ANALOG CIRCUITS

LECTURE NOTES
(R22A0401)

B.TECH
(II YEAR B.Tech – I SEM)
(2024-25)

Prepared by:
Dr. R. CHINNA RAO, Associate Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

DEPARTMENTOFELECTRONICS&COMMUNICATIONENGINEERING
MALLAREDDYCOLLEGEOFENGINEERING&TECHNOLOGY
AutonomousInstitution–UGC,Govt.ofIndia
(AffiliatedtoJNTU,Hyderabad,ApprovedbyAICTE-AccreditedbyNBA&NAAC–‘A’Grade-ISO9001:2008Certified)
Maisammaguda,Dhulapally(PostViaHakimpet),Secunderabad–500100
 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
II Year B.Tech. ECE- I Sem L/T/P/C
3/-/-/3
(R22A0401) ANALOG CIRCUITS

Course Objectives:
1. Learn the concepts of, load line analysis and biasing techniques
2. Learn the concepts of high frequency analysis of transistors.
3. To give understanding of various types of amplifier circuits
4. Learn the concepts of small signal analysis of BJT and FET amplifiers and biasing techniques
5. To familiarize the Concept of feedback in amplifiers so as to differentiate between negative and positive feedback. To design
an oscillators at different frequencies.
UNIT – I
BJT Biasing: Transistor Biasing and Stabilization - Operating point, Need for biasing, DC Load line, Biasing - Fixed Bias, Self
Bias, Bias Stability, Bias Compensation using Diode. Analysis of Small Signal Low Frequency BJT Amplifiers: Transistor Hybrid
model, Analysis of single stage transistor amplifier using h-parameters: voltage gain, current gain, Input Impedance and Output
impedance. Comparison of transistor configurations in terms of Ai, Ri ,
Av ,and Ro.
UNIT –II
BJT Amplifiers‐Frequency Response: Frequency response of an amplifier, Analysis at low and High Frequencies, Hybrid‐pi (π)
common emitter transistor model, Derive the hybrid‐ π model parameters, Millers theorem and it’s dual. Multistage Amplifiers:
Distortion in amplifiers, Analysis of cascaded BJT amplifier, Darlington pair and derive their input impedance(Ri) and current gain(
Ai), coupling schemes‐RC coupled amplifier, Transformer coupled amplifier, and Direct coupled Amplifier.
UNIT – III
FET-Biasing and FET Amplifiers: FET biasing: fixed bias and self bias. FET Amplifiers :Analysis of Common source (C.S),
Common Drain (C.D) JFET Amplifiers, comparison of performance with BJT Amplifiers, Basic Concepts of MOSFET Amplifiers.
UNIT –IV
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS: Concept of Feedback and types, Effects of negative feed back on amplifiers characteristics, voltage series,
current series, current shunt, and voltage shunt feedback amplifiers.
UNIT –V
OSCILLATORS: Classification of oscillators, Barkhausen criterion, RC phase Shift
oscillator, Wien‐bridge oscillator, LC oscillators‐ Hartley and Colpitts oscillator.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Jacob Millman, Christos C Halkias -Integrated Electronics, McGraw Hill Education.
2. Robert L. Boylestead, Louis Nashelsky -Electronic Devices and
Circuits theory,11th Edition,2009, Pearson
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. David A. Bell – Electronic Devices and Circuits, 5th Edition, Oxford.2. Adel S. Sedra, Kenneth C. Smith- Microelectronic Circuits-
Theory and Applications,Oxford.
3. Chinmoy Saha, Arindam Halder, Debaati Ganguly -Basic Electronics-Principles and Applications,
Course Outcomes:
Upon completing this course, the students will be able to
1. Design the amplifiers with various biasing techniques.
2. Design single stage amplifiers using BJT and FET amplifier
3. Design multistage amplifiers and understand the concepts of High Frequency
Analysis of BJT.
4. Utilize the Concepts of negative feedback to improve the stability of Amplifiers and
Positive feedback to sustained oscillations and Analysis of oscillators at different frequencies
 UNIT-1
TRANSISTOR BIASING AND STABILIZATION

NEED FOR TRANSISTOR BIASING

If the o/p signal must be a faithful reproduction of the i/p signal, the transistor must be
operated in active region. That means an operating point has to be established in this region . To
establish an operating point (proper values of collector current Icand collector to emitter voltage
VCE) appropriate supply voltages and resistances must be suitably chosen in the ckt. This process
of selecting proper supply voltages and resistance for obtaining desired operating point or Q
point is called as biasing and the ckt used for transistor biasing is called as biasing ckt.

Therearefourconditionstobemetbyatransistorsothatitactsasafaithfulampr:

1) Emitter base junction must be forward biased (VBE=0.7Vfor Si, 0.2V for Ge) and collector
base junction must be reverse biased for all levels of i/psignal.
2) Vcevoltage should not fall below VCE(sat)(0.3V for Si, 0.1V for Ge) for any part of the i/p
signal. For VCEless than VCE(sat)the collector base junction is not probably reverse biased.
3) The value of the signalIc when no signal is applied should beat least equal to the
max.collector current t due to signal alone.
4) Max.rating of the transistorIc(max),VCE(max) andPD(max) should not be exceed data any value
ofi/p signal.

Consider the fig shown in fig 2.12. If operating point is selected at A,A representation
condition when no bias is applied to the transistor i.e, Ic=0, VCE =0. It does not satisfy the above
said conditions necessary for faithful amplification.

Point C is too close to PD(max) curve of the transistor. Therefore the o/p voltage swing in the
positive direction is limited.

Point B is located in the middle of active region .It will allow both positive and negative half
cycles inthe o/psignal. It also provides linear gain and larger possible o/p voltages and currents

Henceoperatingpointforatransistoramplifierisselectedtobeinthemiddleofactiveregion.
 IC(max)

PD(max)

Vce(sat)

Fig2.12CEOutputCharacteristics

DCLOADLINE
Referring to the biasing circuit of fig 2.13 a, the values of VCCand RCare fixed and Ic and VCEare
dependent on RB.

ApplyingKirchhoff’svoltagelawtothecollectorcircuitinfig.2.13,weget

Fig2.13(a)CEAmplifie rCircuit (b)Load line

 The straight line represented by ABinfig2.13b is called the dc load line. The coordinates of the end
point A are obtained by substituting VCE=0 in the above equation. Then . Therefore The
coordinates of A areVCE =0 and .

The coordinates of B are obtained by substituting Ic=0 in the above equation. Then Vce = Vcc.
Therefore the coordinates of B are VCE=Vcc and Ic=0. Thus the dc load line AB can be drawn if the
values of Rc and Vcc are known.

As shown in the fig2.13b, the optimum POINT IS LOCATED AT THE MID POINT OF THE MIDWAY
BETWEEN a AND b. In order to get faithful amplification, the Q point must be well within the active
region of the transistor.

Even though the Q point is fixed properly, it is very important to ensure that the operating point
remains stable where it is originally fixed. If the Q point shifts nearer to either A or B, the output
voltage and current get clipped, thereby o/p signal is distorted.

In practice, the Q-point tends to shift its position due to any or all of the following three main
factors.

1) Reversesaturationcurrent,Ico,whichdoublesforevery10oCraiseintemperature
2) Base emitter Voltage, VBE, which decreases by 2.5mVperoC
3) Transistor current gain, hFE orβ which in creases with temperature.
If base current IB is kept constant since IB is approximately equal to Vcc/RB. If the transistor is
replaced by another one of the same type, one cannot ensurethat the new transistor will have identical
parameters as that o fthe first one. Parameters such as β vary over a range. This results in the variation
of collector current Ic for a given IB. Hence , in the o/p characteristics, the spacing between the curves
might increase or decrease which leads to the shifting of the Q-point to a location which might be
completely unsatisfactory.

ACLOADLINE

Afterdrawing the dc load line,the operating point Q is properly located at the centerofthe dc
load line. This operating point is chosen under zero input signal condition of the circuit. Hence the ac
load line should also pas through the operating point Q. The effective ac load resistance R ac, is a
combination ofRC paralleltoRLi.e. || . So the slope of the ac load line CQD will be .
Todraw the ac load line,two end points,I.e. VCE(max)and IC(max)when the signal is applied are required.

,which locates point D on the Vce axis.

,which locates the point Con the ICaxis.

By joining point sc andD,aclo adlineCD is constructed. As RC>Rac,The dc loadl ineis less steepthan ac
load line.

STABILITYFACTOR(S):

The rise of temperature results in increase in the value of transistor gain β and the leakage
current Ico. So, IC also increases which results in a shift in operating point. Therefore, The biasing
network should be provided with thermal stability. Maintenance of the operating point is specified by
S,which indicates the degree of change in operating point due to change intemperature.

TheextenttowhichICisstabilizedwithvaryingICismeasuredbyastabilityfactorS

For CEconfiguration

Differentiatetheaboveequationw.r.tIC,Weget

Sshouldbesmallto havebetterthermalstability.

StabilityfactorS’andS’’:

S’isdefinedastherateofchangeofICwith VBE,keepingICandVBEconstant.

S’’isdefinedastherateofchangeofICwithβ,keepingICOandVBEconstant.
 METHODS OF TRANSISTOR BIASING

1) Fixed bias(base bias)

Fig2.14FixedBiasing Circuit

Thisform ofbiasingisalsocalledbasebias.Inthe fig4.3shown,thesinglepowersource (forexample, battery)

is usedfor both collectorand base of atransistor,although separate batteries can also be used.

Inthegivencircuit, Vcc

= IBRB + Vbe

Therefore,IB=(Vcc- Vbe)/RB

Sincetheequationis independentofcurrentICR,dIB//dICR=0andthestability factor

is given by the equation….. reduces to

S=1+β

Sinceβisalargequantity,thisisverypoorbiasingcircuit.Thereforeinpractice
thecircuitisnotusedfo biasing.

Foragiventransistor,Vbedoesnotvarysignificantlyduringuse.AsVccisoffixedvalue,
onselectionofRthe basecurrentIB isfixed.Thereforethistypeiscalled fixedbiastypeofcircuit. Also for

given circuit, Vcc= ICRC+ Vce

 Therefore,Vce=Vcc-ICRC

Merits:

• Itissimpletoshiftthe operatingpoint anywhere intheactiveregion bymerelychanging the

base resistor(RB).
• Averysmallnumberofcomponents arerequired.

Demerits:

• Thecollectorcurrent does notremainconstantwithvariation intemperatureorpower

supply voltage. Therefore the operating point isunstable.
• ChangesinVbe willchangeIBandthuscauseREto change.This inturnwillalterthe gain
ofthestage.
• Whenthetransistoris replacedwithanotherone,considerablechangeinthevalueofβ can
be expected. Due to this change the operating point willshift.

2) EMITTER-FEEDBACKBIAS:

The emitter feedback bias circuit is shown in the fig 2.15. The fixed bias circuit is modified by
attaching an external resistor to the emitter. This resistor introduces negative feedback that stabilizes
the Q-point. From Kirchhoff's voltage law,the voltage across the base resistor is

VRb=VCC-IeRe-Vbe.

Fig2.15SelfBiasing Circuit

FromOhm'slaw,thebasecurrentis
 Ib=VRb/Rb.

The way feedback controls the bias point is as follows. If Vbe is held constant and temperature
increases, emitter current increases. However, a larger Ie increases the emitter voltage Ve = IeRe, which
in turn reducesthe voltageVRb acrossthe baseresistor.A lower base-resistorvoltagedrop reducesthe
base current, which results in less collector current because I c = ß IB. Collector current and emitter
current are related by Ic = α Ie with α ≈ 1, so increase in emitter current with temperature is opposed,
and operating point is kept stable.

Similarly, ifthetransistoris replacedbyanother,theremay bea changeinIC (correspondingto

change in β-value, for example). By similar process as above, the change is negated and operating
point kept stable.

Forthegivencircuit,

IB=(VCC-Vbe)/(RB+(β+1)RE).

Merits:

Thecircuithasthetendencytostabilizeoperatingpointagainstchangesintemperatureandβ-
value.

Demerits:

• Inthiscircuit,tokeepICindependentofβthefollowingconditionmustbemet:

whichisapproximatelythecaseif(β +1)RE>>RB.

• Asβ-valueisfixedforagiventransistor,thisrelationcanbesatisfiedeitherbykeepingREvery
large, or making RBverylow.

• IfRE isoflargevalue,highVCC isnecessary.Thisincreasescostaswellasprecautions

necessary whilehandling.
• IfRBis low,aseparatelowvoltagesupplyshouldbeusedinthe basecircuit.Usingtwo
supplies of different voltages isimpractical.

• Inadditiontotheabove,REcausesacfeedbackwhichreducesthevoltagegainof
theamplifier.
3) COLLECTORTOBASEBIASORCOLLECTORFEED-BACKBIAS:

Fig2.16CollectortoBaseBiasingCircuit

This configuration shown in fig2.16 employs negative feedback to prevent thermal runaway and
stabilize the operating point. In this form of biasing, the base resistor RBis connected to the collector
instead of connecting it to the DC source Vcc. So any thermal runaway will induce a voltage drop across
the RCresistor that will throttle the transistor's base current.

FromKirchhoff'svoltagelaw,thevoltage acrossthebaseresistorRbis

BytheEbers–Mollmodel, Ic=βIb,andso

FromOhm'slaw,thebasecurrent ,andso

Hence,thebasecurrentIbis

IfVbeisheldconstantandtemperatureincreases,thenthecollectorcurrentIcincreases.
However,alargerIccausesthevoltagedropacrossresistorRctoincrease,whichinturnreducesthe
voltage acrossthebase resistorRb.A lowerbase-resistorvoltagedropreduces thebase current Ib,
which results in less collector current Ic. Because an increase in collector current with temperature is
opposed, the operating point is keptstable.

Merits:

• Circuit stabilizestheoperatingpointagainstvariations intemperatureandβ(i.e.

replacement oftransistor)

Demerits:

• Inthiscircuit,tokeepIcindependentofβ,thefollowingconditionmustbemet:

whichisthecasewhen

• As β-value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a given transistor, thisrelation can
besatisfied either by keeping Rcfairly large or making Rbverylow.

• IfRcislarge,ahighVccisnecessary,whichincreasescostaswellasprecautionsnecessary
whilehandling.
• IfRbis low,the reverse bias of the collector–base region is small, which limits the range
of collector voltage swing that leaves the transistor in activemode.

• TheresistorRbcausesanACfeedback,reducingthevoltagegainoftheamplifier.This
undesirable effect is a trade-off for greaterQ-pointstability.

Usage: The feedback also decreases the inputimpedance of the amplifier as seen from the base,
which can be advantageous. Due to the gain reduction from feedback, this biasing form is used only
when the trade-off for stability iswarranted.
 4) COLLECTOR–EMITTERFEEDBACKBIAS:

Fig2.17Collector-EmitterBiasingCircuit

The above fig 2.17shows the collector –emitter feedback bias circuit that can be obtained by
applying both the collector feedback and emitter feedback. Here the collector feedback is provided by
connecting a resistance RB from the collector to the base and emitter feedback is provided by
connecting an emitter Re from emitter to ground. Both feed backs areused tocontrol collectorcurrent
and base current IB in the opposite direction to increase the stability as compared to the previous
biasingcircuits.

5) VOLTAGEDIVIDERBIASORSELFBIASOREMITTERBIAS

The voltage divider as shown in the fig 2.18 is formed using external resistors R 1 and R2. The
voltage across R2 forward biases the emitter junction. By proper selection of resistors R 1 and R2, the
operating pointofthetransistorcanbe made independentofβ.Inthiscircuit,thevoltagedividerholds the
base voltage fixed independent of base current provided the divider current is large compared to the
base current. However, even with a fixed base voltage, collector current varies with temperature (for
example) so an emitter resistor is added to stabilize the Q-point, similar to the above circuits with
emitter resistor.
 Fig2.18VoltageDividerBiasingCircuit

Inthiscircuitthebasevoltageisgivenby:

voltageacross

provided .

Also

Forthegivencircuit,

Let the current in resistor R1 is I1 and this is divided into two parts – current through base and
resistor R2. Since the base current is very small so for all practical purpose it is assumed that I1 also
flows through R2, so we have

ApplyingKVLinthecircuit,wehave
 It is apparent from above expression that the collector current is independent of ? thus the
stability is excellent. In all practical cases the value of VBE is quite small in comparison to the V2, so it
can be ignoredinthe above expression sothe collectorcurrent is almost independent ofthe transistor
parameters thus this arrangement provides excellent stability.
AgainapplyingKVLincollectorcircuit,wehave

The resistor RE provides stability to the circuit. If the current through the collector rises, the
voltage across the resistor RE also rises. This will cause VCE to increase as the voltage V2is independent
of collector current. This decreases the base current, thus collector currentincreases to its formervalue.
Stabilityfactorforsuchcircuitarrangementisgivenby

IfReq/REisverysmallcomparedto1,itcanbe ignoredintheaboveexpression thuswehave

Which is excellent since it is the smallest possible value for the stability. In actual practice the
value ofstability factor is around 8-10,since Req/REcannot be ignored as compared to 1.

Merits:

• Unlikeabovecircuits,onlyonedcsupplyisnecessary.
• Operatingpointisalmostindependentofβvariation.
• Operatingpointstabilizedagainstshiftintemperature.
 Demerits:

• Inthiscircuit,tokeepICindependentofβthefollowingconditionmustbemet:

whichisapproximatelythecaseif

whereR1||R2denotestheequivalentresistanceofR1andR2connectedinparallel.

• As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping
RE fairly large, or making R1||R2verylow.

• If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions
necessary whilehandling.
• If R1 || R2is low, either R1is low, or R2is low, or both are low. A low R1raises VBcloser to
VC, reducing the available swing in collector voltage, and limiting how large RCcan be made without
driving the transistor out of active mode. A low R2 lowers Vbe, reducing the allowed collector current.
Lowering both resistor values draws more current from the power supply and lowers the input
resistance of the amplifier as seen from thebase.

• AC as well as DC feedback is caused by RE, which reduces the AC voltage gain of the
amplifier. A method to avoid AC feedback while retaining DC feedback is discussedbelow.

Usage:Thecircuit'sstabilityandmeritsasabovemakeitwidelyusedforlinearcircuits.

BIASCOMPENSATIONUSINGDIODEANDTRANSISTOR

The various biasing circuits considered use some type of negative feedback to stabilize the
operation point. Also, diodes, thermistors and sensistors can be used to compensate for variations in
current.
 DIODECOMPENSATION:

Fig2.19DiodeCompensationCircuit

The following fig 2.19 shows a transistor amplifier with a diode D connected across the base-
emitter junction for compensation of change in collector saturation current ICO. The diode is of the
same material as the transistor and it is reverse biased by e the emitter-base junction voltage VBE,
allowing the diode reverse saturation current IOto flow through diode D. The base currentIB=I-IO.

As long as temperature is constant, diode D operates as a resistor. As the temperature

increases, ICO of the transistor increases. Hence, to compensate for this, the base current I B should be
decreased.

The increase in temperature will also cause the leakage current IO through D to increase and
thereby decrease the base current IB. This is the requiredaction to keep Ic constant.

This type of biascompensation does not need a change in Ic to effect the change in IC,as
bothIOand ICOcan track almost equally according to the change intemperature.

THERMISTORCOMPENSATION:

Thefollowing fig2.20 athermistorRT, having a negativetemperature coefficient is connected in

parallelwithR2. The resistance ofthermistordecreases exponentially withincrease oftemperature. An
increase of temperature will decrease the base voltage VBE, reducing IBand IC.
Fig2.20ThermistorCompensation

SENSISTORCOMPENSATION:
In the following fig2.21 shown a sensistor Rs having a positive temperature coefficient is
connected across R1or RE. Rs increases with temperature. As the temperatureincreases,the equivalent
resistance of the parallel combination of R1 and Rs also increases and hence V BEdecreases, reducing IB
and Ic. This reduced Ic compensates for increased Ic caused by the increase in V BE, ICO and β due
totemperature.

Fig2.21SensistorCompensation
 BJT Hybrid Model and Transistor Amplifier
BJTHybridModelandTransistorAmplifier’s-parameterrepresentationofatransistor,
Conversion of h-parameters, Analysis of single stage transistor amplifier using
H-parameters:voltagegain,currentgain,InputimpedanceandOutputimpedance.
Comparison of transistor configurations in terms of Ai, Ri , Av,and Ro ,

BJTHYBRIDMODEL
SmallsignallowfrequencytransistorModels:

Allthe transistor amplifiers are two port networks having twovoltages andtwocurrents. The positive
directions of voltages and currents are shown in fig. 1.

Fig.3.1:TransistorasatwoportNetwork

A two-port network is represented by fourexternalvariables:voltage V 1 and current I1 at the input port,

and voltage V2 and current I2 at the output port, so that the two-port network can be treated as a black
box modeled by the relationships between the four variables,V1,V2, I1,I2 . Out of four variables two can
be selected as are independent variables andtwo are dependent variables.The dependent variables can
be expressed interns of independent variables. This leads to various two port parameters out of which
the following three are important:

1. Impedanceparameters(z-parameters)
2. Admittanceparameters(y-parameters)
3. Hybridparameters(h-parameters)
z-parameters

Atwo-port networkcanbedescribedbyz-parametersas

Inmatrixform,theaboveequationcanbe rewrittenas

Where

Inputimpedancewithoutputportopencircuited

Reversetransferimpedancewithinputportopencircuited

Forwardtransferimpedancewithoutputportopencircuited

Outputimpedancewithinputportopencircuited

Y-parameters

Atwo-portnetworkcanbedescribedbyY-parametersas

Inmatrixform,theaboveequationcanbe rewrittenas
 Inputadmittancewithoutputportshortcircuited

Reversetransferadmittancewithinputportshortcircuited

Forwardtransferadmittancewithoutputportshortcircuited

Outputadmittancewithinputportshortcircuited

Hybridparameters(h-parameters)

Iftheinputcurrent I1andoutputvoltageV2aretakenasindependentvariables,thedependent variables

V1 and I2 can be written as

Whereh11,h12,h21,h22are calledashybrid parameters.

Inputimpedencewitho/pportshortcircuited
 Reversevoltagetransferratiowithi/pport opencircuited

Forwardvoltagetransferratiowitho/pportshortcircuited

outputimpedencewithi/pportopencircuited

THEHYBRID MODELFORTWOPORTNETWORK:

Basedonthe definitionofhybridparametersthe mathematicalmodelfortwopertnetworksknownas h-

parameter model can be developed. The hybrid equations can be written as:

(Thefollowingconvenientalternativesubscriptnotationis recommended by
the IEEE Standards:
i=11=input o=22=output

f=21=forwardtransferr=12=reversetransfer)

We may now use the four h parameters to construct a mathematicalmodel of the device of Fig.(1). The
hybrid circuit for any device indicated in Fig.(2). We can verify that the model of Fig.(2) satisfies above
equations by writing Kirchhoff'svoltage and current laws for input and output ports.
Iftheseparametersarespecifiedforaparticularconfiguration,thensuffixes e,borcarealsoincluded,
e.g.hfe,hibarehparametersofcommonemitterandcommoncollectoramplifiers

Usingtwoequationsthegeneralizedmodeloftheamplifiercanbedrawnasshowninfig.3.2.

Fig.3.2:-h-parameterequivalentofTransistor

TRANSISTORHYBRIDMODEL:
Thehybridmodelforatransistoramplifiercanbederivedas follow:

LetusconsiderCEconfigurationasshowinfig.3.3.Thevariables,iB,iC,vC,andvBrepresenttotal
instantaneouscurrentsandvoltagesiBandvCcan betakenasindependentvariablesandvB,ICas dependent
variables.
Fig.3.3CETransistorAmplifier VB

= f1 (iB,vC)

IC=f2(iB,vC).

UsingTaylor'sseriesexpression,andneglectinghigherordertermsweobtain.

Thepartial derivativesaretakenkeepingthe collectorvoltageor basecurrentconstant.The Δv B,Δ vC,Δ iB, Δ

iCrepresent the small signal (incremental) base and collector current and voltage and can be
represented as vB, iC,iB,vC
 Fig.3.4:h-parametermodelofCEConfiguration

To determine the four h-parameters of transistor amplifier, input and output characteristic are used.
Input characteristic depicts the relationship between input voltage and input current with output
voltage as parameter. The output characteristic depicts the relationship between output voltage and
output current with input current as parameter. Fig. 5, shows the output characteristicsofCE amplifier.

Fig.3.5TransistorCEConfigurationoutputcharacteristics

The current increments are takenaroundthe quiescent point Q whichcorresponds toiB = IB andtothe
collector voltage VCE = VC

Thevalue ofhoeatthe quiescentoperating pointisgivenbythe slopeofthe outputcharacteristicat the

operating point (i.e. slope of tangent AB).
 hieistheslopeoftheappropriateinputonfig.3.6,attheoperatingpoint(slopeoftangentEFatQ).

Fig.3.6Calculationofh-parametersfromoutputcharacteristics

Averticallineontheinputcharacteristicrepresentsconstantbasecurrent.Theparameterhrecanbe obtained
from the ratio (VB2– V B1) and (VC2– VC1) for at Q.

TypicalCEh-parametersoftransistor2N1573aregivenbelow:

hie= 1000ohm.
hre=2.5*10–4
hfe=50
hoe=25 A/V
ANALYSISOFATRANSISTORAMPLIFIERUSINGH-PARAMETERS:
Toforma transistoramplifierit isonlynecessarytoconnectanexternalloadandsignalsourceas indicated in
fig. 3.7and to bias the transistor properly.
 Fig.3.7Transistor two port Network

Considerthe two-port network ofCEamplifier. RS is the source resistance andZL is the loadimpedence h-
parameters are assumed tobe constant overthe operating range. The ac equivalent circuit is shown in
fig. 2. (Phasor notations are used assuming sinusoidal voltage input). The quantities of interest are the
current gain, input impedence, voltage gain, and output impedence.

Fig3.8:hparameterequivalent ofTransistorinCE configuration

Current gain:

Forthetransistoramplifierstage,Aiisdefined astheratioofoutputtoinputcurrents.

Inputimpedence:

Theimpedence lookingintotheamplifierinputterminals(1,1')istheinputimpedanceZi
Voltagegain:

Theratioofoutputvoltagetoinputvoltagegivesthegainofthetransistors.

Output Admittance:

Itisdefinedas

Avisthevoltagegainforanidealvoltagesource(Rv=0).

ConsiderinputsourcetobeacurrentsourceISinparallelwitha resistanceRSasshowninfig.3.

Inthis case,overallcurrentgainAISisdefinedas
h-parameters
Toanalyzemultistageamplifiertheh-parameters ofthetransistorusedare obtainedfrommanufacture
datasheet.Themanufacturedatasheetusuallyprovidesh-parameterinCEconfiguration.These parameters
may be converted into CC and CB values. For example fig. 4hrc in terms of CE parameter
canbeobtained as follows.

Fig.3.9CEh-parametermodel

ForCEtransistorconfiguaration Vbe

= hie Ib + hre Vce

Ic=hfeIb+hoe Vce

ThecircuitcanberedrawnlikeCCtransistorconfigurationasshownin fig.5. Vbc =

hie Ib + hrc Vec

Ic=hfeIb+hoeVec
 Fig3.10hybridmodelfortransistorinthreedifferentconfigurations

Typicalh-parametervaluesforatransistor
Parameter CE CC CB
hi 1100Ω 1100 Ω 22 Ω
hr 2.5×10-4 1 3×10-4
hf 50 -51 -0.98
ho 25µA/V 25µA/V 0.49µA/V

AnalysisofaTransistoramplifiercircuitusingh-parameters
A transistoramplifiercanbe constructed by connecting anexternal load andsignalsource and
biasing the transistor properly.
 Fig.3.11BasicAmplifierCircuit

The two port network of Fig. 3.11 represents a transistor in any one of its configuration. It is
assumedthath-parametersremainconstantover theoperatingrange.Theinput issinusoidalandI1,V- 1,I2
and V2are phase quantities

Fig.3.12TransistorreplacedbyitsHybridModel

CurrentGainorCurrentAmplification(Ai)

For transistor amplifier the current gain Ai is defined as the ratio of output current to input
current,i.e,
Ai=IL/I1=-I2/I1
FromthecircuitofFig
I2= hf I1 +

hoV2Substitutin

g V2= ILZL= -I2ZL

I2=hfI1-I2ZLho
 I2 + I2ZL ho = hf

I1I2(1+ZLho)=hfI1

Ai =-I2 /I1 = -hf / ( 1+ ZL ho) Therefore,

Ai=-hf/(1+ZLho)

InputImpedence(Zi)

In the circuitof Fig ,RSisthesignalsourceresistance.Theimpedenceseenwhenlookingintothe

amplifier terminals (1,1’) is the amplifier input impedenceZi,

Zi=V1/ I1

Fromthe input circuit ofFig V1= hiI1+ hrV2Zi=

( hiI1+ hrV2) / I1

=hi+hrV2/I1Substituting

V2=-I2ZL= A1I1ZL

Zi=hi+hrA1I1ZL/I1

= hi + hr

A1ZLSubstitutingf

orAi

Zi=hi-hfhrZL/(1+hoZL)

=hi-hfhrZL/ZL(1/ZL+ho)

TakingtheLoadadmittanceasYL=1/ZLZi=

hi- hfhr/ (YL+ ho)

VoltageGainorVoltageGainAmplificationFactor(Av)

The ratio of output voltage V2to input voltage V1give the voltage gain of the transistor i.e,

A v = V 2/ V 1

Substituting

V2=-I2ZL=A1I1ZL

Av=A1I1ZL/V1=AiZL/Zi

OutputAdmittance(Yo)

YoisobtainedbysettingVStozero,ZLtoinfinityandbydrivingtheoutputterminals fromagenerator V2. If the

current V2is I2then Yo= I2/V2with VS=0 and RL= ∞.

Fromthecircuitoffig

I2= hfI1+ hoV2Dividing

by V2,

I2/V2=hfI1/V2+ho

WithV2=0,byKVL ininputcircuit,

RSI1+ hiI1+ hrV2= 0 (RS

+ hi) I1 + hrV2= 0

Hence, I2/V2= -hr/(RS+ hi)

=hf(-hr/(RS+hi)+hoYo= ho-

hfhr/( RS+ hi)

Theoutputadmittance isafunctionofsourceresistance.Ifthesourceimpedence is resistivethenYois real.

VoltageAmplificationFactor(Avs)takingintoaccounttheresistance(Rs)ofthesource
 Fig.3.13 Thevenin’s EquivalentInput

Circuit This overall voltage gain Avsis given by

Avs=V2/ VS=V2V1/V1VS=AvV1/VS

FromtheequivalentinputcircuitusingThevenin’s equivalentforthesourceshowninFig.5.6 V1 =

VSZi/ (Zi+ RS)

V1/ VS=Zi/(Zi+RS)

Then, Avs=AvZi/(Zi+RS)

Substituting Av = AiZL/Zi

Avs=AiZL/(Zi+RS)

Avs=AiZLRS/(Zi+RS)RS

Avs=AisZL/RS

CurrentAmplification(Ais)takingintoaccountthesourceResistance(RS)

Fig.3.14Norton’sEquivalentInputCircuit
Themodifiedinputcircuit usingNorton’sequivalentcircuit forthecalculationofAis isshowninFig.1.7 Overall
Current Gain, Ais= -I2/ IS= - I2I1/I1IS = AiI1/IS
FromFig.1.7 I1=ISRS/(RS+Zi) I1
/ IS= RS/ (RS+ Zi)
andhence, Ais=AiRS/ (RS+Zi)

OperatingPowerGain(AP)
The operating power gain APof the transistor is defined as
AP = P2/ P1= -V2I2/ V1I1= AvAi= AiAiZL/ Zi
AP=Ai2(ZL/Zi)

SmallSignalanalysisofatransistor amplifier
Ai=-hf/(1+ZLho) Av=AiZL/Zi

Zi=hi+hrA1ZL=hi-hfhr/(YL+ho) Avs=AvZi/(Zi+RS)=AiZL/(Zi+RS)
=AisZL/RS

Yo=ho-hfhr/(RS+hi)=1/Zo Ais=AiRS/ (RS+Zi)=Avs=AisRS/ ZL

 UNIT -II BJT AMPLIFIERS FREQUIENCY
RESPONCE( HYBRIDE PI MODEL)
UNIT I

Small Signal High Frequency Transistor Amplifier models

BJT: Transistor at high frequencies, Hybrid- π common emitter transistor model, Hybrid π
conductances, Hybrid π capacitances, validity of hybrid π model, determination of high-
frequency parameters in terms of low-frequency parameters , CE short circuit current gain,
current gain with resistive load, cut-off frequencies, frequency response and gain bandwidth
product. FET: Analysis of common Source and common drain Amplifier circuits at high
frequencies.

Introduction:

Electronic circuit analysis subject teaches about the basic knowledge required to design
an amplifier circuit, oscillators etc .It provides a clear and easily understandable discussion of
designing of different types of amplifier circuits and their analysis using hybrid model, to find
out their parameters. Fundamental concepts are illustrated by using small examples which are
easy to understand. It also covers the concepts of MOS amplifiers, oscillators and large signal
amplifiers.

Two port devices & Network Parameters:

A transistor can be treated as a two-part network. The terminal behavior of any two-part
network can be specified by the terminal voltages V1& V2at parts 1 & 2 respectively and current
i1and i2, entering parts 1 & 2, respectively, as shown in figure.

Of these four variables V1, V2, i1and i2, two can be selected as independent variables
and the remaining two can be expressed in terms of these independent variables. This leads to
various two part parameters out of which the following three are more important.
 1. Z –Parameters (or) Impedance parameters
2. Y –Parameters (or) Admittance parameters
3. H –Parameters (or) Hybrid parameters

Hybrid parameters (or) h –parameters:

The equivalent circuit of a transistor can be dram using simple approximation by

retaining its essential features. These equivalent circuits will aid in analyzing transistor circuits
easily and rapidly.

If the input current i1 and output Voltage V2 are takes as independent variables, the input
voltage V1 and output current i2 can be written as

V1 = h11 i1 + h12 V2
i2 = h21 i1 + h22 V2

The four hybrid parameters h11, h12, h21and h22 are defined as follows:

h11= [V1/ i1] with V2= 0 Input Impedance with output part short circuited.
h22= [i2/ V2] with i1= 0 Output admittance with input part open circuited.
h12= [V1/ V2] with i1= 0 reverse voltage transfer ratio with input part open circuited.
h21= [i2/ i1] with V2= 0 Forward current gain with output part short circuited

The dimensions of h–parameters are as follows:

h11-Ω

h22–mhos

h12, h21 –dimension less.

As the dimensions are not alike, (i.e.) they are hybrid in nature, and these parameters are
called as hybrid parameters.

h11 = input; h 22 = output;

h21= forward transfer; h22 = Reverse transfer.
Notations used in transistor circuits:

hie= h11e= Short circuit input impedance

hoe= h22e= Open circuit output admittance
hre = h12e= Open circuit reverse voltage transfer ratio
hfe= h21e= Short circuit forward current Gain.

The Hybrid Model for Two-port Network:

V1= h11 i1+ h12V2

I2= h21i1+ h22V2
V1= h1i1+ hrV2
I2 = hfi1+ h0V2

Common Emitter Amplifier

Common Emitter Circuit is as shown in the Fig. The DC supply, biasing resistors and
coupling capacitors are not shown since we are performing an AC analysis.
Es is the input signal source and Rs is its resistance. The h-parameter equivalent for the above
circuit is as shown in Fig.

The typical values of the h-parameter for a transistor in Common Emitter configuration are,
Common Base Amplifier

Common Base Circuit is as shown in the Fig. The DC supply, biasing resistors and
coupling capacitors are not shown since we are performing an AC analysis.
Common Collector Amplifier

Common Collector Circuit is as shown in the Fig. The DC supply, biasing resistors and
coupling capacitors are not shown since we are performing an AC analysis
The h-parameter model is shown below

Transistors at High Frequencies

At low frequencies it is assumed that transistor responds instantaneously to changes in

the input voltage or current i.e., if you give AC signal between the base and emitter of a
Transistor amplifier in Common Emitter configuraii6n and if the input signal frequency is low,
the output at the collector will exactly follow the change in the input (amplitude etc.,). If '1' of
the input is high (MHz) and the amplitude of the input signal is changing the Transistor amplifier
will not be able to respond.

It is because; the carriers from the emitter side will have to be injected into the collector
side. These take definite amount of time to travel from Emitter to Base, however small it may be.
But if the input signal is varying at much higher speed than the actual time taken by the carries to
respond, then the Transistor amplifier will not respond instantaneously. Thus, the junction
capacitances of the transistor, puts a limit to the highest frequency signal which the transistor can
handle. Thus depending upon doping area of the junction etc, we have transistors which can
respond in AF range and also RF range.

To study and analyze the behavior of the transistor to high frequency signals an
equivalent model based upon transmission line equations will be accurate. But this model will be
very complicated to analyze. So some approximations are made and the equivalent circuit is
simplified. If the circuit is simplified to a great extent, it will be easy to analyze, but the results
will not be accurate. If no approximations are made, the results will be accurate, but it will be
difficult to analyze. The desirable features of an equivalent circuit for analysis are simplicity and
accuracy. Such a circuit which is fairly simple and reasonably accurate is the Hybrid-pi or
Hybrid-π model, so called because the circuit is in the form of π.

Hybrid - π Common Emitter Transconductance Model

For Transconductance amplifier circuits Common Emitter configuration is preferred.

Why? Because for Common Collector (hrc< 1). For Common Collector Configuration, voltage
gain Av < 1. So even by cascading you can't increase voltage gain. For Common Base, current
gain is hib< 1. Overall voltage gain is less than 1. For Common Emitter, hre>>1. Therefore
Voltage gain can be increased by cascading Common Emitter stage. So Common Emitter
configuration is widely used. The Hybrid-x or Giacoletto Model for the Common Emitter
amplifier circuit (single stage) is as shown below.

Analysis of this circuit gives satisfactory results at all frequencies not only at high
frequencies but also at low frequencies. All the parameters are assumed to be independent of
frequency.
Where B’ = internal node in base
rbb’ = Base spreading resistance
rb’e = Internal base node to emitter resistance
rce = collector to emitter resistance
Ce = Diffusion capacitance of emitter base junction
rb’c = Feedback resistance from internal base node to collector node
gm = Transconductance
CC= transition or space charge capacitance of base collector junction

Circuit Components

B' is the internal node of base of the Transconductance amplifier. It is not physically
accessible. The base spreading resistance rbb is represented as a lumped parameter between base
B and internal node B'. gmVb'e is a current generator. Vb'e is the input voltage across the emitter
junction. If Vb'e increases, more carriers are injected into the base of the transistor. So the
increase in the number of carriers is proportional to Vb'e. This results in small signal current
since we are taking into account changes in Vb'e. This effect is represented by the current
generator gmVb'e. This represents the current that results because of the changes in Vb'e' when C
is shorted to E.

When the number of carriers injected into the base increase, base recombination also
increases. So this effect is taken care of by gb'e. As recombination increases, base current
increases. Minority carrier storage in the base is represented by Ce the diffusion capacitance.

According to Early Effect, the change in voltage between Collector and Emitter changes
the base width. Base width will be modulated according to the voltage variations between
Collector and Emitter. When base width changes, the minority carrier concentration in base
changes. Hence the current which is proportional to carrier concentration also changes. IE
changes and IC changes. This feedback effect [IE on input side, IC on output side] is taken into
account by connecting gb'e between B', and C. The conductance between Collector and Base is
gce.Cc represents the collector junction barrier capacitance.

Hybrid - n Parameter Values

Typical values of the hybrid-n parameter at IC = 1.3 rnA are as follows:
gm= 50 mA/v
 rbb' = 100 Ω
rb'e = 1 kΩ
ree = 80 kΩ
Cc = 3 pf
Ce = 100 pf
rb'c = 4 MΩ

These values depend upon:

1. Temperature 2. Value of IC

Determination of Hybrid-x Conductances

1. Trans conductance or Mutual Conductance (gm)

The above figure shows PNP transistor amplifier in Common Emitter configuration for
AC purpose, Collector is shorted to Emitter.

ICO opposes IE. IE is negative. Hence IC = ICO – α0IE α0 is the normal value of α at room
temperature.

In the hybrid - π equivalent circuit, the short circuit current = gmVb' e

Here only transistor is considered, and other circuit elements like resistors, capacitors etc
are not considered.
Differentiate (l) with respect to Vb'e partially. ICO is constant

For a PNP transistor, Vb'e = -VE Since, for PNP transistor, base is n-type. So negative voltage is
given

If the emitter diode resistance is re then

Neglect IC0

gm is directly proportional to IC is also inversely proportional to T. For PNP transistor, IC is

negative

At room temperature i.e. T=3000K

Input Conductance (gb'e):

At low frequencies, capacitive reactance will be very large and can be considered as
Open circuit. So in the hybrid-π equivalent circuit which is valid at low frequencies, all the
capacitances can be neglected.

The equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig.

 The value of rb'c» rb'e (Since Collector Base junction is Reverse Biased)So Ib flows into
rb'e only. [This is lb' (IE - Ib)will go to collector junction]

The short circuit collector current,

Feedback Conductance (gb' c)

hre = reverse voltage gain, with input open or Ib = 0

hre =Vb'e/Vce = Input voltage/Output voltage
Base Spreading Resistance (r bb')

The input resistance with the output shorted is hie. If output is shorted, i.e., Collector and
Emitter arejoined; rb'e is in parallel with rb’c.

Output Conductance (gce)

This is the conductance with input open circuited. In h-parameters it is represented as

hoe. For Ib= 0, we have,
Hybrid - π Capacitances

In the hybrid - π equivalent circuit, there are two capacitances, the capacitance between
the Collector Base junction is the Cc or Cb'e'. This is measured with input open i.e., IE = 0, and is
specified by the manufacturers as COb. 0 indicates that input is open. Collector junction is reverse
biased.

Validity of hybrid-π model

The high frequency hybrid Pi or Giacoletto model of BJT is valid for frequencies less
than the unit gain frequency.
High frequency model parameters of a BJT in terms of low frequency hybrid parameters

The main advantage of high frequency model is that this model can be simplified to
obtain low frequency model of BJT. This is done by eliminating capacitance’s from the high
frequency model so that the BJT responds without any significant delay (instantaneously) to the
input signal. In practice there will be some delay between the input signal and output signal of
BJT which will be very small compared to signal period (1/frequency of input signal) and hence
can be neglected. The high frequency model of BJT is simplified at low frequencies and redrawn
as shown in the figure below along with the small signal low frequency hybrid model of BJT.

Fig. high frequency model of BJT at low frequencies

Fig hybrid model of BJT at low frequencies

The High frequency model parameters of a BJT in terms of low frequency hybrid
parameters are given below:
Transconductance gm = Ic/Vt
Internal Base node to emitter resistance rb’e = hfe/ gm = (hfe* Vt )/ Ic
Internal Base node to collector resistance rb’e = (hre* rb’c) / (1- hre) assuming hre << 1 it reduces
to rb’e = (hre* rb’c)
Base spreading resistance rbb’ = hie – rb’e = hie – (hfe* Vt )/ Ic
Collector to emitter resistance rce = 1 / ( hoe – (1+ hfe)/rb’c)

Collector Emitter Short Circuit Current Gain

Consider a single stage Common Emitter transistor amplifier circuit. The hybrid-1t
equivalent circuit is as shown:
 If the output is shorted i.e. RL = 0, what will be the flow response of this circuit? WhenRL
= 0, Vo = 0. Hence Av = 0. So the gain that we consider here is the current gain IL/Ic. The
simplified equivalent circuit with output shorted is,

A current source gives sinusoidal current Ic. Output current or load current is IL· gb'c
isneglected since gb'c « gb'e, gce is in shunt with short circuit R = 0. Therefore gce disappears. The
current is delivered to the output directly through Ce and gb'c is also neglected since this will be
very small.
Current Gain with Resistance Load:
Considering the load resistance RL
V b'e is the input voltage and is equal to V1
Vce is the output voltage and is equal to V 2

This circuit is still complicated for analysis. Because, there are two time constants
associated with the input and the other associated with the output. The output time constant will
be much smaller than the input time constant. So it can be neglected.

So gb'c can be neglected in the equivalent circuit. In a wide band amplifier RL will not
exceed 2KΩ. If RL is small fH is large.

Therefore gce can be neglected compared with RL. Therefore the output circuit consists of
current generator gm V b'e feeding the load RL so the Circuit simplifies as shown in Fig.
Miller's Theorem
It states that if an impedance Z is connected between the input and output terminals, of a
network, between which there is voltage gain, K, the same effect can be had by removing Z and
connecting an impedance Zi at the input =Z/(1-K) and Zo across the output = ZK/(K-1)

Fig. High frequency equivalent circuit with resistive load RL

Therefore high frequency equivalent circuit using Miller's theorem reduces to

Fig. Circuit after applying Millers' Theorem

Vce = - Ic . RL
The Parameters fT

fT is the frequency at which the short circuit Common Emitter current gain becomes unity.

The Parameters fβ
Gain - Bandwidth (B.W) Product

This is a measure to denote the performance of an amplifier circuit. Gain - B. W product

is also referred as Figure of Merit of an amplifier. Any amplifier circuit must have large gain and
large bandwidth. For certain amplifier circuits, the mid band gain Am maybe large, but not Band
width or Vice - Versa. Different amplifier circuits can be compared with thus parameter.
FET: Analysis of common Source and common drain Amplifier circuits at high
frequencies.

Just like for the BJT, we could use the original small signal model for low frequency
analysis–the only difference was that external capacitances had to be kept in the circuit. Also just
like the BJT, for high frequency operation, the internal capacitances between each of the device’s
terminals can no longer be ignored and the small signal model must be modified. Recall that for
high frequency operation, we’re stating that external capacitances are so large (in relation to the
internal capacitances) that they may be considered short circuits.

High frequency response of Common source amplifier

The JFET implementation of the common-source amplifier is given to the left below,
and the small signal circuit in corporating the high frequency FET model is given to the right
below. As stated above, the external coupling and bypass capacitors are large enough that we
can model them as short circuits for high frequencies.
We may simplify the small signal circuit by making the following approximations and
observations:

1. Rds is usually larger than RD||RL, so that the parallel combination is dominated by
RD||RLand rds may be neglected. If this is not the case, a single equivalent resistance,
rds||RD||RLmay be defined.

2. The Miller effect transforms Cgd into separate capacitances seen in the input and output
circuits as

3. Cds is very small, so the impedance contribution of this capacitance may be considered to
be an open circuit and may be ignored.

4. The parallel capacitances in the input circuit, Cgsand CM1, may be combined to a single
equivalent capacitance of value

5. Similarly, the parallel capacitances in the output circuit, Cds and CM2,may be combined
to a single equivalent capacitance of value

Where Av=-gm(RD||RL)for a common-source amplifier.

Setting the input source, vS, equal to zero allows us to define the equivalent resistances seen by
Cin and Cout(the Method of Open Circuit Time Constants).Note that, with vS=0, the dependent
current source also goes to zero (opens) and the input and output circuits are separated.

Generally, the input is going to provide the dominant pole, so the high frequency cut off
is given by
High frequency response of Common source amplifier

Characteristics ofCDAmplifier:

• Voltagegain ≈1
• Highinputresistance
• Lowoutputresistance
• Goodvoltage buffer

High frequency small signal model

If RSis not too high, bandwidth can be rather high and approach ωT
 UNIT-II

Multistage Amplifiers : Classification of amplifiers, methods of coupling, cascaded transistor

amplifier and its analysis, analysis of two stage RC coupled amplifier, high input resistance
transistor amplifier circuits and their analysis-Darlington pair amplifier, Cascode amplifier, Boot-
strap emitter follower, Analysis of multi stage amplifiers using FET, Differential amplifier using
BJT.

Classification of amplifiers

Depending upon the type of coupling, the multistage amplifiers are classified as :

1. Resistance and Capacitance Coupled Amplifiers (RC Coupled)

2. Transformer Coupled Amplifiers
3. Direct Coupled DC Amplifiers
4. Tuned Circuit Amplifiers.

Based upon the B. W. of the amplifiers, they can be classified as :

1. Narrow hand amplifiers

2. Untuned amplifiers

Narrow hand amplifiers: Amplification is restricted to a narrow band of frequencies around a

centre frequency. There are essentially tuned amplifiers.

Untuned amplifiers: These will have large bandwidth. Amplification is desired over a
considerable range of frequency spectrum.

Untuned amplifiers are further classified w.r.t bandwidth.

I. DC amplifiers (Direct Coupled) DC to few KHz

2. Audio frequency amplifiers (AF) 20 Hz to 20 KHz
3. Broad band amplifier DC to few MHz
4. Video amplifier 100 Hz to few MHz

The gain provided by an amplifier circuit is not the same for all frequencies because the
reactance of the elements connected in the circuit and the device reactance value depend upon
the frequency. Bandwidth of an amplifier is the frequency range over which the amplifier stage
gain is reasonably constant within ± 3 db, or O. 707 of AV Max Value.

Resistance and Capacitance Coupled Amplifiers (RC Coupled)

This type of amplifier is very widely used. It is least expensive and has good frequency
response. In the multistage resistive capacitor coupled amplifiers, the output of the first stage is
coupled to the next through coupling capacitor and RL. In two stages Resistor Capacitor coupled
amplifiers, there is no separate RL between collector and ground, but Reo the resistance between
collector and V cc (RC) itself acts as RL in the AC equivalent circuit.

Transformer Coupled Amplifiers

`
Here the output of the amplifier is coupled to the next stage or to the load through a
transformer. With this overall circuit gain will be increased and also impedance matching can be
achieved. But such transformer coupled amplifiers will not have broad frequency response i.e.,
(f2-f1) is small since inductance of the transformer windings will be large. So Transformer
coupling is done for power amplifier circuits, where impedance matching is critical criterion for
maximum power to be delivered to the load.

Direct Coupled (DC) Amplifiers

Here DC stands for direct coupled and not (direct current). In this type, there is no
reactive element. L or C used to couple the output of one stage to the other. The AC output from
the collector of one stage is directly given to the base of the second stage transistor directly. So
type of amplifiers is used for large amplification of DC and using low frequency signals. Resistor
Capacitor coupled amplifiers cannot be used for amplifications of DC or low frequency signals
since Xc the capacitive reactance of the coupling capacitor will be very large or open circuit for
DC

Tuned Circuit Amplifiers

In this type there will be one RC or LC tuned circuit between collector and VCC in the
place of Re. These amplifiers will amplify signals of only fixed frequency.fo which is equal to
the resonance frequency of the tuned circuit LC. These are also used to amplify signals of a
narrow band of frequencies centered on the tuned frequency f0.
Distortion in Amplifiers

If the input signal is a sine wave the output should also be a true sine wave. But in all the
cases it may not be so, which we characterize as distortion. Distortion can be due to the nonlinear
characteristic of the device, due to operating point not being chosen properly, due to large signal
swing of the input from the operating point or due to the reactive elements Land C in the circuit.
Distortion is classified as:

(a) Amplitude distortion:

This is also called non linear distortion or harmonic distortion. This type of distortion
occurs in large signal amplifiers or power amplifiers. It is due to then on linearity of the
characteristic of the device. This is due to the presence of new frequency signals which are not
present in the input. If the input signal is of 10 KHz the output signal should also be 10 KHz
signal. But some harmonic terms will also be present. Hence the amplitude of the signal (rms
value) will be different Vo = Ay Vi.

(b) Frequency distortion:

The amplification will not be the same for all frequencies. This is due to reactive
component in the circuit.

(c) Phase - shift delay distortion:

There will be phase shift between the input and the output and this phase shift will not be
the same for all frequency signals. It also varies with the frequency of the input signal. In the
output signal, all these distortions may be present or anyone may be present because of which the
amplifier response will not be good.

The performance obtainable from a single stage amplifier is often insufficient for many
applications; hence several stages may be combined forming a multistage amplifier. These stages
may be combined forming a multistage amplifier. These stages are connected in cascade, i.e.
output of the first stage is connected to form input of second stage, whose output becomes input
of third stage, and so on. The overall gain of a multistage amplifier is the product of the gains of
the individual stage (ignoring potential loading effects):

Gain (A) = A1 * A2 * A3 * A4 * …… *An.

 Alternately, if the gain of each amplifier stage is expressed in decibels (dB), the total gain
is the sum of the gains of the individual stages

Gain in dB (A) = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + …… + An.

When we want to achieve higher amplification than a single stage amplifier can offer, it
is a common practice to cascade various stages of amplifiers, as it is shown in Fig.1.a. In such a
structure the input performance of the resulted multistage amplifier is the input performance of
the first amplifier while the output performance is that of the last amplifier. It is understood that
combining amplifiers of various types we can create those characteristics that are necessary to
fulfill the specifications of a specific application. In addition, using feedback techniques in
properly chosen multistage amplifiers can further increase this freedom of the design.

According to the small signal equivalent circuit of a two stage amplifier shown in Fig.,
we can calculate the ac performance of the circuit.

Voltage amplification
Current amplification

Power amplification

Cascading Transistor Amplifiers

When the amplification of a single transistor is not sufficient for a particular purpose (say
to deliver output to the speaker or to drive a transducer etc) or when the input or output
impedance is not of the correct magnitude for the desired application, two or more stages may be
connected in cascade. Cascade means in series i.e. the output of first stage is connected to the
input of the next stage.

Let us consider two stage cascaded amplifier. Let the first stage is in common emitter
configuration. Current gain is high and let the II stage is in common collector configuration to
provide high input impedance and low output impedance. So what are the expressions for the
total current gain AI of the entire circuit (i.e. the two stages), Zi, Av and Yo? To get these
expressions, we must take the h-par ammeters of these transistors in that particular configuration.
Generally manufactures specify the h-parameters for a given transistor in common emitter
configuration. It is widely used circuit and also AI is high. To get the transistor h-parameters in
other configurations, converts ion formulae are used.
The Two Stage Cascaded Amplifier Circuit

The Transistor Q1 is in Common Emitter configuration. The second Transistor Q2 is in

Common Collector (CC) configuration. Output is taken across 5K, the emitter resistance.
Collector is at ground potential in the A.C. equivalent circuit. Biasing resistors are not shown
since their purpose in only to provide the proper operating point and they do not affect the
response of the amplifier. In the low frequency equivalent circuit, since the capacitors have large
value, and so is Xc low, and can be neglected. So the capacitive reactance is not considered, and
capacitive reactance Xc is low when C is large and taken as short circuit.

The small signal Common Emitter configuration circuit reduces as shown in Fig. In this
circuit Q2 collector is at ground potential, in AC equivalent circuit. It is in Common Collector
configuration and the output is taken between emitter point E2 and ground. So the circuit is
redrawn as shown in Figure indicating voltages at different stages and input and output
resistances.

Choice of Transistor in a Cascaded Amplifier Configuration

By connecting transistor in cascade, voltage gain gets multiplied. But what type of
configuration should be used? Common Collector(CC) or Common Base(CB) or Common
Emitter(CE)? To get voltage amplification and current amplification, only Common Emitter
(CE) configuration is used. Since it is Common Collector amplifier, the voltage gain is less than
one for each stage. So the overall amplification is less than 1.

Common Base Configuration is also not used since Al is less than 1.

Effective load resistance RL is parallel combination of Rc and Ri of the following stage,

(next stage) (since in multi stage connection, the output of one stage is the input to the other
stage). This parallel combination is less than Ri. Therefore R L/Ri< 1.

The current gain AI in common base configurations is hib< 1 or =1.Therefore overall

voltage gain = 1. Therefore Common Base configuration is not used for cascading. So only
Common Emitter configuration is used (hfe>> I).Therefore overall voltage gain and current
gains are> 1 in Common Emitter configuration.

Two stage RC coupled amplifier

One way to connect various stages of a multistage amplifier is via capacitors, as indicated
in the two-stage amplifier in Figure. Where two stages of common emitter amplifier are coupled
to each other by the capacitor C3.
In RC-coupled amplifiers:

1. The various stages are DC isolated. This feature facilitates the biasing of individual
stages.

2. The various stages can be similar. Hence the design of the amplifier is simplified.

3. The coupling capacitors influence the responses of the amplifier.

4. A great number of biasing resistors is necessary.

The most commonly used coupling in amplifiers is RC coupling. An RC-coupling

network is shown in the illustration above. The network of R1, R2, and C1 enclosed in the
dashed lines of the figure is the coupling network. You may notice that the circuitry for Q1 and
Q2 is incomplete. That is intentional so that you can concentrate on the coupling network. R1
acts as a load resistor for Q1 (the first stage) and develops the output signal of that stage. Do you
remember how a capacitor reacts to ac and dc? The capacitor, C1, "blocks" the dc of Q1's
collector, but "passes" the ac output signal. R2 develops this passed, or coupled, signal as the
input signal to Q2 (the second stage). This arrangement allows the coupling of the signal while it
isolates the biasing of each stage. This solves many of the problems associated with direct
coupling.
CE - CC Amplifiers

This is another type of two-stage BJT amplifier. The first stage in Common Emitter (CE)
configuration provides voltage and current gains. The second stage in Common-Collector (CC)
configuration provides impedance matching. This circuit is used in audio frequency amplifiers.
The circuit is shown in Fig.
High Input Resistance Transistor Circuits

In some applications the amplifier circuit will have to have very high input impedance.
Common Collector Amplifier circuit has high input impedance and low output impedance. But
it’s Av<1.If the input impedance of the amplifier circuit is to be only 500 KO or less the
Common Collector Configuration can be used. But if still higher input impedance is required a
circuit. This circuit is known as the Darlington Connection (named after Darlington) or
Darlington Pair Circuit.

The Darlington Pair

This is two transistors connected together so that the amplified current from the first is
amplified further by the second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain
such as 10000. Darlington pairs are sold as complete packages containing the two transistors.
They have three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual
transistor.

In this circuit, the two transistors are in Common Collector Configuration. The output of
the first transistor Q1 (taken from the emitter of the Q1) is the input to the second transistor Q2 at
the base. The input resistance of the second transistor constitutes the emitter load of the first
transistor. So, Darlington Circuit is nothing but two transistors in Common Collector
Configuration connected in series. The same circuit can be redrawn as AC equivalent circuit. So,
DC is taken as ground shown in below Fig. Hence 'C' at ground potential, Collectors of
transistors Q1and Q2 is at ground potential.

There is no resistor connected between the emitter of Q1 and ground i.e., Collector Point.
So, we can assume that infinite resistance is connected between emitter and collector.

The overall current gain is equal to the two individual gains multiplied together:

Darlington pair current gain, hFE = hFE1 × hFE2

Here hFE1 and hFE2 are the gains of the individual transistors

If both the transistors are identical then

Current gain

Input resistance

Voltage gain

Output resistance

Therefore, the characteristic of Darlington Circuit are

1. Very High Input Resistance

2. Very Large Current Gain
3. Very Low Output Resistance
4. Voltage Gain, Av< 1.

This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain, such as 10000, so that only a tiny
base current is required to make the pair switch on.

A Darlington pair behaves like a single transistor with a very high current gain. It has
three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor. To
turn on there must be 0.7V across both the base-emitter junctions which are connected in series
inside the Darlington pair, therefore it requires 1.4V to turn on.
 Darlington pairs are available as complete packages but you can make up your own from
two transistors; TR1 can be a low power type, but normally TR2 will need to be high power. The
maximum collector current Ic(max) for the pair is the same as Ic(max) for TR2.

A Darlington pair is sufficiently sensitive to respond to the small current passed by your
skin and it can be used to make a touch-switch as shown in the diagram. For this circuit which
just lights an LED the two transistors can be any general purpose low power transistors. The
100k resistor protects the transistors if the contacts are linked with a piece of wire. Two
transistors may be combined to form a configuration known as the Darlington pair which
behaves like a single transistor with a current gain equivalent to the product of the current gain of
the two transistors. This is especially useful where very high currents need to be controlled as in
a power amplifier or power-regulator circuit. Darlington transistors are available whereby two
transistors are combined in one single package. The base-emitter volt-drop is twice that of a
small transistor.

Disadvantages
1. The h-parameters for both the transistors will not be the same.
2. Leakage Current is more

The CASCODE Transistor Configuration

The circuit is shown in Figure. This transistor configuration consists of a Common

Emitter Stage in cascade with a Common Base Stage. The collector current of transistor Q)
equals the emitter current of Q2.

The transistor Q1 is in Common Emitter Configuration and transistor Q2 is in Common

Base Configuration. Let us consider the input impedance (h11) etc., output admittance (h22) i.e.
the h - parameters of the entire circuit in terms of the h- parameters of the two transistors
Input impedance

Short circuit current gain

Output conductance
Reverse voltage gain

Therefore, for a CASCODE Transistor Configuration, its input Z is equal to that of a

single Common Emitter Transistor (hie)' Its Current Gain is equal to that of a single Common
Base Transistor (hfe). Its output resistance is equal to that of a single Common Base Transistor
(hob)' the reverse voltage gain is very small, i.e., there is no link between V 1 (input voltage) and
V 2 (output voltage). In other words, there is negligible internal feedback in the case of, a
CASCODE Transistor Circuit, acts like a single stage C.E. Transistor (Since hie and hfe are
same) with negligible internal feedback (:.hre is very small) and very small output conductance,
(= hob) or large output resistance (=2MΩ equal to that of a Common Base Stage). The above
values are correct, if we make the assumption that hob RL< 0.1 or RL is <200K.

CASCODE Amplifier will have

1. Very Large Voltage Gain.

2. Large Current Gain
3. Very High Output Resistance.
Boot-strap emitter follower

The maximum input resistance of a practical Darlington Circuit is only 2 MΩ. Higher
input resistance cannot be achieved because of the biasing resistors R1, R2 etc. They come in
parallel with Ri of the transistors and thus reduce the value of Ri. The maximum value of Ri is
only 1/hob since, hob is resistance between base and collector. The input resistance can be
increased greatly by boot strapping, the Darlington Circuit through the addition of Co between
the first collector C1 and emitter B2.

In Fig, V is an AC signal generator, supplying current I to R. Therefore, the input

resistance of V seen by the generator is R1 = V/I= R itself. Now suppose, the bottom end of R is
not at ground potential but at higher potential i.e. another voltage source of KV (K < I) is
connected between the bottom end of R and ground. Now the input resistance of the circuit is
 I' can be increased by increasing V. When V increases KV also increases. K is
constant.Therefore the potential at the two ends of R will increase by the same amount, K is less
than 1, therefore Ri> R. Now if K = 1, there is no current flowing through R (So V = KV there is
nopotential difference). So the input resistance R\ = 00. Both the top and bottom of the
resistorterminals are at the same potential. This is called as the Boots Strapping method which
increases theinput resistance of a circuit. If the potential at one end of the resistance changes, the
other end of Ralso moves through the same potential difference. It is as if R is pulling itself up
by its boot straps.For CC amplifiers Av< 1 = 0.095. So Ri can be made very large by this
technique. K = Av = 1.Ifwe pull the boot with both the edges of the strap (wire) the boot lifts up.
Here also, if the potentialat one end ofR is changed, the voltage at the other end also changes or
the potential level ofR3 rises,as if it is being pulled up from both the ends.
AC Equivalent circuit

Two Stage RC Coupled JFET amplifier (in Common Source (CS) configuration)

The circuit for two stages of RC coupled amplifier in CS configuration is as shown in fig.

The output Vo of I Stage is coupled to the input Vi of II Stage through a blocking

capacitor Cb. It blocks the DC components present in the output or I Stage from reaching the
input of the I stage which will alter the biasing already fixed for the active device. Resistor Rg is
connected between gate and ground resistor Ro is connected between drain and VDD supply. CS is
the bypass capacitor used to prevent loss of gain due to negative feedback. The active device is
assumed to operate in the linear region. So the small signal model of the device is valid.
Frequency Roll-off is the term used for the decrease in gain with frequency in the uppercut-off
region. It is expressed as db/octave on db/decade.

The purpose of multistage amplifiers is to get large .gain. So with BJTs, Common
Emitter Configuration is used. If JFETs are employed, common source configuration is used.
 UNIT III
FET Biasing AND FET Amplifiers
FET-Biasing and FET Amplifiers: FET biasing: fixed bias and self bias. FET Amplifiers: Analysis of Common source (C.S),
Common Drain (C.D) JFET Amplifiers, comparison of performance with BJT Amplifiers,

BIASING FET:-

For the proper functioning of a linear FET amplifier, it is necessary to maintain the
operating point Q stable in the central portion of the pinch off region The Q point should be
independent of device parameter variations and ambient temperature variations

Thiscanbeachievedbysuitablyselectingthegateto sourcevoltageVGSand draincurrentID which is

referred to as biasing

JFET biasing circuits are very similar to BJT biasing circuits The main difference
betweenJFETcircuitsandBJTcircuitsistheoperationoftheactivecomponentsthemselves

TherearemainlytwotypesofBiasingcircuits

1) Selfbias
2) Voltagedivider-bias.

SELFBIAS
Self bias is a JFET biasing circuit that uses a source resistor to help reverse bias the JFET gate. A self
bias circuit is shown in the fig. Self bias is the most common type of JFET bias. This JFET must be
operated such that gate source junction is always reverse biased. This condition requires a negative
VGS for an N channel JFET and a positive VGS for P channel JFET. This can be achieved using theself
biasarrangementasshowninFig.ThegateresistorRG doesn’taffectthe biasbecauseithasessentially no
voltage drop across it, and: the gate remains at 0V .RG is necessary only to isolate an ac signal from
ground in amplifier applications. The voltage drop across resistor RS makes gate sourcejunction
reverse biased.
 Forthedcanalysiscouplingcapacitorsareopencircuits. For

the N channel FET in Fig (a)

IS produces a voltage drop across RS and makes the source positive w.r.t ground. In any JFET circuit all
the source current passes throughthe device tothe draincircuit .This is due tothe fact that there is no
significant gate current.

Wecan definesourcecurrentasIS=ID

(VG=0becausethere isnogatecurrentflowing inRGSoVGacrossRGiszero) VG =0

then VS= ISRS =ID RS

VGS=VG-VS=0-IDRS=-IDRS

DCanalysis ofselfBias:-

InthefollowingDCanalysis,theNchannelJFETshowninthefig.isusedforillustration.

ForDCanalysiswecanreplacecoupling capacitorsbyopencircuitsandwecanalsoreplacethe resistor RG by a

short circuit equivalent.:. IG = 0.The relationbetweenID and VGS is givenby

Id=Idss[1- ]2
VGSforNchannel JFET is=-idRs

Substutingthisvalueintheaboveequation

Id=Idss[1- ]2

Id=Idss[1+ ]2

FortheN-chanelFETintheabovefigure
 Is produces a voltage drop across Rs and makes the source positive w.r.t ground in any JFET circuit
all the source current passes through the device to drain circuit this is due to the fact that there is no
significant gate current. Therefore we can define source current as Is=Id andVg=0 then

Vs=Is Rs =IdRs

Vgs=Vg-Vs=0-IdRs=-IdRs

Drawingtheselfbiasline:-

TypicaltransfercharacteristicsforaselfbiasedJFETareshowninthefig.

Themaximum draincurrent is5mAandthegatesource cutoffvoltageis -3V.Thismeansthegate voltage

has to be between 0 and -3V.

Now using theequation VGS = -IDRS and assuming RSofany suitable value we can draw the selfbias
line.

Letusassume RS=500Ω

WiththisRs,wecanplottwopointscorrespondingtoID=0andId=IDSS for ID =0

VGS=-IDRS

VGS=0X(500.Ω)=0V

Sothefirstpointis(0,0)

(Id,VGS)
 ForID= IDSS=5mA

VGS=(-5mA)(500Ω) =-3V

Sothe2ndPointwillbe (5mA,-3V)

By plotting these two points, we can draw the straight line through the points. This line will
intersect the transconductance curve and it is known as self bias line.The intersection point gives the
operating point of the self bias JFET for the circuit.

At Q point ,the ID is slightly > than2mA and VGS is slightly > -1V. The Q point forthe self bias
JFET depends on the value of Rs.If Rs is large, Q point far down on the transconductance curve ,ID is
small,when Rs is small Q point is far up on the curve ,ID is large.

VOLTAGEDIVIDERBIAS:-

The fig. shows N channel JFET with voltage divider bias. The voltage at the source of JFET must
be more positive than the voltage at the gate in order to keep the gate to source junction reverse
biased. The source voltage is

VS=IDRS

The gate voltage is set by resistors R1 and R2 as expressed by the following equation using the
voltage divider formula.

Vg= Vdd

Fordcanalysis
 ApplyingKVLtotheinputcircuit

VG-VGS-VS =0

::VGS=VG-Vs=VG-ISRS

VGS=VG-IDRS ::IS=ID

ApplyingKVLtotheinputcircuitweget

VDS+IDRD+VS-VDD =0

::VDS=VDD-IDRD-IDRS

VDS = VDD-ID (RD +RS)

TheQpoint ofaJFETamplifier,usingthevoltagedividerbias is IDQ =

IDSS[1-VGS/VP]2

VDSQ=VDD-ID(RD+RS)

COMPARISONOFMOSFETWITHJFET

a. Inenhancementand depletion types ofMOSFET, thetransverse electricfield induced

across an insulating layer deposited on the semiconductor material controls the
conductivity of thechannel.

b. IntheJFETthetransverseelectricfieldacrossthereversebiasedPNjunctioncontrols the
conductivity of thechannel.
c. The gate leakage current in a MOSFET is ofthe orderof 10-12A. Hence the input resistance
ofa MOSFET is very high in the order of 1010 to 1015 Ω. The gate leakage current ofa JFET is
ofthe order of 10-9A.,and its input resistance is ofthe order of108Ω.

d. TheoutputcharacteristicsoftheJFETareflatterthanthoseoftheMOSFET,andhencethe drain
resistance of aJFET (0.1to 1MΩ) is much higher than that of a MOSFET (1 to50kΩ).

e. JFETsareoperatedonly inthedepletionmode.ThedepletiontypeMOSFETmaybe
operated in both depletion and enhancementmode.

f. ComparingtoJFET,MOSFETsareeasiertofabricate.

g. SpecialdigitalCMOScircuitsareavailablewhichinvolvenearzeropowerdissipationand very
low voltage and current requirements. This makes them suitable for portable systems.
FETAMPLIFIERS
INTRODUCTION
Field Effect Transistor (FET) amplifiers provide an excellent voltage gain and high input
impedence.Becauseofhighinput impedenceandothercharacteristics ofJFETsthey arepreferred over BJTs
for certain types of applications.

Thereare3basicFETcircuitconfigurations:
i) CommonSource

ii) CommonDrain
iii) CommonGain

SimilartoBJTCE,CCandCBcircuits,only differenceisinBJTlargeoutputcollectorcurrentis
controlledbysmallinputbasecurrentwhereasFETcontrolsoutputcurrentbymeansofsmallinputvoltage.
In both the cases output current is controlledvariable.
FETamplifiercircuitsusevoltagecontrollednatureoftheJFET.InPinchoffregion,IDdepends only on
VGS.

CommonSource(CS)Amplifier

Fig.5.1(a)CSAmplifier(b)Small-signalequivalentcircuit

Asimple CommonSourceamplifier isshown inFig.5.1(a)and associatedsmall signalequivalent circuit using

voltage-source model of FET is shown in Fig. 5.1(b)

VoltageGain
Source resistance(RS)isusedtosettheQ-PointbutisbypassedbyCSformid-frequency operation.
Fromthesmallsignalequivalentcircuit,theoutputvoltage VO = -
RDµVgs(RD + rd)
Where Vgs=Vi,the inputvoltage, Hence,
the voltage gain,
AV=VO/Vi=-RDµ(RD+rd)
InputImpedence
FromFig.5.1(b)InputImpedenceis Zi =
RG
ForvoltagedividerbiasasinCEAmplifiersof BJT
RG=R1║R2
Output Impedance
Output impedance is the impedance measured at the output terminals with the input voltage VI= 0
From the Fig. 5.1(b) when the input voltage Vi= 0, Vgs = 0 and hence
µVgs=0

TheequivalentcircuitforcalculatingoutputimpedenceisgiveninFig.5.2. Output
impedence Zo = rd║ RD
Normallyrdwill befargreaterthanRD.HenceZo≈RD

Common Drain Amplifier

A simple common drain amplifier is shown in Fig. 5.2(a) and associated small signal equivalent circuit
using the voltage source model of FET is shown in Fig. 5.2(b).Since voltage V gdis moreeasily determined
than Vgs,the voltage source in the output circuit is expressed in termsofVgsand Thevenin’s theorem.

Fig.5.2(a)CDAmplifier(b)Small-signalequivalentcircuit
VoltageGain
Theoutputvoltage,
VO= RSµVgd / (µ + 1) RS +
rdWhere Vgd = Vi the input voltage.
Hence, the voltage gain,
Av=VO/Vi=RSµ/(µ+1)RS+rd
InputImpedence
FromFig.5.2(b),InputImpedence Zi=RG
Output Impedence
FromFig.5.2(b),Output impedence measuredattheoutputterminalswithinputvoltageV i=0canbe calculated
from the following equivalent circuit.
As Vi=0: Vgd= 0: µvgd/(µ+ 1)= 0 Output
Impedence

ZO=rd/(µ+1)║RS
Whenµ»1
ZO=(rd/µ)║RS=(1/gm)║RS

BIASINGFET

For the proper functioning of a linear FET amplifier, it is necessary to maintain the
operating point Q stable in the central portion of the pinch off region The Q point should be
independent of device parameter variations and ambient temperature variations

This can be achievedby suitablyselecting thegatetosource voltageVGSand draincurrentID whichis

referred to as biasing

JFETbiasingcircuitsareverysimilartoBJTbiasing circuitsThemaindifferencebetweenJFET circuits and

BJT circuits is the operation of the active components themselves

TherearemainlytwotypesofBiasingcircuits

1. Selfbias
2. Voltagedividerbias.

5.13.1.SELFBIAS:-

SelfbiasisaJFETbiasingcircuitthatusesasourceresistortohelpreversebiastheJFETgate.
 Aselfbiascircuitisshowninthefig5.3

SelfbiasisthemostcommontypeofJFETbias.
ThisJFETmustbe operatedsuchthatgatesourcejunctionisalwaysreversebiased.
ThisconditionrequiresanegativeVGSforanNchannelJFETandapositiveVGSforPchannelJFET. This can be
achieved using the self bias arrangement as shown in Fig 5.3.
ThegateresistorRGdoesn’taffectthebiasbecause ithasessentiallynovoltagedropacrossit,and:
thegateremainsat0V.RGisnecessaryonlytoisolate anacsignalfromgroundinamplifierapplications. The voltage
drop across resistor RS makes gate source junction reverse biased.

DC analysis of self Bias:-

InthefollowingDCanalysis,theNchannelJFETshowninthefig5.4.isusedforillustration.

ForDCanalysiswecanreplacecouplingcapacitorsbyopencircuitsand we canalsoreplace the

resistor RG by a short circuitequivalent.

:.IG= 0

TherelationbetweenIDandVGSisgivenby

Id=Idss[1- ]2

VGS for N channel JFET is =-id Rs

Substutingthisvalueintheaboveequation
 Id=Idss[1- ]2

Id=Idss[1+ ]2
FortheN-chanelFETintheabovefigure

IsproducesavoltagedropacrossRsandmakesthesourcepositivew.r.tground

inanyJFETcircuitallthe source currentpassesthroughthedevicetodraincircuitthisisduetothe fact that there

is no significant gate current

thereforewecandefinesourcecurrentasIs=IdandVg=0then Vs= Is

Rs =IdRs

Vgs=Vg-Vs=0-IdRs=-IdRs

Drawingtheselfbiasline:-

TypicaltransfercharacteristicsforaselfbiasedJFETareshowninthefigure5.5below:

Themaximum draincurrent is6mAandthegatesource cutoffvoltageis -3V.Thismeansthegate voltage

has to be between 0 and -3V.

Now using theequation VGS = -IDRS and assuming RSofany suitable value we can draw theselfbias
line.

LetusassumeRS=500Ω

Withthis Rs , wecan plot twopoints corresponding toID =0 and Id=IDSS for

ID =0

VGS=-IDRS

VGS=0X(500.Ω)=0V
 Sothefirstpointis(0,0)

(Id,VGS)

ForID= IDSS=6mA

VGS=(-6mA)(500Ω)=-3V

Sothe2ndPointwillbe (6mA,-3V)

By plotting these two points, we can draw the straight line through the points. This line will
intersect the transconductance curve and it is known as self bias line. The intersection point gives the
operating point of the self bias JFET for the circuit.

At Q point ,the ID is slightly > than 2mA and VGS is slightly > -1V. The Q point forthe selfbias
JFET depends on the value of Rs.If Rs is large, Q point far down on the transconductance curve ,ID is
small,when Rs is small Q point is farup onthe curve ,ID is large.

5.13.2VOLTAGEDIVIDERBIAS:-

The fig5.6 shows N channel JFET with voltage divider bias. The voltage at the source of JFET
mustbemore positive than thevoltageatthe gatein order to keep thegateto sourcejunction reverse
biased. The source voltage is

VS=IDRS

The gate voltage is set by resistors R1 and R2 as expressed by the following equation using the
voltage divider formula.

Vg= Vdd
 Fordcanalysisfig5.5

ApplyingKVLtotheinputcircuit

VG-VGS-VS =0

::VGS=VG-Vs=VG-ISRS

VGS=VG-IDRS ::IS=ID

ApplyingKVLtotheinputcircuitweget

VDS+IDRD+VS-VDD =0

::VDS=VDD-IDRD-IDRS

VDS = VDD-ID (RD +RS)

TheQpoint ofaJFETamplifier,usingthevoltagedividerbias is IDQ = IDSS[1-

VGS/VP]2
VDSQ=VDD-ID(RD+RS)
 UNITIV
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
Concept of Feedback and types, Effects of negative feedback on amplifiers characteristics,
voltage series, current series, current shunt, and voltage shunt feedback amplifiers.

A practical amplifier has a gain of nearly one million i.e. its output is one million times the
input. Consequently, even a casual disturbance at the input will appear in the amplified form in
the output. There is a strong tendency in amplifiers to introduce hum due tosudden temperature
changes or stray electric and magnetic fields. Therefore, every high gain amplifier tends to give
noise along with signal in its output. The noise in the output of an amplifier is undesirable and
must be kept to as small a level as possible. The noise level in amplifiers can be reduced
considerably by the use of negative feedback i.e. by injecting a fraction of output in phase
opposition to the input signal. The object of this chapter is to consider the effects and methods
of providing negative feedback in transistoramplifiers.

Ideally an amplifiershould reproduce the input signal,with change in magnitude and

withorwithoutchangeinphase.Butsomeofthe shortcomingsoftheamplifiercircuitare

1. Changeinthevalueofthegainduetovariation insupplyingvoltage,temperature or due

tocomponents.
2. Distortioninwave-formduetononlinearitiesintheoperatingcharacters of
the Amplifying device.
3. Theamplifiermayintroducenoise(undesiredsignals)

Theabovedrawbackscanbeminimizingifweintroducefeedback.

CLASSIFICATIONOFAMPLIFIERS
Amplifierscanbeclassifiedbroadlyas:

1. Voltage amplifiers.
2. Currentamplifiers.
3. Tranconductanceamplifiers.
4. Tranresistanceamplifiers.
 ConceptofFeedback

An amplifier circuit simply increases the signal strength. But while amplifying, it just
increases the strength of its input signal whether it contains information or some noise along
withinformation. This noiseorsomedisturbance is introduced inthe amplifiers becauseoftheir
strong tendency to introduce hum due to sudden temperature changes or stray electric and
magnetic fields. Therefore, every high gain amplifier tends to give noise along with signal in its
output, which is very undesirable.

The noise level in the amplifier circuits can be considerably reduced by using negative
feedback done by injecting afractionofoutput in phase opposition tothe input signal.

PrincipleofFeedbackAmplifier
Afeedbackamplifiergenerallyconsistsoftwoparts.Theyaretheamplifier andthe feedback
circuit. The feedback circuit usually consists of resistors. The concept of feedback amplifier can
be understood from the following figure.

From the above figure, the gain of the amplifier is represented as A. the gain of the
amplifier is the ratio of output voltage Vo to the input voltage Vi. the feedback network
extractsavoltage Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of theamplifier.

This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative feedback, from the
signal voltage Vs. Now,
Vi=Vs+Vf=Vs+βVo
Vi=Vs−Vf=Vs−βVo
Thequantityβ=Vf/Voiscalledasfeedbackratioorfeedbackfraction.

Let us consider the case of negative feedback. The output V omust be equal to the input
voltage (Vs - βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the amplifier.
 Hence,
(Vs−βVo)A=Vo
Or
AVs−AβVo=Vo
Or
AVs=Vo(1+Aβ)
Therefore,
Vo= A
Vs 1+A

LetAfbetheoverallgain(gainwiththefeedback) oftheamplifier. This isdefinedastheratio of

output voltage Voto the applied signal voltage Vs,i.e.,
A
Af=
1+A

Theequationofgainofthefeedbackamplifier,withpositivefeedbackisgivenby
A
Af=
1−A

Thesearethestandardequationstocalculatethegainoffeedbackamplifiers.

TypesofFeedbacks
The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device back to the input is
knownas Feedback. It has beenfoundthat feedback is very usefulinreducing noise andmaking
the amplifier operation stable.

Depending upon whether the feedback signal aids or opposesthe input signal, there are two
types of feedbacks used.

PositiveFeedback
Thefeedbackinwhichthefeedback energyi.e.,eithervoltageorcurrentis inphasewith the
input signal and thus aids it is called asPositive feedback.

Boththeinputsignalandfeedbacksignalintroducesaphaseshiftof180othusmakinga
360oresultant phaseshift aroundthe loop,tobe finally inphase with the inputsignal.
Thoughthepositivefeedbackincreasesthegainoftheamplifier,ithasthe
disadvantages such as
 • Increasing distortion

• Instability

It is because of these disadvantages the positive feedback is not recommended for the
amplifiers.Ifthe positivefeedback issufficiently large,it leadstooscillations,by whichoscillator
circuits are formed.

NegativeFeedback
The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or current is out of phase
withthe input and thus opposes it, is called as negative feedback.

In negative feedback, the amplifier introduces aphase shift of 180 o into the circuit while
thefeedback network issodesignedthat it producesnophaseshiftorzerophaseshift. Thusthe
resultant feedback voltage Vfis 180o out ofphase withthe input signalVin.
Though the gain of negative feedback amplifier is reduced, there are many advantages of
negative feedback such as

• Stabilityofgainisimproved

• Reductionindistortion

• Reductioninnoise

• Increaseininputimpedance

• Decreaseinoutputimpedance

• Increaseintherangeofuniformapplication

Itisbecauseoftheseadvantagesnegativefeedbackisfrequentlyemployedinamplifiers.

Negative feedback in an amplifier is the method of feeding a portion ofthe amplified

outputtothe inputbut inoppositephase.The phaseoppositionoccursasthe amplifierprovides
180ophase shift whereas the feedback network doesn’t.

While the output energy is being applied tothe input,forthe voltage energy tobe taken as
feedback, the output is taken in shunt connection and for the current energy to be taken as
feedback, the output is taken in series connection.

Therearetwomaintypesofnegativefeedbackcircuits.Theyare−

• NegativeVoltageFeedback

• NegativeCurrentFeedback
 NegativeVoltageFeedback
Inthismethod,thevoltagefeedbacktotheinput ofamplifierisproportionaltothe output
voltage. This is further classified into twotypes −

• Voltage-seriesfeedback

• Voltage-shuntfeedback
NegativeCurrentFeedback
Inthismethod,thevoltagefeedbacktotheinput ofamplifierisproportionaltothe output
current. This is further classified into two types.

• Current-seriesfeedback

• Current-shunt feedback

Letushaveabriefideaonallofthem.

Voltage-Series Feedback
Inthevoltageseriesfeedbackcircuit,afractionoftheoutputvoltageisappliedinseries
withtheinputvoltagethroughthefeedbackcircuit.Thisisalsoknownasshunt-drivenseries- fed
feedback, i.e., a parallel-series circuit.

The following figure shows the block diagram of voltage series feedback, by which it is
evidentthatthefeedbackcircuit isplacedinshuntwiththeoutputbut inseries withtheinput.

As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output, the output impedance is
decreasedandduetotheseriesconnectionwiththeinput,the inputimpedanceisincreased.
 Voltage-ShuntFeedback
In the voltage shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in parallel
with the input voltage through the feedback network. This is also known as shunt-driven shunt-
fed feedbacki.e., a parallel-parallel proto type.

The below figure shows the block diagram ofvoltage shunt feedback,by whichit is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt withthe output andalso with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output and the input as well,both the
output impedance and the input impedance are decreased.

Current-SeriesFeedback

In the current series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series
with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also knownas series-driven series- fed
feedbacki.e., a series-series circuit.

The following figure shows the block diagram of current series feedback, by which it is
evident that the feedback circuit is placed inseries withthe output andalsowiththe input.

Asthefeedbackcircuitisconnectedinserieswiththeoutputandthe inputaswell,both the

output impedance and the input impedance are increased.
 UNIT –V
OSCILLATORS:
Classification of oscillators, Barkhausen criterion,RC phase
shift oscillator, Wein‐bridge oscillator, LC oscillators‐ Hartley
and Colpitts oscillator.

Oscillators:

An oscillator generates output without any ac input signal. An electronicoscillator is a circuit

which converts dc energy into ac at a very high frequency. An amplifier with a positive feedback
can be understood as an oscillator.

Amplifiervs.Oscillator
Anamplifierincreasesthesignalstrengthoftheinputsignalapplied,whereas
anoscillatorgeneratesa signalwithoutthat input signal,but it requiresdcforitsoperation. This is
the main difference between an amplifier and anoscillator.

Take a look at the following illustration. It clearly shows how an amplifier takesenergyfrom
d.c. power source and converts it into a.c. energy at signal frequency. An oscillator produces an
oscillating a.c. signal on its own.
 The frequency, waveform, and magnitude of a.c. power generated by an amplifier, is
controlled by the a.c. signal voltage applied at the input, whereas those for an oscillator are
controlled by thecomponents inthecircuit itself, whichmeans noexternalcontrolling voltageis
required.

Alternatorvs.Oscillator
An alternatoris a mechanical device that produces sinusoidal waves without any input. This
a.c. generating machine is used to generate frequencies up to 1000Hz. Theoutput frequency
depends onthe number of poles andthe speed of rotation of thearmature.

Thefollowingpointshighlightthedifferencesbetweenanalternatorandanoscillator−

• Analternatorconvertsmechanicalenergytoa.c.energy,whereastheoscillator
converts d.c. energy into a.c. energy.

• AnoscillatorcanproducehigherfrequenciesofseveralMHzwhereasanalternator
cannot.

• Analternatorhasrotatingparts,whereasanelectronicoscillatordoesn’t.

• Itiseasytochangethefrequencyofoscillationsinanoscillatorthaninan
alternator.

Oscillatorscanalsobeconsideredasoppositetorectifiersthatconverta.c.tod.c.asthese convert
d.c. to a.c.

ClassificationofOscillators
Electronicoscillatorsareclassifiedmainlyintothefollowingtwocategories−

• Sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a sine

waveformarecalled sinusoidalorharmonicoscillators. Suchoscillators canprovide
output at frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 1 GHz.

• Non-sinusoidalOscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a square,

rectangular or saw-tooth waveform are called non-sinusoidal or relaxation
oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to
20MHz.

SinusoidalOscillators
Sinusoidaloscillatorscanbeclassifiedinthefollowingcategories−
 • Tuned Circuit Oscillators − These oscillators use a tuned-circuit consisting of
inductors (L) and capacitors (C) and are used to generate high-frequency signals.
Thus they are also known as radio frequency R.F. oscillators. Such oscillators are
Hartley, Colpitts, Clapp-oscillators etc.

• RC Oscillators − There oscillators use resistors and capacitors and are used to
generate low or audio-frequency signals. Thus they are also known as audio-
frequency (A.F.) oscillators. Such oscillators are Phase –shift and Wein-bridge
oscillators.

• Crystal Oscillators − These oscillators use quartz crystals and are used to generate
highly stabilized output signalwith frequencies upto 10MHz. The Piezo oscillator is
an example of a crystal oscillator.

• Negative-resistance Oscillator − These oscillators use negative-resistance

characteristic of the devices such as tunnel devices. A tuned diode oscillator is an
example of a negative-resistance oscillator.

NatureofSinusoidalOscillations
Thenatureofoscillationsinasinusoidalwaveisgenerallyoftwotypes.Theyare
dampedandundampedoscillations.

DampedOscillations
Theelectricaloscillationswhoseamplitudegoesondecreasingwithtimearecalled as Damped
Oscillations. The frequency of the damped oscillations may remain constant depending upon
the circuit parameters.

Dampedoscillationsaregenerallyproducedbytheoscillatorycircuitsthatproducepower losses
and doesn’t compensate if required.
 UndampedOscillations
Theelectricaloscillationswhoseamplituderemainsconstantwithtimearecalledas
UndampedOscillations.Thefrequencyoftheundampedoscillationsremainsconstant.

Undamped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that produce
nopower losses andfollow compensation techniques if any power losses occur.
An amplifier with positive feedback produces its output to be in phase with the input and
increases the strength of the signal. Positive feedback is also called as degenerative feedback
ordirect feedback. This kind of feedback makes a feedback amplifier,an oscillator.

The use of positive feedback results in a feedback amplifier having closed-loop gain greater
than the open-loop gain. It results in instability and operates as an oscillatory circuit. An
oscillatorycircuit provides aconstantlyvarying amplified outputsignalofany desired frequency.

TheBarkhausenCriterion
With the knowledge we have till now, we understood that a practical oscillator circuit
consistsof atank circuit,atransistor amplifier circuitanda feedbackcircuit.so,let usnow try to
brushupthe concept of feedback amplifiers,to derive the gainofthe feedback amplifiers.

PrincipleofFeedbackAmplifier
A feedback amplifier generally consists oftwoparts.Theyaretheamplifier and the
feedback circuit. The feedback circuit usually consists of resistors. The concept of feedback
amplifier can be understood from the following figure below.
 From the above figure, the gain of the amplifier is represented as A. The gain of the
amplifier is the ratio ofoutput voltage Vo tothe input voltage V i. The feedback network extracts
avoltage Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of the amplifier.

This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative feedback, from the
signal voltage Vs.

So,forapositivefeedback,

Vi=Vs+Vf=Vs+βVo

Thequantityβ=Vf/Voiscalledasfeedbackratioorfeedbackfraction.

TheoutputVomustbeequaltothe inputvoltage(Vs+βVo)multipliedbythegainAofthe
amplifier.

Hence,

(Vs+βVo)A=Vo
Or
AVs+AβVo=Vo
Or
AVs=Vo(1−Aβ)
Therefore
𝑉𝑜 𝐴
=
𝑉𝑠 (1−𝐴𝛽)

LetAfbetheoverallgain(gainwiththefeedback) oftheamplifier. This isdefinedastheratio of

output voltage Voto the applied signal voltage Vs,i.e.,
𝐴𝑓
=𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑠
 fromtheabovetwoequations,wecanunderstandthat,theequationofgainofthefeedback
amplifier with positive feedback is given by
A
Af=
1−A
WhereAβisthefeedbackfactorortheloopgain.

IfAβ=1,Af=∞.Thusthegainbecomes infinity,i.e.,thereisoutputwithoutany input.In another

words, the amplifier works as an Oscillator.

TheconditionAβ=1iscalledasBarkhausenCriterionofoscillations.Thisisavery important
factor to be always kept inmind, in the concept of Oscillators

RC-Phase–shiftOscillators
PrincipleofPhase-shiftoscillators
We know that the output voltage of an RC circuit for a sinewave input leads the input
voltage.ThephaseanglebywhichitleadsisdeterminedbythevalueofRCcomponentsusedin the
circuit. The following circuit diagram shows asingle section of an RC network.

The output voltage V1’ across the resistor R leads the input voltage applied inputV1by some
phase angle ɸo. If Rwere reduced to zero, V1’will lead the V1 by 90o i.e.,ɸo=90o.

However, adjusting R to zero would be impracticable, because it would lead to no voltage

across R. Therefore, in practice, R is varied to such a value that makes V 1’ to lead V1 by 60o. The
following circuit diagram shows the three sections ofthe RC network.

Eachsectionproducesaphaseshiftof60o.Consequently,atotalphaseshiftof180ois produced,
i.e., voltage V2 leads the voltage V1 by 180o.
 Phase-shiftOscillatorCircuit
The oscillator circuit that produces a sine wave using a phase-shift network is called as a
Phase-shift oscillator circuit. The constructional details and operation of a phase-shift oscillator
circuit are as given below.

Construction
The phase-shift oscillator circuit consists of a single transistor amplifier section and a RC
phase-shift network. The phase shift network in this circuit, consists of three RC sections. At the
resonant frequency fo, the phase shift in each RC section is 60o so that the total phase shift
produced by RC network is 180o.

ThefollowingcircuitdiagramshowsthearrangementofanRCphase-shift oscillator.

Thefrequencyofoscillationsisgivenby

Where
 Operation
The circuit when switched ON oscillates at the resonant frequency f o. The output Eo of the
amplifier is fed back toRC feedback network. This network produces a phase shift of 180oanda
voltage Ei appears at its output. This voltage is applied tothe transistor amplifier.

Thefeedbackappliedwillbe

m=Ei/Eo
The feedback is in correct phase, whereas the transistor amplifier, which is in CE
configuration,producesa180ophaseshift.Thephaseshiftproducedbynetworkandthe
transistoradd toform a phase shift around the entire loop which is 360o.

Advantages
TheadvantagesofRCphaseshiftoscillatorareasfollows−

• Itdoesnotrequiretransformersorinductors.

• Itcanbeusedtoproduceverylowfrequencies.

• Thecircuitprovidesgoodfrequencystability.
Disadvantages
ThedisadvantagesofRCphaseshiftoscillatorareasfollows−

• Startingtheoscillationsisdifficultasthefeedbackissmall.

• Theoutputproducedissmall.

Another type of popular audio frequency oscillator is the Wien bridge oscillator circuit.
This is mostly used because of its important features. This circuit is free from the circuit
fluctuations and the ambient temperature.

Themain advantageofthisoscillatoristhatthefrequencycanbevariedin therangeof 10Hz toabout

1MHz whereas in RC oscillators, the frequency is not varied.

Wienbridge
oscillator
Construction
The circuit construction of Wien bridge oscillator can be explained as below. It is a two-
stageamplifierwithRCbridgecircuit.ThebridgecircuithasthearmsR1C1,R3,R2C2andthe
tungstenlampLp.ResistanceR3andthelampLp areusedtostabilizetheamplitudeofthe output.
 ThefollowingcircuitdiagramshowsthearrangementofaWienbridgeoscillator.

The transistor T1 serves as an oscillator and an amplifier while the other transistor T2 serves
as an inverter. The inverter operation provides a phase shift of 180 o. This circuitprovides positive
feedback through R1C1, C2R2 to the transistor T1 and negative feedback through the voltage
divider to the input of transistor T2.

The frequency of oscillations is determinedby the series element R1C1 andparallelelement

R2C2 of the bridge.

IfR1=R2andC1=C2=C

Then,
 Now,wecansimplifytheabovecircuitasfollows−

The oscillator consists of two stages of RC coupled amplifier and a feedback network. The
voltage across the parallel combination of R and C is fed to the input of amplifier 1. The net
phase shift through the two amplifiers is zero.

The usual idea of connecting the output of amplifier 2 to amplifier 1 to provide signal
regeneration for oscillator is not applicable here as the amplifier 1 will amplify signals over a
wide range of frequencies and hence direct coupling would result inpoorfrequency stability. By
adding Wienbridgefeedbacknetwork,theoscillatorbecomessensitivetoaparticularfrequency and
hence frequency stability is achieved.

Operation
When the circuit is switched ON, the bridge circuit produces oscillations of the frequency
stated above. The two transistors produce a total phase shift of 360 o so that proper positive
feedback is ensured. The negative feedback in the circuit ensures constant output. This is
achievedby temperature sensitive tungstenlamp Lp. Its resistance increases with current.

If the amplitude of the output increases, more current is produced and more negative
feedback is achieved. Due to this,the output would return to the originalvalue. Whereas, if the
output tends to decrease, reverse action would take place.

Advantages
TheadvantagesofWienbridgeoscillatorareasfollows−

• Thecircuitprovidesgoodfrequencystability.
 • Itprovidesconstantoutput.

• Theoperationofcircuitisquiteeasy.

• Theoverallgainishighbecause oftwotransistors.

• Thefrequencyofoscillationscanbechangedeasily.

• Theamplitudestabilityoftheoutputvoltagecanbemaintainedmoreaccurately,by
replacing R2 with a thermistor.

Disadvantages
ThedisadvantagesofWienbridgeoscillatorareas follows−

• Thecircuitcannotgenerateveryhighfrequencies.

• Twotransistorsandnumberofcomponentsarerequiredforthecircuitconstruction.

LCOscillators

An oscillatory circuit produces electrical oscillations of a desired frequency. They are also
known as tank circuits.

A simple tank circuit comprises of an inductor L and a capacitor C both of which together
determine the oscillatory frequency of the circuit.

To understand the concept of oscillatory circuit, let us consider the following circuit. The
capacitor in this circuit is already charged using a dc source. In this situation, the upper plate of
the capacitor has excess of electrons whereas the lower plate has deficit of electrons. The
capacitor holds some electrostatic energy and there is avoltage across the capacitor.

Whenthe switch S is closed, the capacitor discharges andthe current flows through the
inductor.Duetotheinductiveeffect,thecurrentbuildsupslowlytowardsamaximum
value.Oncethecapacitor dischargescompletely,themagneticfieldaroundthecoilis maximum.
 Now, let us move on to the next stage. Once the capacitor is discharged completely, the
magnetic field begins to collapse and produces a counter EMF according to Lenz’s law. The
capacitor is now charged with positive charge on the upper plate and negative charge on the
lowerplate.

Oncethecapacitorisfullycharged,itstartstodischargetobuildupamagneticfieldaroundth
e coil, as shown in the following circuit diagram.

This continuation of charging and discharging results in alternating motion of electrons or

an oscillatory current. The interchange of energy between L and C produce continuous
oscillations.

In an ideal circuit, where there are no losses, the oscillations would continue indefinitely. In
a practical tank circuit, there occur losses such as resistive and radiation losses in the coil and
dielectric losses in the capacitor. These losses result in damped oscillations.

FrequencyofOscillations
The frequency of the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are determined by the
components of the tank circuit, the L and the C. The actual frequency of oscillations is the
resonantfrequency (ornatural frequency) of the tank circuit which is givenby
1
fr=
2LC
Capacitanceofthecapacitor
 The frequency of oscillation fois inversely proportional to the square rootofthe capacitance
of a capacitor. So, if the value of the capacitor used is large, the charge and discharge time
periods will be large. Hence the frequency will be lower.

Mathematically,the frequency,

fo1
C
Self-Inductance ofthecoil
The frequency of the oscillation fo is proportional to the square root of the self-inductance
of the coil. If the value of the inductance is large, the opposition to change of current flow is
greater and hence the time required to complete each cycle will be longer, which means time
period will be longer and frequency will be lower.

Mathematically,thefrequency,

fo1
L
Combiningboththeaboveequations,
f 1
o
LC
fo= 1
2LC
The above equation, though indicates the output frequency, matchesthenaturalfrequency
or resonance frequency of the tank circuit.
An Oscillator circuit is a complete set of all the parts of circuit which helps to produce the
oscillations. These oscillations shouldsustainand shouldbe Undampedas just discussedbefore.
Let us try to analyze a practical Oscillator circuit to have a better understanding on how an
Oscillator circuit works.

PracticalOscillatorCircuit
A Practical Oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, a transistor amplifier, and a feedback
circuit. The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement ofa practical oscillator.
Letusnowdiscussthepartsofthispracticaloscillatorcircuit.

Tank Circuit − The tank circuit consists of an inductance L connected in parallel with
capacitor C. The values of these two components determine the frequency ofthe oscillator
circuit and hence this is called as Frequency determining circuit.

• Transistor Amplifier − The output of the tank circuit is connected to the amplifier
circuit so that the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are amplifiedhere. Hence
the output of these oscillations are increasedby theamplifier.

• FeedbackCircuit− Thefunction of feedbackcircuitistotransfer apartofthe output

energy to LC circuit in proper phase. This feedback is positive in oscillators while
negative inamplifiers.

FrequencyStabilityofanOscillator
The frequency stability of an oscillator is a measure of its ability to maintain a constant
frequency, over a long time interval. When operated over a longer period of time, the oscillator
frequency may havea drift from the previously setvalue either by increasing orby decreasing.

Thechangeinoscillatorfrequencymayariseduetothefollowingfactors−

• OperatingpointoftheactivedevicesuchasBJTorFETusedshouldlieinthelinear region
ofthe amplifier. Its deviation willaffect the oscillatorfrequency.

• Thetemperaturedependencyoftheperformanceofcircuitcomponentsaffectthe
oscillator frequency.

• Thechangesind.c.supplyvoltageappliedtotheactivedevice,shifttheoscillator
frequency. This can be avoided ifa regulated powersupply isused.

• Achangeinoutput loadmaycauseachangeintheQ-factorofthetank circuit,

thereby causing a change in oscillator output frequency.

• Thepresenceofinterelementcapacitancesandstraycapacitancesaffectthe
oscillator output frequency and thus frequency stability.

Tuned circuit oscillators are the circuits that produce oscillations with the help of tuning
circuits. The tuning circuits consists of an inductance L and a capacitor C. These are also known
as LC oscillators, resonant circuit oscillators or tank circuit oscillators.
 The tuned circuit oscillators are used to produce an output with frequencies ranging from 1
MHz to 500 MHz Hence these are also known as R.F. Oscillators. A BJT or a FET is used as an
amplifierwithtunedcircuit oscillators. WithanamplifierandanLC tank circuit,we canfeedback a
signalwith right amplitude and phase to maintain oscillations.

TypesofTunedCircuitOscillators
Most ofthe oscillators used in radio transmitters andreceivers are of LC oscillators type.
Depending upon the way the feedback is used in the circuit,the LC oscillators are dividedas the
following types.

• HartleyOscillator−Itusesinductivefeedback.

• ColpittsOscillator−Itusescapacitivefeedback.

• ClappOscillator−Itusescapacitivefeedback.

HartleyOscillator

A very popular local oscillator circuit that is mostly used in radio receivers is the Hartley
Oscillator circuit. The constructional details and operation of a Hartley oscillator areas discussed
below.

Construction
In the circuit diagram of a Hartley oscillator shown below,the resistors R1,R2 and Re provide
necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor Ce provides a.c. ground thereby providing
any signal degeneration. This also provides temperature stabilization.

The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio
frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which means it
shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps a.c. currents
out of d.c. supply source

TankCircuit
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of the
inductors L1andL2along withavariable capacitor C. Thejunction ofL1 andL2 areearthed.
ThecoilL1has itsoneend connectedtobaseviaCcandtheothertoemitterviaCe.So,L2 is in the
output circuit. Both the coilsL1and L2 are inductivelycoupled and together form anAuto-
transformer.

ThefollowingcircuitdiagramshowsthearrangementofaHartleyoscillator.Thetank circuit
is shuntfed in this circuit. It canalso be a series-fed.
 Operation
Whenthecollectorsupply is given,atransient current is produced intheoscillatory ortank
circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across L1.

The auto-transformer made by the inductive coupling of L1 and L2 helps in determining the
frequency and establishes the feedback.AstheCEconfiguredtransistorprovides180ophase shift,
another 180o phase shift is provided by the transformer, which makes 360 o phase shift between
the input and outputvoltages.

This makes the feedback positive which is essential for the condition of oscillations. When
theloop gain |βA| of theamplifier is greater than one,oscillations are sustained in the circuit.

Frequency
TheequationforfrequencyofHartleyoscillatorisgivenas
 Here,LTisthetotalcumulativelycoupledinductance;L1andL2representinductancesof 1stand
2ndcoils; and M represents mutual inductance.

Mutualinductanceiscalculatedwhentwowindingsareconsidered.

Advantages
TheadvantagesofHartleyoscillatorare

• Insteadofusinga largetransformer,asinglecoilcanbeusedasanauto-
transformer.

• Frequencycanbevariedbyemployingeitheravariablecapacitororavariable
inductor.

• Lessnumberofcomponentsaresufficient.

• Theamplitudeoftheoutputremainsconstantoverafixedfrequencyrange.

Disadvantages
ThedisadvantagesofHartleyoscillatorare

• Itcannotbea lowfrequencyoscillator.

• Harmonicdistortionsarepresent.

Applications
TheapplicationsofHartleyoscillatorare

• Itisusedtoproduceasinewaveofdesiredfrequency.

• Mostlyusedasalocaloscillatorinradioreceivers.

• ItisalsousedasR.F.Oscillator.

Colpittsoscillator
AColpitts oscillatorlooks just liketheHartley oscillatorbut theinductors andcapacitors are
replaced with each other in the tank circuit. The constructional details and operation of a
colpitts oscillator are as discussed below.
 Construction
LetusfirsttakealookatthecircuitdiagramofaColpittsoscillator.

The resistors R1, R2and Reprovidenecessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor Ce
provides a.c. ground thereby providing any signal degeneration. This also provides temperature
stabilization.

The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio
frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which means it
shorts for d.c. and opens fora.c. Hence it provides d.c. load forcollector andkeeps a.c. currents
out of d.c. supply source.

TankCircuit
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of variable
capacitors C1and C2along with an inductor L. The junction of C1and C2are earthed.The capacitor
C1 has its one end connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. the voltage
developedacrossC1 provides the regenerative feedback required forthe sustainedoscillations.

Operation
Whenthecollectorsupplyisgiven,atransientcurrentisproducedintheoscillatory ortank circuit.
The oscillatory current inthe tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across C1 whichare
appliedtothe baseemitterjunctionandappear inthe amplified form inthe collectorcircuit and
supply losses to the tank circuit.

If terminal 1 is at positive potential with respect to terminal 3 at any instant, then terminal
2 will be at negative potential with respect to 3 at that instant because terminal 3 is grounded.
Therefore, points 1 and 2 are out of phase by 180o.

AstheCEconfiguredtransistorprovides 180ophaseshift,itmakes360ophaseshift between the

input and output voltages. Hence, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous
Undamped oscillations. When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one,
oscillations are sustained in the circuit.

Frequency
TheequationforfrequencyofColpittsoscillatorisgivenas

CTisthetotalcapacitance ofC1andC2connectedinseries.

Advantages
TheadvantagesofColpittsoscillatorareasfollows−

• Colpittsoscillatorcangeneratesinusoidalsignalsofveryhighfrequencies.

• Itcanwithstandhighandlowtemperatures.

• Thefrequencystabilityishigh.

• Frequencycanbevariedbyusingboththevariablecapacitors.

• Lessnumberofcomponentsaresufficient.

• Theamplitudeoftheoutputremainsconstantoverafixedfrequencyrange.

The Colpitts oscillator is designed to eliminate the disadvantages of Hartley oscillator and is
known to have no specific disadvantages. Hence there are many applications of a colpitts
oscillator.
 TheoperationofClapposcillatorcircuitis inthesamewayasthatofColpittsoscillator.Thefrequency
of oscillator is given by the relation,

Where

Usually,the value of C3 ismuchsmallerthan C1 andC2.Asa result ofthis, C

isapproximatelyequal to C3. Therefore, the frequency of oscillation,

It is understood that the Clapp oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator, however they
differinthe way the inductances andcapacitances are arranged. The frequency stability though is
good, can be variable in a Clapp oscillator.

A Clapp oscillator is sometimes preferred over a Colpitts oscillator for constructinga variable
frequency oscillator. The Clapp oscillators are used in receiver tuning circuits as a frequency
oscillator.

One ofthe important features ofan oscillator is that the feedback energy appliedshouldbe in
correct phase to the tank circuit. The oscillator circuits discussed so farhasemployed
inductor(L)and capacitor (C) combination,in the tank circuit orfrequency determiningcircuit.

We have observed that the LC combination in oscillators provide 180o phase shift and
transistor in CE configuration provide180°phase shift to make a total of 360 o phase shift sothat it
would make a zero difference in phase.

DrawbacksofLCcircuits
Thoughtheyhavefewapplications,theLCcircuitshavefewdrawbackssuchas

• Frequencyinstability

• Waveformispoor

• Cannotbeusedforlowfrequencies

• Inductorsarebulkyandexpensive
 Whenever an oscillator is under continuous operation, its frequency stability gets
affected. There occur changes in its frequency. The main factors that affect the frequency of an
oscillatorare

• Powersupplyvariations

• Changesintemperature

• Changesinloadoroutputresistance

In RC and LC oscillators the values of resistance, capacitance and inductance vary with
temperature and hence the frequency gets affected. In order to avoid this problem, the piezo
electric crystals are being used in oscillators.