Walters
Practical Criminal Investigations in Correctional Facilities
William R. Bell
Practical Aspects of Interview and Interrogation, Second Edition
David E. Zulawski and Douglas E. Wicklander
Forensic Pathology, Second Edition
Dominick J. DiMaio and Vincent J. M. DiMaio
The Practical Methodology of Forensic Photography, Second Edition
David R. Redsicker
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to
Basic and Advanced Ridgeology
David R. Ashbaugh
Footwear Impression Evidence: Detection, Recovery, and Examination,
Second Edition
William J. Bodziak
The Sexual Exploitation of Children: A Practical Guide to Assessment,
Investigation, and Intervention, Second Edition
Seth L. Goldstein
Practical Aspects of Munchausen by Proxy and Munchausen Syndrome
Investigation
Kathryn Artingstall
Practical Fire and Arson Investigation, Second Edition
David R. Redsicker and John J. O’Connor
Interpretation of Bloodstain Evidence at Crime Scenes, Second Edition
William G. Eckert and Stuart H. James
Investigating Computer Crime
Franklin Clark and Ken Diliberto
Practical Investigation Techniques
Kevin B. Kinnee
Friction Ridge Skin: Comparison and Identification of Fingerprints
James F. Cowger
Tire Imprint Evidence
Peter McDonald
Practical Gambling Investigation Techniques
Kevin B. Kinnee
Third Edition

Practical
Bomb Scene
Investigation
James T. Thurman

Boca Raton London New York

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 Dedication

This book is dedicated to the postblast investigator and the bomb technician,
for all that you do and the sacrifices you make, and to my family, Lorenda,
Chris, Margaret, and Libby, to whom I express my heartfelt thanks for your
continuing love and support. Also for Mom, and Dad, whom I miss very much.
Contents
Series Editor Note ............................................................................................................................ xv
Foreword ........................................................................................................................................xvii
Acknowledgments ...........................................................................................................................xix
About the Author ............................................................................................................................xxi
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. xxiii

Chapter 1 Explosion Theory and Dynamics ................................................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................1
1.2 Scientific Method.............................................................................................1
1.3 Explosives ........................................................................................................3
1.4 Types of Explosives .........................................................................................4
1.5 Classification and Sensitivity of Explosives .................................................. 12
1.6 Explosive Performance ..................................................................................14
1.7 Firing Trains ..................................................................................................15
1.8 Additional Characteristics of Explosives ...................................................... 16
1.9 Accountability of Explosives and Explosives Detection ............................... 21
1.10 Explosions .....................................................................................................22
1.10.1 Types of Explosions........................................................................23
1.10.2 Explosion Effects ............................................................................26
1.11 Explosion Scene Investigation ....................................................................... 34
1.12 Summary........................................................................................................34
Review Questions .......................................................................................................35
References and Additional Reading ........................................................................... 35

Chapter 2 Identification and Recognition of Commercial, Improvised, and

Military Explosives .................................................................................................... 37
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................37
2.2 Short History of Explosives ........................................................................... 38
2.3 Low Explosives .............................................................................................40
2.3.1 Black Powder ..................................................................................40
2.3.2 Pyrodex ...........................................................................................42
2.3.3 Photoflash Powder ..........................................................................43
2.3.4 Smokeless Powder ..........................................................................43
2.4 Commercial High Explosives ........................................................................ 48
2.4.1 Primary Explosives .........................................................................48
2.4.1.1 Lead Azide ......................................................................48
2.4.1.2 Lead Styphnate ................................................................49
2.4.1.3 Mercury Fulminate ..........................................................49
2.4.1.4 Diazodinitrophenol..........................................................49
2.4.1.5 Tetrazene .........................................................................49
2.4.2 Secondary Explosives ..................................................................... 49
2.4.2.1 Ammonium Nitrate .........................................................49
2.4.2.2 Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil (ANFO) ......................52
2.4.2.3 Nitroglycerin (NG) ..........................................................55
2.4.2.4 Dynamite .........................................................................56

ix
x Contents

2.5 Water-Based Products....................................................................................61

2.5.1 Water Gel or Slurry Explosives......................................................61
2.5.2 Emulsion Explosives ......................................................................63
2.5.2.1 Trinitrotoluene (TNT) ...................................................66
2.5.2.2 Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN)..............................66
2.5.2.3 Cyclotrimethylene Trinitramine (RDX)........................66
2.6 Boosters .........................................................................................................67
2.7 Binary Explosives ..........................................................................................70
2.8 Sheet Explosives ............................................................................................72
2.9 Foreign Explosives ........................................................................................73
2.10 U.S. Military Explosives ...............................................................................77
2.10.1 Trinitrotoluene Charges (TNT) ......................................................78
2.10.2 Composition 4 (C-4) ......................................................................80
2.10.3 Sheet Explosives ............................................................................82
2.10.4 Military Dynamite ..........................................................................82
2.11 Improvised Explosives...................................................................................82
2.12 Initiation Systems and Components ..............................................................91
2.12.1 Initiators .........................................................................................91
2.12.1.1 Safety and Hobby Fuse .................................................92
2.12.1.2 Fuse Lighter ..................................................................93
2.12.1.3 Detonating Cord............................................................94
2.12.1.4 Shock Tube ...................................................................95
2.12.1.5 Thermo Tube .................................................................97
2.12.1.6 Detonator ......................................................................98
2.13 Summary......................................................................................................116
Review Questions .....................................................................................................116
References and Additional Reading .........................................................................117

Chapter 3 Improvised Explosive Device Components: Pre- and Postblast Identification ........119
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................119
3.2 Improvised Explosive Devices .................................................................... 120
3.2.1 Factors Affecting Improvised Explosive Device Construction ...... 120
3.2.2 Basic Components of the Improvised Explosive Device .............121
3.2.3 Primary Effect Provided by Type of Improvised Explosive
Device ..........................................................................................122
3.2.4 Appearance of an Improvised Explosive Device .........................125
3.2.5 Components of an Improvised Explosive Device ........................ 127
3.2.5.1 Initiators ...................................................................... 128
3.2.5.2 Containers ................................................................... 129
3.2.5.3 Electrical Components................................................ 137
3.2.5.4 Timing Mechanisms ................................................... 145
3.2.5.5 Shrapnel ...................................................................... 149
3.2.5.6 Adhesives .................................................................... 149
3.2.5.7 Tape............................................................................. 149
3.2.5.8 Wood ........................................................................... 150
3.2.5.9 Paper ........................................................................... 150
3.2.5.10 Fasteners ..................................................................... 150
3.2.5.11 Nonelectrical Wire ...................................................... 150
Contents xi

3.3 Fuzing Systems .............................................................................................. 151

3.3.1 Fuzing Systems Methods of Operation ............................................ 152
3.3.1.1 Time-Delay Fuzing Systems........................................... 152
3.3.1.2 Victim Operated Fuzing Systems ................................... 156
3.3.1.3 Command Fuzing Systems ............................................. 165
3.4 IED Component Assessment ......................................................................... 174
3.4.1 High or Low Explosives ................................................................... 183
3.4.2 Initiators ........................................................................................... 187
3.4.2.1 Burning Fuse .................................................................. 188
3.4.2.2 Nonelectric Initiators ...................................................... 189
3.4.2.3 Electric Initiators ............................................................ 191
3.4.3 Containers ........................................................................................ 198
3.4.4 Other Components/Enhancements ...................................................208
3.4.5 Shrapnel and/or Fragmentation ........................................................209
3.4.6 Fuzing System ..................................................................................209
3.4.6.1 Mechanical Fuzing System............................................. 210
3.4.6.2 Electrical/Electrical–Mechanical Fuzing System .......... 212
3.4.6.3 Chemical/Chemical–Mechanical Fuzing System .......... 236
3.5 Investigative Process ..................................................................................... 236
3.6 Summary ....................................................................................................... 239
Review Questions .....................................................................................................240
References and Additional Reading .........................................................................240

Chapter 4 Investigation of the Explosion Scene and Collection of Evidence ........................... 241
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 241
4.2 Investigative Outline...................................................................................... 242
4.2.1 Initial Response ................................................................................ 243
4.2.2 Evaluation of the Explosion Scene ................................................... 251
4.2.2.1 Evaluation and Establishment of Scene Perimeters,
Inner and Outer, and Scene Security .............................. 251
4.2.2.2 Establishment of a Command Post
Location for the Crime Scene Investigation Team ......... 252
4.2.2.3 Establishment of Documentation Procedures to
Account for Personnel Entering and Exiting the Scene .....252
4.2.2.4 Establishment of Entry and Exit Paths for
Crime Scene Investigation Team Members .................... 253
4.2.2.5 Establishment of Staging Areas for Team Members ...... 253
4.2.2.6 Safety (to the Extent Possible) for Entry by the
Investigation Team .......................................................... 253
4.2.2.7 Level of Investigative Assistance and Resources
Required ......................................................................... 254
4.2.2.8 Whether a Search Warrant or Permission to Search
Is Required......................................................................254
4.2.2.9 What Documentation Procedures Will Be Utilized for
Evidence Collection, Control, and Chain of Custody ......... 254
4.2.2.10 What Procedures Will Be Utilized to Prevent
Scene Contamination ...................................................... 254
4.2.2.11 Scene Walk-Through ...................................................... 255
4.2.2.12 Attempt to Locate the Epicenter of the Explosion.......... 256
4.2.2.13 Personnel, Supplies, and Equipment Resources ............. 263
xii Contents

4.2.3 Entering the Scene (Scene Investigation)....................................... 265

4.2.3.1 Entering the Scene ........................................................ 267
4.2.4 Documentation of the Explosion Scene ......................................... 268
4.2.5 Where to Find Evidence at the Bomb Scene ................................. 290
4.2.6 How to Find Evidence at the Bomb Scene..................................... 293
4.2.7 How to Collect Evidence at the Bomb Scene ................................304
4.2.7.1 Special Situations for Evidence Collection................... 313
4.2.8 Final Survey ................................................................................... 314
4.2.9 Release of the Scene ...................................................................... 315
4.2.9.1 Submission of Evidence to the Laboratory ................... 316
4.2.10 Field (or Outside) Investigation ...................................................... 318
4.2.10.1 Where to Start the Field Investigation .......................... 319
4.2.10.2 Determining the Explosives Weight of the
Improvised Explosive Device ....................................... 322
4.2.10.3 Postinvestigation: The Investigative Report ................. 327
4.3 Summary ....................................................................................................... 330
Review Questions ..................................................................................................... 330
References and Additional Reading ......................................................................... 331

Chapter 5 Bomb Scene Investigator and Weapons of Mass Destruction .................................. 333
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 333
5.2 Types of Weapons of Mass Destruction ........................................................ 334
5.3 Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Materials................................................ 336
5.3.1 Nuclear Materials ...........................................................................336
5.3.2 Biological Materials .......................................................................341
5.3.2.1 Classifications of Biological Microorganisms ..............342
5.3.3 Chemical Agents ............................................................................348
5.3.4 Types of Blister Agents ..................................................................351
5.3.5 Choking Agents .............................................................................352
5.3.6 Blood Agents..................................................................................353
5.3.7 Incapacitating Agents..................................................................... 353
5.4 Weapons of Mass Destruction Hazards......................................................... 354
5.5 Determining the Presence of Weapons of Mass Destruction ........................ 354
5.5.1 Indicators of WMD Presence ........................................................ 354
5.6 Weapons of Mass Destruction Protection Methods ...................................... 362
5.7 Key Issues for Investigating a Weapon of Mass Destruction Scene ............. 365
5.7.1 Preincident Planning ...................................................................... 365
5.7.2 Determining Whether WMD Were Used ...................................... 366
5.7.3 Assessing Scene Control and Security .......................................... 366
5.7.4 Ensuring That Appropriate Protection Methods Are Employed ... 367
5.7.5 Addressing Immediate Life Safety Hazards .................................. 367
5.7.6 Contacting Appropriate Outside Agencies for Assistance............. 367
5.7.7 Identifying and Preserving Evidence ............................................. 369
5.8 Summary ....................................................................................................... 369
Review Questions ..................................................................................................... 370
References and Additional Reading .........................................................................370
Contents xiii

Chapter 6 Introduction to the Identification of Military Ordnance .......................................... 373

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 373
6.2 Definitions ..................................................................................................... 375
6.3 Physical Characteristics of Military Ordnance ............................................. 376
6.4 Identification Features of Military Ordnance................................................ 379
6.4.1 Dropped Ordnance ...........................................................................379
6.4.2 Projected Ordnance ..........................................................................384
6.4.3 Thrown Ordnance .............................................................................395
6.4.4 Placed Ordnance ..............................................................................402
6.5 Summary .......................................................................................................405
Review Questions .....................................................................................................405
References and Additional Reading .........................................................................405

Chapter 7 Capabilities of the Forensic Laboratory: Reading the Bomber’s Signature .............407
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................407
7.2 Laboratory Capabilities in the Examination of Improvised Explosive
Devices .......................................................................................................... 412
7.2.1 Device Reconstruction .....................................................................412
7.2.2 Explosive Residue Analysis .............................................................414
7.2.3 Latent Fingerprint Examinations ......................................................414
7.2.4 Materials Analysis ............................................................................415
7.2.5 Document Examinations ..................................................................415
7.2.6 Toolmark Examinations ...................................................................416
7.2.7 Metallurgical Examinations .............................................................417
7.2.8 DNA Analysis .................................................................................. 418
7.3 Reading the Bomber’s Signature ................................................................... 419
7.3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 419
7.4 Summary ....................................................................................................... 422
Review Questions ..................................................................................................... 422
References and Additional Reading ......................................................................... 423

Chapter 8 Tactical Postblast Investigation ................................................................................ 425

8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 425
8.2 Tactical Scene Investigative Outline ............................................................. 426
8.3 Organization of the Investigative Team: Personnel and Equipment ............. 426
8.4 Route Security and Access to the Scene ....................................................... 428
8.5 Scene Assessment .......................................................................................... 429
8.6 Scene Investigation: Documentation, Collection of Evidence, and
Witness Interviews ........................................................................................ 434
8.7 Final Survey................................................................................................... 450
8.8 Return to the Secure Zone ............................................................................. 450
8.9 Summary ....................................................................................................... 450
Review Questions ..................................................................................................... 450
References and Additional Reading ......................................................................... 450
xiv Contents

Appendix A: Chart of Explosive Products.................................................................................... 451

Appendix B: U.S. and Foreign Names of Explosives, Part I and Part II ...................................... 461
Appendix C: Access-Control Log ................................................................................................ 471
Appendix D: Guidelines for the Prevention of Contamination of Explosives Evidence .............. 473
Appendix E: Personnel Resources for the Bomb Scene Investigation ......................................... 475
Appendix F: Supplies and Equipment for the Bomb Scene Investigation .................................... 477
Appendix G: Administrative Worksheet ...................................................................................... 479
Appendix H: Narrative Description.............................................................................................. 483
Appendix I: Evidence-Recovery Log ........................................................................................... 485
Appendix J: Latent Print Lift Log ................................................................................................ 487
Appendix K: Photographic Log.................................................................................................... 489
Appendix L: Diagram/Sketch ....................................................................................................... 491
Appendix M: Explosive Residue Swabbing Instructions (Courtesy of the Explosives Unit,
FBI Laboratory)...................................................................................................... 493
Appendix N: Standard Military Ordnance Color Coding System ............................................... 495
Appendix O: Bomb Threat Stand-Off Distances ......................................................................... 497
Appendix P: Table of Bioterrorism Agent Properties .................................................................. 499
Appendix Q: Table of Chemical Agent Properties ....................................................................... 503
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................ 505
Index .............................................................................................................................................. 519
Series Editor Note
This textbook is part of a series titled “Practical Aspects of Criminal and Forensic Investigation.”
This series was created by Vernon J. Geberth, New York City Police Department lieutenant com-
mander (retired), who is an author, educator, and consultant on homicide and forensic investigations.
This series has been designed to provide contemporary, comprehensive, and pragmatic information
to the practitioner involved in criminal and forensic investigations by authors who are nationally
recognized experts in their respective fields.

xv
Foreword
I am honored to be asked to write the introduction to the third edition of Practical Bomb Scene
Investigation by my good friend and colleague Tom Thurman. I spent 36 years as a federal prosecu-
tor in various components of the U.S. Department of Justice (Organized Crime Section, 1975–1984),
assistant U.S. attorney for the District of Columbia (1984–1996), and trial attorney and deputy chief
(Terrorism and Violent Crime Section/Counterterrorism Section, 1996–2011). Owing to a long and
happy association with the Explosives Unit of the FBI Laboratory, it was my privilege in each of
these jobs to participate in the investigation, and prosecution, of Improvised Explosive Device (IED)
cases, from a 1980 pipe bombing of the Bar Association in San Juan, Puerto Rico, to the bombing of
Pan American Flight 103 (SCOTBOM) over Lockerbie, Scotland, and from the embassy bombings
in East Africa to 911 and its aftermath.
The 2016 terrorist bombings in Paris, Brussels, Istanbul, and, most recently, Baghdad remind
us, as if we needed any reminding, that bomb scene investigation is more important than ever. We
have been at war since 2001, and our adversaries have conducted asymmetrical wars in which the
IED is the weapon of choice. With the rise of Islamic State In Iraq and Al Sham, this situation will
continue for the foreseeable future, with the IED becoming ever more lethal and sophisticated. The
IED is by definition improvised, although the main charge is frequently of military or commercial
manufacture; it is in the fuzing system that infinite and insidious variations occur. This is in part due
to advances in wireless technology (e.g., cell phones) and also the ready availability of commercial
components that can be easily adapted for use in an IED (e.g., remote actuated wireless doorbells).
As a consequence, it is especially important that the bomb scene investigator be fully proficient in
the identification of postblast evidence—in all its permutations—its collection and preservation, so
that it may be properly evaluated, and hopefully direct or focus the field (or criminal) investigation
to identify those responsible. At the end of the day, if you will permit me, it is all about being able
to present properly authenticated evidence from a bombing scene in a court of law and linking that
evidence to a particular defendant, or defendants, so that the trier of fact can—and hopefully will—
draw a correct inference of guilt from the evidence. I recognize that this is easier said than done
because, in the first place, you are trying to bring order out of chaos by recovering minute evidence
from a scene of destruction, and perhaps carnage. In addition, the thanks you can expect is that your
conduct will be minutely scrutinized and severely challenged at every possible step by the defense.
Further, the inferences you and other experts draw may not be accepted by the courts as supported
by science. Tom Thurman’s third edition of Practical Bomb Scene Investigation, building on his
excellent work of the first two editions, helps to level the playing field by providing a comprehensive,
and concise, treatment of virtually all types of explosives and the investigation of their use in IEDs.
Further, the third edition provides actual case studies such as the Boston Marathon Bombing (see
Chapter 3) and, through two new charts (“IED Component Assessment” and “IED Fuzing Systems
Overview,”), provides a road map for the postblast investigator that will be of invaluable assistance
in determining what types of evidence are yet to be recovered, and ultimately, in reconstructing the
IED and how it came to be detonated.
The third edition of Practical Bomb Scene Investigation is an invaluable tool for the bomb scene
investigator, as well as the prosecutor who will ultimately present the evidence in court.
The theme that runs throughout the third edition of Practical Bomb Scene Investigation is that
most of the evidence resulting from the detonation of an IED, depending on certain circumstances,
is out there waiting to be recognized and collected by the postblast investigator and the bomb
scene technician, but it will have had its appearance changed as the result of the explosion and
will be comingled with other blast-damaged items. Further, the IED may have been in one or more
container—fragments of which may have survived—when the main explosive charge and initiator
have not. How were these containers transported to the location of the explosion? What caused the

xvii
xviii Foreword

explosion to initiate? Have portions of the fuzing system been recovered? I believe that Tom’s point
is that the postblast investigator must initially adopt a holistic approach and collect all evidence until
what is recovered is properly evaluated and then drive the investigation on a particular path. Even
then, the investigator must be prepared to adapt to changed circumstances and pursue additional
lines of inquiry.
The “IED Component Assessment” chart is designed to focus the postblast investigation based
on what has been initially recovered and what the investigation reveals. It does this by representing
the various permutations of IEDs and their components and then posing yes or no questions that are
relevant to what should be recoverable—but is yet to be found—and what can be eliminated because
it is not applicable to this type of IED. Some components must have been present: a high or low
explosive, for example. But if it was a high explosive, was it commercial, military, or improvised?
Similarly, if a high explosive was involved, there must have been an initiator, either an electrical or
nonelectrical one, which in either case could also be commercial, military or improvised in origin.
Not always, but frequently, present, though, is a “container,” either internal or external, which can
range in size from a backpack to a jumbo jet. Similarly, other components such as fasteners, tape, or
wire are frequently present. Was the IED simply designed to explode, or was shrapnel or fragmenta-
tion also involved? What was it that caused the IED to explode at that particular time? Was it a time
delay device or an command detonated device, or victim operated device? Was it a mechanical fir-
ing device or an electrical or environmental device? There are almost infinite permutations that are
covered in the IED Component Assessment and IED Fuzing Systems Overview charts.
In the third edition of Practical Bomb Scene Investigation, Tom Thurman skillfully blends his
more than 30 years of military and FBI experience in explosive cases with a rigorous analytical
approach to guide the investigator through the maze that is a postblast scene. The third edition is
equally essential to the prosecutor who frequently has to learn the basics of IEDs while providing
direction and guidance to the criminal (or field) investigation. We owe Tom Thurman our profound
thanks and appreciation not only for his long career in law enforcement but also for sharing his
experiences and insights in the third edition of Practical Bomb Scene Investigation.

Brian M. Murtagh
Federal Prosecutor
Acknowledgments
As I stated in the previous editions, words alone cannot adequately express my sincere grati-
tude to my colleagues for the invaluable assistance they provided in the preparation of this book.
Actually, this assistance began many years ago during my preparation for a career as a bomb dis-
posal technician and, ultimately, as a hazardous-devices examiner and postblast investigator. John
Flynn, sergeant first class, and John Summers, master sergeant, now deceased, taught me how to
be an effective bomb technician. Thank you for your patience and for sharing your knowledge. I
express my thanks to Fred Smith, now deceased and a former unit chief of the Explosives Unit, FBI
Laboratory, for believing in me and helping me to make the move from the Army to the FBI, and
to Stuart Case, also of the Explosives Unit, in which he too worked as a unit chief, for bringing me
to the FBI Laboratory and providing me with the opportunities of a hundred ordinary lifetimes.
I sincerely hope you will accept this book as a partial payment for all you have taught me about
being a postblast investigator. One should only take for so long before giving something back to the
program from which one came. Also, I express my thanks to my colleagues and my friends in the
laboratory, Denny Kline and Chris Ronay, for guiding me through the intricate processes of IED
component examination and identification. May the wind be always at your back.
To Danny Defenbaugh, I express my sincere appreciation for taking me into the depths of bomb
craters and explaining the fine art and science of bomb scene investigation and reconstruction.
Wally Higgins, Tom Mohnal, Rick Hahn whom I sincerely appreciate for his addition and out-
standing recommendations for improvements in Chapter 4. Dave Williams, Paul Schrecker, and Al
Jordan, I want you to know that your support and friendship are valued. Also, I express my sincere
regard to Greg Carl (now the director of TEDAC—The Terrorist Explosive Devices Analytical
Center) and Mike Fanning for putting up with me in the unit. I also owe so much to the following
true professionals:
To my coconspirators at Eastern Kentucky University, Bill Abney and Ron Hopkins, both now
retired; Bill Hicks; and Greg Gorbett.
Jeff Norwitz, a former professor at the Naval War College and retired Naval Investigative Service
special agent, for your encouragement and suggestions.
Paul Cooper, a retired explosives engineer at the Sandia National Laboratory and consultant, for
your review and contributions of the material contained in Chapters 1 and 4, especially regarding
the Oklahoma City bombing investigation and what data to collect at the scene in order to provide
an estimate of the quantity of explosives used in a bombing. As was your father, you are a great
engineer.
Brian M. Murtagh, a retired U.S. Department of Justice prosecutor, who so graciously consented
to write the foreword to this third edition from the perspective of the prosecutor. Thank you very
much!
Bob Hopler, a retired explosives technical manager for the Hercules Powder Company
(Wilmington, Delaware), Ireco, and Dyno Nobel, and the foremost authority on the history of the
U.S. explosives manufacturing industry, who provided the technical accuracy regarding the iden-
tification of explosives and their historical development. Yes, I did appreciate all your corrections
and additions.
I also express my sincere appreciation to Christopher Rigopoulos (Rigo), an FBI supervisory
special agent bomb technician of the Explosives Unit, and Bob Heckman, a retired FBI supervisory
special agent bomb technician, for providing me with the information contained in Chapter 8. Rigo,
I am especially grateful for the time you spent with me going over the minute details of tactical
responses to postblast scenes and sharing your experiences. As a result of your experiences and the
information gained from them, I know that untold numbers of postblast investigators will not only
survive the tactical challenges but also excel in their efforts when investigating such scenes.

xix
xx Acknowledgments

To Colonel Bob Leiendecker, a retired U.S. Army explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) officer,
military historian, and technical intelligence specialist, I am indebted not only for his profoundly
professional review of the military ordnance chapter but also for opening his home and museum
to me and for providing the names of explosives contained in Appendix B. Bob, any success of
Chapter 6 in helping investigators avoid the hazards associated with unexploded military ordnance
can be directly attributed to your continuing support and recommendations.
In addition, there are many other individuals who have directly influenced the completion of this
book. I express my sincere appreciation to Matt Nelson, Jason Griest, and Stephanie Slivinski for
their outstanding diagrams and photographs prepared for Chapter 4; Colonel Jack Edwards, a retired
U.S. Army ordnance officer and EOD technician; John Capers, Austin Powder Company; Rana
Weaver, New Mexico Tech; Justin Addison of Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky,
for his much-needed assistance in the preparation of the two flowcharts; Dan Dougherty for his
assistance in the preparation of the explosives spreadsheet; Kirk Yeager of the FBI’s Explosives Unit
for his review and information concerning improvised explosives; Mark Whitworth, an FBI super-
visory special agent and the unit chief of the Explosives Unit, and Tom Mohnal, a retired supervisory
special agent, for sharing photographs used in three of the case studies; Michael Cardash, a retired
police officer and bomb technician with the Israeli National Police, for photographs and information
used in one of the case studies; Donnie Hansen and Russ Ahlgrim, both retirees from the San
Francisco Police Department Bomb Squad, for their suggestions and review of the two flowcharts;
and Sabrina Paris of Pearson Education, Inc., for her permission to use the adapted Figure 1.1
(Chapter 1) from Forensic Fire Scene Reconstruction by David Icove and John DeHaan (New York:
Pearson, 2004). In addition, I am thankful to Wally Higgins, a retired supervisor special agent bomb
technician, for his review of the IED assessment process in Chapter 3. His recommendations were
tremendous. With regard to the lion’s share of new photographs in this edition, a most profound
appreciation goes to Annie Fulks, an EKU graduate assistant and a most accomplished photogra-
pher whose expertise guided me through many days of detailed photography. As always, thank you
ever so much.
To my friend John Kelleher, the chief of the Arson and Explosives Branch, Victoria Police
Forensic Services Center, Melbourne, Australia, thank you very, very much for your review of the
new materials, spot-on recommendations, and photographs of explosive products, but most of all for
our conversations relating to postblast investigation processes.
I especially want to thank my publisher, Mark Listewnik, and Project Manager Jay Margolis at
Taylor & Francis Group, and Project Leader Sundaramoorthy Balasubramani, Lumina Datamatics
for his dedicated line by line review of my draft as well as a very special group of professionals for
seeing me through the writing of the third edition, as well as the original book. Last, but absolutely
not least, I extend my warmest gratitude to the series editor, Vernon Geberth, a retired lieutenant
commander, New York City Police Department, and a prolific author whom I highly respect.
If I have neglected anyone, please excuse my oversight, as it was not intentional.

Book Cover Photograph

The photograph appearing on the cover of the 3rd edition depicts the bombing aftermath at the
Murrah Federal Building, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on April 19, 1995 which resulted in the deaths
of 168 men, women and children.
About the Author
James T. Thurman (Tom) has worked in the explosives field for more than 40 years, first as a U.S.
Army bomb disposal technician and then as a special agent with the FBI. As a supervisory special
agent in the FBI Laboratory, he forensically examined the exploded remains of hundreds of IEDs
and traveled extensively throughout the United States and the world to collect evidence and conduct
bomb scene investigations. The cases investigated by him include the bombings of the U.S. embassy
in Lebanon in 1983 and 1984; the bombing of the Marine barracks, also in Lebanon in 1983; the
bombing of Pan American Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988; the bombing deaths of
Robert Vance, a federal judge, in Alabama and Robert Robinson, an attorney, in Georgia in 1989;
and the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York. Before his retirement from the FBI
in 1998, Thurman was the chief of the FBI Bomb Data Center, whose responsibilities included the
training of all public safety bomb disposal technicians in the United States.
Thurman has lectured and continues to lecture and provide training on the methods of bomb
scene investigation and explosives avoidance to domestic and international training schools and
audiences. He is a member of a number of professional organizations, including the International
Association of Bomb Technicians and Investigators (IABTI), the Certified International Post Blast
Investigator Certification Committee, and the International Society of Explosives Engineers (ISEE).
As a member of various national planning panels, he has participated in the preparation of the
two best practice guides published by the U.S. Department of Justice: Crime Scene Investigation:
A Guide for Law Enforcement and A Guide for Explosion and Bombing Scene Investigation.
Thurman has recently retired from full time duties at Eastern Kentucky University, but continues
to teach online courses providing a unique academic program on fire, arson, and explosion inves-
tigation. He holds a BA from Eastern Kentucky University and an MS in forensic science from the
George Washington University, Washington, DC.

xxi
Introduction
As played out on the international stage, the morning news remains the same day after day: a sui-
cide bombing here or a vehicle bombing there. Usually, this is accompanied by reports of loss of
lives and of bereaved loved ones left to fend for themselves. This is the age of the bomb, not nec-
essarily the nuclear bomb, but the IED, and transnational terrorists have already seized its utility.
However, in the United States, the use of an explosive device is not necessarily related to terrorist
acts; rather, it may be used to seek revenge or just for plain mischief. However, it does not matter to
those affected by IEDs whether an event is classified as a terrorist act or not. A bomb is a bomb, and
the motivation behind using it is secondary to the damage and destruction caused by it. As such, it
is the responsibility of the bomb technician and the postblast investigator along with the criminal
justice system (the prosecutor) to join forces in order to protect the public and to identify and remove
bomb fabricators from society.
As I was writing a similar introductory paragraph, now more than 10 years ago, little did I
know how true these words were going to be in the future (now the past) and continue even today.
Bombing campaigns intensified in Iraq and then began to subside, only to increase in intensity in
Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Russia, Sri Lanka, and now in the heart of Europe in England, Spain,
France, and Belgium.To mention only a few, these bombings followed suit with their own paths of
destruction and loss of innocent lives. In the United States also, the landscape has changed over
the years. We have gone from the “shoe bomber,” Richard Reid, and the “underwear bomber” to
others who have attempted large-scale vehicle explosions, all of whom appear to have been willing
converts to radicalism. Moreover, unrestrained brutality has spread to local “homegrown” terrorists
who kill our heroes who were attempting to make the world a little safer for all of us. One may ask,
what is going on? For that question, I have no answer.
With the preceding as a backdrop, it is ever more obvious to me that it is absolutely essential for
postblast investigators to be wholly prepared to meet the challenges associated with the seemingly
impossible task of locating evidence among the rubble following an explosion. Many mistakenly
believe that nothing survives an explosion and that little can be gained from a methodical time-
consuming scene investigation. However, research has shown that more than 90%, by weight, of the
components, less the explosives, actually survive the explosion. Understandably, these components
will not be in their original identifiable condition. This, then, becomes one of our duties: to educate
investigators to understand that valuable evidence does survive an explosion.
This book was written for the postblast investigator, evidence technician, laboratory examiner,
intelligence analyst, soldier on patrol, and public safety officer—either the police officer or fire-
fighter—on the street and yes, the prosecutor. In essence, its aim is to provide in one place the
methods utilized to locate and preserve evidence recovered from the postblast scene for eventual use
in a court of law. I have been inspired by the overwhelming response the first and second editions
got when they were released. From this response as well as recommendations from my students
and working postblast investigators from the federal, state, and municipal sectors, I have tried to
enhance this third edition with additions that will further assist all those whose responsibilities
incorporate a response to the postblast scene and the follow-on investigation. The many additions
include, but are not limited to, much expanded illustrations of both U.S.- and foreign-manufactured
explosive products. In addition, Chapter 3, Improvised Explosive Device Components: Pre- and
Postblast Identification,” has been significantly revised to include nearly 100 additional illustra-
tions of fragmented IED components in an effort to provide a more comprehensive database to
help in their identification. Moreover, and at the specific request of federal postblast investigators,
Chapter 3 now contains an extensive IED component assessment section, which, along with an
extensive flowchart, provides a “road map” for investigators to use to assist in their identification of
the various components of the IED as well as to determine the “type by function” and how these

xxiii
xxiv Introduction

components were used in the construction of the device. Chapter 3 also refers to a second flowchart,
“IED Fuzing Systems Overview,” which is provided as a visual reference regarding the different
types of IED fuzing systems. Finally, in order to make the reading more interesting and to empha-
size specific points, I have included numerous case studies of bombings and attempted bombings.
In addition, this book endeavors to provide easy-to-understand step-by-step procedures for man-
aging and processing a bomb scene by detailing the skills an investigator must have to find the evi-
dence and make sense of what is found at the scene. As such, this book is a road map of knowledge
on not only how to find and collect evidence but also on how to safely and effectively assess the
scene.
All crime scenes have stories to tell. Understanding the language of a bomb scene is the pur-
pose of this book. In addition, it sets forth the methods used to determine if other types of mass-
destruction materials (radiological, chemical, or biological materials) or military ordnance were
used at the scene.
Although the scene investigative procedures as detailed in this book can be utilized for small to
large bomb scenes, this book does not elaborate on the management procedures to be employed fol-
lowing a massive bombing such as that of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City,
on April 19, 1995. Also, this book does not contain information on the methods of assembling an
improvised device. A detailed description of the components is included, but not how to construct a
device or the improvisation of explosives used. Too much of this information is already available in
the world market through the Internet and various publications. I do not intend to add to this body
of fabrication data.
Bombs are the unique tools of a specific type of perpetrator, and investigation of bombings
requires exceptional knowledge. The reader is encouraged to study these pages and develop the
skills necessary to solve these heinous crimes.
 1 Explosion Theory
and Dynamics

1.1 INTRODUCTION
When responding to a call to the scene of an apparent explosion, the investigator is required to have a
working knowledge of a diverse set of disciplines. These include the ability to assess the incident to deter-
mine if, in fact, there has been an explosion and to identify the type of explosion; investigate the scene for
evidence; identify bomb components; and recognize and document the dynamics of the explosion. The
dynamics of the explosion involve what occurs when an explosive is initiated and the results of that initia-
tion. In other words, given a quantity of explosives and a suitable method of initiation or fuzing system,
when an explosion occur, what are the observable physical results? This explanation or knowledge assists
the investigator immeasurably in understanding what he or she sees at the site of an explosion.
Rock blasters know that in order to move a rock, a number of factors need to be considered: the
type of rock; drilling methods; type of explosive to be used; and desired end result of the blast-
ing, that is, whether it is for clearing the way for a new road, blasting the rock from a quarry, or
removing the rock from a building site. They start their work, planning for the expected result.
However, the bombing investigator begins with the result—fragmented debris and the devastation
at an explosion site—and must work in reverse to understand not only the event that caused the
scene but also how it occurred. An understanding of explosion theory and dynamics will assist the
investigator in forming a theory or hypothesis in the search for these answers. To be sure, even
with an understanding of explosion dynamics, there will be times when the effects of a bombing
are difficult to understand or defy an explanation. Similarly, the rock blaster may have years of
experience and have planned the shot to the minutest detail, but sometimes, the results are not what
had been expected. Sometimes, explosives do things that we do not expect.
This chapter provides a road map to help the investigator to understand, for example, why there
is massive window breakage, but no structural damage, blocks away from the site of an apparently
small explosive device contained within a vehicle on a city street. In addition, this chapter defines
and explains the terms that an investigator should know, including explosion, detonation, high and
low explosives, high order and low order, velocity of explosion (VOE), velocity of detonation (VOD),
and explosives. Also, this chapter provides a description of the four types of explosions and the
expected effects of these explosions. Finally, we will study various explosive trains or initiation sys-
tems and the special use of explosives in various configurations, such as the shaped charge explosive.
Additionally, this chapter starts the process of laying the foundation for all subsequent chapters
in preparing the investigator to effectively respond to the explosion scene. To lay this foundation, the
investigator is required to have a working knowledge of a number of terms associated with explo-
sives and the basic problem-solving or investigative model.

1.2 SCIENTIFIC METHOD

With regard to investigating a bombing crime scene—or for that matter, any—investigation, a
problem-solving model should be identified, understood, and utilized. This model can be applied
not only to investigations but also to social and behavioral sciences, business and management
principles, and a wide variety of other problem-solving situations. The “scientific method” is such
a model in that it provides a systematic approach to solving a problem. As defined in the Merriam-
Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, the scientific method is the principle for the systematic pursuit

1
2 Practical Bomb Scene Investigation

of knowledge, involving the recognition and formulation of a problem, collection of data through
observation and experimentation, and formulation and testing of hypotheses. This method or model,
although not necessarily recognized as such, has been utilized by the investigative community over
a very long period of time. In fact, the method is unwittingly utilized every day by every one of us,
from the time we wake up in the morning until we go to bed at night. Therefore, it is a simple and
straightforward approach to problem solving that can be used by anyone, regardless of whether the
user has a scientific background or not.
The scientific method has seven identifiable steps: (1) identify that a problem exists, (2) define the prob-
lem, (3) collect empirical data, (4) analyze the data through inductive reasoning, (5) develop a hypothesis,
(6) test that hypothesis through deductive reasoning, and (7) examine the conclusions and determine the
course of action or the cause of the incident. By way of illustration, an example of the practical applica-
tion of the scientific method (Figure 1.1) in a case involving a reported explosion is given here.

The Scientific Method

Step 1—Recognize the need

Respond to explosion, protect the scene, and access resources

Step 2—Define the problem

Devise a tentative investigative plan

Step 3—Collect data

Describe, observe, and document
Photograph, diagram, and collect evidence

Step 4—Analyze the data

Test predictions with established knowledge
Recommend changes in working hypothesis

Step 5—Develop a working hypothesis

Develop a tentative working hypothesis from data analysis

Step 6—Test the working hypothesis

Compare hypothesis to all known facts and test data

Step 7—Select the final hypothesis

Determine cause of the explosion

FIGURE 1.1 A flowchart outlining the scientific method as it applies to bomb scene investigation. (Adapted
from NFPA-921 Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations, Copyright 2004, National Fire Protection
Association, Quincy, MA. With permission. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position
of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.)
Explosion Theory and Dynamics 3

Before any investigation can begin, there must be an incident or a report of an explosion. The first
responder or investigator does not know if the report is correct or not; so, he or she will go to the
reported scene to determine whether there is a problem. In some instances, this may not be as easy
as one would believe. However, in this example, it is evident that there has been an explosion, and
the steps to be followed by the investigator are as follows:

1. The problem needs to be defined; that is, what type of explosion was it—the explosion of
an explosive or a fuel–air explosion (FAE), such as a natural gas explosion?
2. Empirical data (based on an the investigator’s observation and experience) need to be col-
lected from the scene by examining or looking at the scene and conducting interviews.
These data would include the physical characteristics present at the scene as a result of the
explosion.
3. The information collected is then analyzed by inductive reasoning or in the light of the
investigator’s knowledge, training, and experience.
4. After the information is analyzed, it is possible to formulate a theory or a hypothesis
to explain what happened. This hypothesis cannot be based on speculation, hunches,
or perceived facts but only on the empirical data collected and analyzed by the
investigator.
5. In this case, the characteristics observed at the scene are indicative but not conclusive,
at this point, of an explosion from a mixture of air and natural gas, that is, an FAE. The
investigator now tests the hypothesis that it was an FAE by considering all the other
logical causes of the explosion. This deductive reasoning can be performed by the use
of cognitive skills or by experimentation, such as actual testing. Essentially, the inves-
tigator looks at all the information collected and compares it with the hypothesis. Do
the collected facts meet the criteria of an FAE rather than those of the detonation of an
explosive?
6. If the answer to the question posed in the previous list item is yes, then the conclusion is
reached that the explosion was, in fact, an FAE. If the hypothesis cannot be supported
by testing or deductive reasoning, then a new hypothesis must be formulated. This new
hypothesis could be based on a reanalysis of existing data or collection of new or additional
data and an analysis of those data. The process is repeated until a conclusion is reached
that can withstand testing and examination.

1.3 EXPLOSIVES
An explosive is any chemical compound or mixture (energetic material) whose purpose is to func-
tion by explosion. Explosives react chemically to produce heat, light, and gas; they are usually solid
or liquid substances that are in a metastable state and are capable of undergoing a rapid chemical
reaction without the addition of external materials such as atmospheric oxygen. The reaction can
be initiated by mechanical means, heat, or shock from a detonation. A chemical compound is a
substance in which two or more elements are chemically combined or bonded to form a new sub-
stance, for example, nitroglycerin. The identities of the original substances are lost in this chemical
bonding. A mixture is the combination of two or more materials to produce a new substance, but
the original components do not lose their identities; for example, black powder, whose components
form a mixture rather than chemical bonds.
In order for a material to be classified as an explosive, it should meet specific criteria, which
include the presence of an oxidizer and a fuel in its chemical composition. In other words, the
explosive must have a fuel to burn and an oxidizer to support the combustion. Some explosives have
additional components such as a sensitizer, for example, nitroglycerin in dynamite, but the explosive
ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) has only the fuel (fuel oil) and an oxidizer (ammonium
nitrate) as ingredients. Fuel is fuel, but why does an explosive require an internal source of oxygen?
4 Practical Bomb Scene Investigation

Why cannot the explosion, a rapid or instantaneous combustion, draw oxygen from the atmosphere
or the surrounding area to support the combustion of the fuel? The reaction in an explosion is so
rapid that it is impossible for the ambient air to flow into the combustion fast enough to support its
burning. In addition, explosives are often required to function in areas of reduced air pressure or
in a vacuum.
The ratio of oxidizer to fuel in an explosive is referred to as its oxygen balance. As one would
imagine, the optimum formulation would have equal proportions of oxygen and fuel. However, this is
not the case in most explosives, both those produced primarily for commercial applications and those
produced for military use. Commercial explosives should basically have a 50:50 mixture because of
the need to minimize the production of toxic gases such as carbon monoxide. Usually, commercial
explosives have slightly more oxygen (i.e., they are rich in oxygen) than fuels for this reason. It is
for this reason that the explosion of most commercial explosives produces smoke that is described
as white in color. As most military application explosives (e.g., C-4) have a higher percentage of fuel
(i.e., they are rich in fuel), usually carbon, they produce smoke that appears black.

1.4 TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES

There are two types of explosives: (1) low explosives and (2) high explosives. Low or deflagrating
explosives are primarily used in commercial applications as propellants (black and smokeless pow-
ders); in initiating systems (safety fuse); and in pyrotechnics, flares, flashes, and signals that utilize
low-energy flash powders. For criminals, low explosives have been the explosive of choice for load-
ing into pipe bombs. High explosives are primarily used to shatter other materials. The commercial
applications of high explosives include rock blasting, demolition of buildings, and use in military
munitions. Bombers in the United States occasionally use high explosives in their devices. When
used as the main charge, such devices usually produce more devastating results, with an increased
loss of life. Internationally, high explosives are the explosives of choice for use in improvised explo-
sive devices (IEDs).
Types of Explosives

• Low explosives (propellants)

• High explosives

Low explosives are usually solid mixtures of chemicals, which normally, under no condition, can
support a detonation wave. This type of explosive can burn in the absence of air or in confinement;
but when confined, they can burn to deflagration. What does this mean? In the absence of air
they can burn to deflagration. Low explosives neither require atmospheric air to burn in a steady
state (i.e., they do not require additional initiation) nor do they need confinement. However, when
low explosives are confined, they explode or, to use another term, deflagrate. Deflagration is rapid
burning, faster than open-air burning of the material but slower than the detonation or explosion of
high explosives. It can also be defined as energetic materials, usually low explosives, decomposing
at a rate less than the speed of sound in that product. It is a surface phenomenon, with the reaction
products flowing away from the unreacted material along the surface at a subsonic velocity (slower
than the speed of sound in that material and not to be confused with the speed of sound in air).
Therefore, confinement is normally a requirement for a low explosive to explode or deflagrate. To
put it another way, true deflagration under confinement is an explosion. In confinement, the reaction
increases the pressure, rate of the reaction (reaction speed), and temperature. Examples of com-
mercially manufactured low explosives include black powder, smokeless powder, and Pyrodex. In
addition, hundreds of improvised formulations that are used for the clandestine preparation of low
explosives have been identified.
The VOE is the rate at which the combustion travels through a confined quantity of low explo-
sives, or the speed of reaction. It may also be described as the rate of deflagration in a low explosive.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Paperit pisti Aatami palttoonsa lakkariin, — ne antaa hän
lapsilleen sokerin sijasta, lapset pitävät sellaisista, — rahat taasen,
kaksikymmentä kolme markkaa ynnä laukun hän visusti kätki
poveensa.

Kotona lapset odottivat, kuten hän aavisti, nenät akkunassa hänen

tuloaan. Jos ne eivät nyt tyydy koreisiin papereihin, tuumi Aatami,
niin selkään minä niille annan. Mutta sittekin häntä harmitti, että oli
unohtanut rintasokerin.

— Itä, itä, tokeria… pikku Iida kävi jo kynnyksellä isänsä kimppuun

ja isommat säestivät minkä ennättivät.

Mutta isä ei ollut leikkituulella ja lapset alkoivat aavistaa, ettei hän

sokeria tuonutkaan. Heidän silmänsä kävivät vetisiksi, huulet
venyivät ja pieni Iida alkoi ankarasti itkeä.

— Opettaisit nuo lapset ihmisiksi, neuvoi Aatami vaimoansa,

etteivät ne aina suuna päänä joka paikassa!… Jos ette ole hiljaa,
niin ette saa mitään! Isä osti kauppiaalta koreita kuvia, mutta jos
itkette, niin ette saa.

Sen jälkeen isä veti lasten suureksi riemuksi palttoonsa taskusta

niin, niin kauniita kuvia ja jakeli ne kullekin tasan.

Lapset eivät olleet turmeltuneita kuvien suhteen, sillä harvoin

heille sellaisia osui. He levittelivät ihastuneina papereitaan. Se vain
harmitti, että ne olivat kaikki aivan toistensa näkösiä.

— Oikeinko sinä olet ne ostanut? kysyi äiti pilkuttaen isälle silmää.

Isän pitäisi lasten takia uudelleen vakuuttaa ostaneensa, että lahja

tuntuisi arvokkaammalta.
 Mutta Aatami, jota rintasokerin unohtaminen yhä harmitti, ei
pilkuttanut silmää vastaukseksi, vaan virkkoi vakavasti:

— Ostin minä ne kun ostinkin.

Tavallisesti hän ei koskaan valehdellut, mutta milloin hän sen teki,

ei hän liioin häikäillyt. Miehen pitää tehdä kaikki, mitä tekee,
täydellisesti ja reilusti, oli Aatamin mielipide. Siksipä hän varmuuden
vuoksi vielä vahvisti:

— Ostin minä ne, kun ostinkin ja viisikolmatta penniä ne

maksoivatkin.

— Viisikolmatta penniä, ihmetteli vaimo. — Viisikolmatta penniä!

Sillä rahallahan sinä olisit saanut rintasokeria koko vuodeksi.

Se oli kipeä muistutus. Vaimo aivan säikähti, niin punaseksi

Aatami lensi.

— Rintasokerillako sinä sikiöitäsi elätät, karjasi Aatami vihdoin. —

Rintasokeria, rintasokeria! Opettaa lapsensa persoiksi kuin sudet…
mutta minä sanon, että se pitää loppua ja paikalla, kun minä sanon!

— Itsehän sinä sitä tavallisesti olet lapsille tuonut, harvoinhan

minä, rohkeni vaimo huomauttaa.

— Ole vaiti ja tule kamariin. Minulla on tärkeitä asioita sinun

kanssasi keskusteltavana, vastasi Aatami.

Kamariin tultua hän veti povestaan laukun, näytti sen sisältöä

vaimolleen ja kertoi löydöstään.
 — Voi, voi sitä raukkaa, joka tuollaisen summan on kadottanut,
surkutteli Maijaliisa.

— Mitä meidän on tämän kanssa tehtävä, kysyi Aatami. —

Pidetäänkö se itse vai annetaanko kuuluuttaa?

— Kuinka me toisten ihmisten rahoja pidettäisiin? Mutta jos

sentään annetaan hukuttajan kuuluuttaa.

— Niin onkin, myönsi mies ihastuneena vaimonsa terveisiin

oikeuskäsitteisiin. — Tässä tapauksessa on hukuttajan velvollisuus
ensin kuuluuttaa ja vasta sitten, jos hän sen laiminlyö, löytäjän.

— Luonnollisesti, sillä hukuttajahan tässä on pääsyyllinen!

— Ei löytäjää voida lainkaan laskea syylliseksi, selitti Aatami, sillä

eihän löytäjä sille mitään voi, jos raha hänen eteensä tielle ilmestyy.
Ei hän ole velvotettu jättämään sitä siihen varkaiden ja ryöväreiden
saaliiksi. — Mutta sitten tulee toinen kysymys siitä, miten voimme
kuuluutuksia seurata, sillä kirkkoon on pitkä matka. Kuka meiltä
sinne joka pyhä lähtee?

— Kyllä minä lähden, vastasi Maijaliisa, sittehän tulee kerrankin

kuultua jumalansanaa talvenkin varaksi.

Seuraavana sunnuntaina odotti Aatami hartaasti vaimoaan

kirkosta palaavaksi. Kun vaimo vihdoin palasi, ei Aatami malttanut
häntä huoneessa odottaa, vaan meni lasten kanssa vastaan.

— Kuuluutettiinko? huusi hän jo kaukaa vaimolleen.

— Kuuluutettiin, kuuluutettiin, oli Maijaliisan vastaus.

 — Kuka hukutti?

— Annahan olla, kyllähän kerron, kun lähemmäksi pääsen.

Sitte vaimo kertoi:

— Kyllähän siellä kuuluutettiin, vaan ei sinun löytöäsi. Joku on

kadottanut laukun, jossa oli kymmenentuhatta puhdasta rahaa ja
rehelliselle löytäjälle luvataan kahdensadan markan palkinto, jos
ilmottaa löytönsä pitäjän nimismiehelle.

— Saakeli, virkkoi Aatami korvallistaan raapien. Se teki onnen

retken, joka sen löysi. Hitto vie, olisinpa minä sattunut löytämään!

— Kunpa olisi rehellinen ihminen sattunut löytämään, tuumi vaimo.

— Niinpä niin, mutta jos roisto löysi, niin omanaan piti ja rikkaaksi
jäi, vaikk'eihän se heti uskalla ruveta niitä käyttämään… Jos oli
viisas niin matkusti toiseen valtakuntaan ja elää siellä herrana
rahoillaan.

— Hirveää luulisi sentään olevan sellaisia rahoja pitää, joita ei ole

itse ansainnut, arveli vaimo.

— Heh, niin se on, myönsi Aatami, eikä sitä moni poika kykene
tekemäänkään; mutta maailmassa on ihmistä monenlaista ja jos
huonoin laji kohdalle osui, niin kyllä meni rahat sen siloisen tien.

Pitkäksi aikaa kesti puolisoille keskustelua suuren rahasumman

katoamisesta ja monena sunnuntaina kulki vaimo kirkolla
kuulemassa, tulisiko ilmotusta Aatamin löytämistä rahoista. Vihdoin,
kun kadottaja ei ilmottanut, lähti Aatami itse tekemään kuulutusta
kahden kymmenen kolmen markan löydöstä. Pappi kiitti Aatamin
rehellisyyttä ja jutteli samalla sen suuren summan katoamisesta. Se
oli mennyt kaiken maailmantietä, löytäjää ei ollut ilmaantunut.

— Olipa se rohkea mies, joka uskalsi omanaan pitää sellaisen

summan, ihmetteli Aatami.

*****

Lapset aikansa ihailtuaan koreita papereitaan liisteröivät ne

vihdoin tallin seinään, missä heidän leikkipaikkansa oli. Mutta pikku-
Iida, joka usein tahtoi katsella omiaan, teki ruisjauhoista pöperöä ja
kiinnitti omansa pirtin seinään.

Aika kului tavalliseen tapaansa hiljaa ja rauhallisesti. Kauniit

paperit unohtuivat seinille mustumaan ja olisivat siihen jääneetkin,
ellei niiden määrä olisi ollut jälleen joutua maailmalle.

Aatamin vaimo nimittäin sairastui ja halusi puhutella pappia

mahdollisesti sattuvan kuolemantapauksen varalta. Pappi oli siitä
saakka, kun Aatami kävi tekemässä ilmotusta rahalöydöstään,
pitänyt Aatamia rehti miehenä ja sen vuoksi hän mielellään lähti
sairaan luo. Lohdutettuaan sairasta jumalansanalla ja virvotettuaan
häntä sakramenteilla, istahti pastori penkille ja alkoi katsella ulos
akkunasta. Hänen silmänsä sattuivat silloin paperiin, joka akkunan
luo seinään oli kiinnitetty. Hän katsoi lähemmin koreata paperia…
silmäili vielä tarkemmin… sitte aivan likeltä.

— Mikä paperi se tuo on, kysyi hän välinpitämättömästi.

— Aatamihan se niitä tässä viime kesänä osti lapsille

viidenkolmatta pennin edestä, vastasi vaimo.

— Kuka niitä möi? kysyi pappi Aatamilta.

 Aatami naurahti häpeissään ja sanoi:

— Pois se, että minä yhden asian takia kahdesti valehtelisin. Se

nyt on sillä tavalla, että nuo kuvat olivat samassa laukussa, jossa ne
kaksikymmentä kolme markkaakin, jotka löysin ja jotka minä sain
itse pitää, kun omistajaa ei ilmaantunut. Annoin nuo kuvat lapsilleni
tuomisiksi.

— Onko näitä enemmän kuin tämä yksi, kysyi pappi varoen,

aivankuin olisi pelännyt niiden hukkuvan äkillisestä puheesta.

— Onhan niitä lapset tahrineet tuonne tallin seiniin.

Pappi halusi nähdä niitä ja Aatamin kanssa hän lähti talliin. Siellä
oli kulmistaan seiniin kiinnitettyinä samallaisia papereita kuin se,
mikä tuvasta oli löytynyt.

Pastori alkoi varovaisesti irrottaa niitä seinästä.

Kun hän vihdoin oli pirtin seinästäkin saanut irti sen, jonka hän
ensin oli nähnyt ja pari muuta sen lisäksi, laski hän niiden luvun.
Niitä oli kaikestaan kaksikymmentä. Hän otti yhden niistä, asetti sen
Aatamin nenän eteen ja sanoi:

— Lukekaapa leikillänne, mitä tuohon on painettu?

Aatami, jonka heikoimpia puolia oli juuri lukeminen, tunsi tuskan

päivän tulleeksi. Ponnistaen itseään maineensa takia
äärimmäisyyksiin asti sai hän hiki otsassa vihdoin selväksi:

— Suo-men pankki maksaa tästä se-te-lis-tä viisisataa Suomen

markkaa.
 — No, kysyi pappi, tiedättekö, mikä lappu se on?

Aatami tarkasteli ja luki seteliä ja luki uudestaan.

— Suomen pankki maksaa tästä setelistä viisisataa Suomen

markkaa.

— Ettekö vieläkään tiedä?

— Eihän tämä vaan liene rahaa, tuumi Aatami.

— Rahaa se on. Se on viidensadan markan seteli.

— Entä ne toiset.

— Samallaisia jok'ikinen.

— Vai on tämä niin paljon rahaa, ihmetteli Aatami. Jos sen olisin
tiennyt, niin olisinhan niitä paremmin varjellut… On aina, rahaa se
on, ei siitä mihinkään pääse… Jos tuon olisin tiennyt, mutta enhän
minä osannut niitä lähemmin tarkastaa. Kyllä minä heti viiden ja
kymmenen markan setelin tunsin ja olisinpa kai tuntenut sadankin
markan, jos joukossa olisi ollut. Onhan minulla kerran itsellänikin
ollut sata markkaa.

— Milloin? kysyi vaimo, joka pelkäsi Aatamin jälleen rupeavan

valehtelemaan.

— Olipahan kerran nuorena miehenä, vastasi Aatami. — Mutta

katsopa sinäkin, Maijaliisa, minkä näkönen viisisatanen on, tuskin
sinä sellaista olet ennen nähnyt.

Vuorotellen Aatami ja Maijaliisa katselivat rahaa, joka vuosikauden

oli ollut tallin seinällä. Vihdoin antoi Aatami sen takaisin pastorille ja
sanoi tyynesti:

— Jos minä olisin tietänyt tuollaisen hirveän rahasumman olevan

seinieni sisällä, en olisi saanut yön enkä päivän rauhaa.

— Teille tulee kaksisataa markkaa löytöpaikkaa, niinkuin näiden

rahojen omistaja on luvannut, ilmotti pappi.

Aatami tuumi hetkisen ja sanoi sitte vaimolleen:

— Mitä ajattelet siitä, Maijaliisa? — Jos paranet ja jos Jumala

elonpäiviä suo, niin kyllähän raha hyvää on, vai kuinka? Ja
tarvitsevathan lapset, jos niinkuin mekin kuoltaisiin.

— Kyllähän raha on hyvää, myönsi Maijaliisa, eikä minulla mitään

ole itseään rahaa vastaan, vaan kun niitä on tullut niin huonosti
säilytettyä, niin…

— Oikein sanottu, keskeytti Aatami. — Näistä rahoista ei minun

sovi ottaa löytöpalkkaa, koska minä en niitä rahoina korjannutkaan.
— Mutta, — hän pappiin kääntyen lisäsi, — ne kaksikymmentä
kolme markkaa minä pidän, joiden omistajaa ei kuulunut.

Kolisevan Aatami ei lähtenyt nimismieheltä löytöpalkkiotansa

hakemaan.
Myöhemmin se kuitenkin hänelle annettiin.
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