THERMAL EXPANSION

Thermal expansion
 The word thermal comes from the Greek word ‘thermos’ meaning heat. Thermal
expansion is a result of an increase in spaces between atoms in the substance.
 Thermal expansion is the tendency for substance to increase in size when heat is added to
it.
Definition of Temperature
Temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of the body. The SI unit of temperature is
Kelvin after a Physist Lord Kelvin. The commonly used unit is also degree Celsius (℃)

Difference between heat and Temperature.

▪ Temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of a body while heat is the form of
energy which passes from a body of high temperature to a body of low temperature.
▪ Heat is the measure of the total internal energy contained in an object while temperature
is the measure of the level of heat energy.
▪ Heat is measured in joules (J) while temperature is measured in Kelvin (K).
NB: Although heat and temperature are different there is some relationship e.g. an increase in
temperature signifies an increase in heat energy.

Thermal expansion in solids

When a solid is heated, the molecules vibrate with larger amplitude about their fixed positions.
This makes them collide with each other with larger forces which push them far apart. The
distance between the molecules increases hence a solid increase in size.

Describe an experiment to show the expansion of solids

a. Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram above

b. Pass the ball through the ring
c. Heat the ball and allow it pass through the ring again
The ball passes through the ring when it was cold. When the ball was heated it did not pass
through the ring. The metal ball has increased in size that’s why its falling to pass through the
ring when heated.
With the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe an experiment that could be done to show
that solids expand by different amounts when heated equally
• Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram below

• Hold the bimetallic strip with tongs in the burner flame and observe what happens

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Heating the bimetallic strip using the same bursen burner, brass expands faster and greater than
invar hence brass bends towards invar. Although both brass and invar were equally heated,
brass has greater expansion rate than invar.

Expansion rate of different solids at their increasing rate.

Solid
Aluminium Most
Brass
Copper
Steel
Platinum
Ordinary glass
Pyrex glass
Least

EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS
When the liquid is heated, the motion of molecules increases and they spread farther apart so the
liquid occupies a greater volume. Therefore, the liquid expands when it is heated. Liquids
expand much more than solids.

With the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe an experiment that could be done to show
that different liquids expand by different amounts when heated equally

a. Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram above

b. Heat some water to boiling point using the heater and place it a water bath
c. Tie the three test tubes A, B and C together and place them inside the water bath while
stirring the hot water to ensure even distribution of heat in contact with tubes
d. Observe the level of the liquids in the test tubes.
The volume of alcohol will be higher followed by paraffin and lastly water. The liquid levels have
risen by different amounts because the liquids have different rate of expansivity. Therefore, various
liquids expand at various rates when they are at the same temperature or equally heated.
Particle behavior during thermal expansion in liquids
o Liquid molecules are loosely packed and move freely.
o The force of attraction between their molecules is weaker than in solids
o On heating, the speed of the molecules increases.
o The collisions between the molecules increase the distance between the particles causing
the liquid to expand (increase in volume).

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 THERMAL EXPANSION OF GASES
▪ Like solids and liquids, gases expand on heating and contract on cooling.
▪ However, gases expand more than liquids and solids because their molecules move
furthest on heating.
▪ When a gas is heated, gas molecules gain kinetic energy and intermolecular force holding
the particles gets weakened further. This increases distance between particles hence
volume increases then particles move in random at higher frequency.
▪ Same quantities of different gases expand by the same amount when heated equally and
under the same pressure.

Gas A and gas B will expand with the same amount when equally heated. Water indices
will be at the same level because the gases have unform expansion.
Investigating rate of expansion in gases

a. Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.

b. Mark the lower level of the coloured index in each glass tube and put in the test tubes in
the rack
c. Put the test tubes while still in the rack into a container with hot water. Observe what
happens
d. Water indexes rose up the same distance in all glass tubes. Gases expand by the same
amount when equally heated
EXPANSION INTERMS OF PARTICLE BEHAVIOUR
When a substance is heated, its temperature rises. The rise in temperature increases the kinetic
energy of its particles. The particles move further apart and increase the volume. When a
substance increases its volume without gaining any matter, we say that the substance expands.

When a substance is cooled, its temperature decreases. The decrease in temperature decreases the
kinetic energy of its particles. The particles move closer to each other and decrease the volume.
When a substance decreases its volume without losing any matter, we say that the
substance contracts.

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ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

As the temperature of water increases from 00C to 40C the level of water in the tube falls
showing that water contracts on heating from 00C to 40C. Beyond 40C the level of water in the
tube rises showing that the volume of water increases on heating. At 40C water has the minimum
volume. This shows that water does not expand uniformly with an increase in temperature.

From 0℃ to 4℃ density of water increases. Density is maximum at 4℃. Beyond 4℃ density

decreases as shown in the graph below.

EFFECTS OF UNUSUAL EXPANSION OF WATER

(a) Bursting of water pipes
▪ Water pipes can burst when water flowing through them cools from 4℃ to 0℃
and freezes to ice. This is because on freezing the volume of water increases.
(b) Weathering of rocks

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 ▪ When water freezes in the cracks of a rock, the volume of water increases on
cooling from 4℃ to 0℃. This causes the rock to break into small pieces, resulting
into weathering of rocks.
(c) It causes weathering of soil. In winter the ground is saturated with water and water
freezes. There is a large expansion which forces the soil apart.
(d) Survival of aquatic organisms in freezer of lakes and ponds
▪ Water on top freezes to ice at 0℃ and floats. The fish and other aquatic animals
survives in the liquid water at 4℃ below the ice during cold weather.

(e) It causes breaking of a bottle.

APPLICATION OF THERMAL EXPANSION

(a) Separation of objects
A metallic bottle to that is too tight to be unscrewed is placed in hot water to get heated.
When the bottle top receives heat it expands and gets unscrewed easily.
(b) Fitting steel tyres or steel wheels
A tyre which has smaller diameter than the wheel is expanded by uniform heating. The
expanded is then slipped over the wheel and it contracts and makes a tight fit on cooling.
(c) Metal reverting

A hot revert (small metal) is placed into revert hole and its ends are hammered under
intensive heating. On cooling it contracts and pulls the plates being joined, together.
(d) Loose fitting of electric cables
The electric wires transmitting electricity on the national grid are loosely held to give
room for expansion and contraction as the weather changes.

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(e) Shrink-fitting:
An axle which is too big to be fitted into the hole then it is cooled in nitrogen to contract.
The hole is expanded by frequent heating. The axle is hammered flat into the hole. In
regaining normal temperature, it fits tight.
(f) Weathering:
It is the breaking down of rocks to form soil. It happens when a rock is subjected to
frequent contraction and expansion. It becomes loose, develops cracks and later
disintegrates into small fragments.
(g) Construction of brick fences:
Gaps are left at intervals when constructing brick fences in order to provide room for
expansion and construction otherwise it may collapse.
(h) Functioning of liquid-in –glass thermometer
Rapid expansion and contraction of the liquid assist in reading temperatures scales.
(i) Separation of stuck tumblers

The outside tumbler is momentarily placed in hot water making sure that the water should not
get into the inner tumbler. On the other hand, cold water can be put in the inner tumbler at the
same time. The outer tumbler expands hence the tumblers loosen. The inner tumbler can thus
be pulled out.
(j) Bimetallic strip.

When the temperature of an element is increased, the element gets heated and expands.
This makes the bimetallic strip to bend and breaks the circuit. This cools the bimetallic
strip and gets reconnected again switching on the current automatically.

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 (k) Electricity transmission lines are loosely fixed to give room for expansion and
contraction.
Applications of expansions in liquids
(a) Thermometers. They use mercury or alcohol as their thermometric substance since they
expand and contract uniformly to detect temperature.
(b) Support of marine life. Anomalous expansion of water makes the aquatic life to survive
since the cooling of water increases the water volume at 4℃ as such animals that needs
large volume of water.
Applications of expansion of gases
(a) Providing motion
A mixture of air and petrol in a car engine ignites spark from the plug inside the engine.
Hot gases are produced which expand with greater force that pushes the pistons inside the
engine. The piston movement makes the rotation of crankshaft. This brings movement of
the car.
(b) The hot gases released in rocket or jet engines at high velocity through the nozzles at the
rear of the jet results in a forward thrust.
(c) Thermal expansion is used in constant volume gas thermometer which determines
temperature by using pressure.
(d) Repair of dents on tennis balls. The gas expansion is used in repairing of dents on a table
tennis ball. Warming of a table tennis ball causes the air inside it to expand hence
pushing out any dent.
MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
2022 – 2a
Give any two effects of the unusual expansion of water (2 marks)
2022 – 8a
(ii) Give two effects of anomalous expansion of water. (2 marks)
2020 – 8
a. Describe how shrink fitting method could be applied to make tight fits. (3 marks)
2010-8.
e. Describe how expansion and contraction of metals is used in shrink fitting. (3 marks)
2020 – 8c
Describe how shrink fitting method could be applied to make tight fits. (3 marks)
2019 – 5
Figure 3 is a diagram showing a device which switches on and off electricity automatically in an
electric appliance. Use it to answer the questions that follow.

a. Name the device

b. Explain how the device works. (4 marks)
c. Mention any two electrical appliances which use the device.
2019 – 12
1. a. Figure 9 is a graph showing the behaviour of water when heated.

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Describe the behaviour of water according to the graph. (5 marks)
2010-33.
a. Why are gases easy to compress? (1 mark)
b. State any three negative effects of expansion in our everyday life. (3 marks)
2008-33.
Figure 6 shows a setup of an investigation.

a. What was the aim of the investigation? (1 mark)

b. What would happen to the water index after some time? (1 mark)
c. Give a reason for the answer in 33.b. (2 marks)

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

1. NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
It states that a body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless
acted upon by an external force.
INERTIA AND MASS
• Inertia is the resistance of a body to change its state of motion
APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
• Coin supported by a piece of paper over a box. If the card is given a sharp push (flicked
away), the coin will stay as it is i.e. in a state of rest because of inertia. But the paper will
not be there to support it. The coin will therefore just fall down into the box below after
the paper is removed.
• When a car stops suddenly, its occupants lurch forward in an attempt to continue
moving.
• When standing on a bus and suddenly the bus moves you fall backwards. Your body will
try to stay in the state of rest as the bus was before it started moving.
• A pilot jumping from space craft will continue to travel at the same speed and direction
like the spacecraft.

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 • When you are in a car and the driver starts the car without you noticing, you pull backwards
because you want to remain stationary.
• During collision of two vehicles, passengers hit the windscreen. An external force stops the
vehicle, but the passengers continue their straight-line motion.
• A person riding a bicycle on a level ground does not come to rest immediately he stops
pedaling. The bicycle continues to move forward, but eventually comes to rest due to an
external force called frictional force.
• Blood rushes from your head to your feet while quickly stopping when riding on a
descending elevator.
• The head of a hammer can be tightened onto the wooden handle by banging the bottom of the
handle against a hard surface.
1. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
• It states that the force acting on a body is directly proportional to the product of its mass and
acceleration.
• It also states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the force applied and takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
DERIVATION OF 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 FORMULA
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝐹) ∝
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝐹) ∝
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 𝑣−𝑢
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = = 𝑚( )
𝑡 𝑡
𝑣−𝑢
𝐵𝑢𝑡 =𝑎
𝑡
Thus 𝐹 ∝ 𝑚𝑎 then 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑚𝑎 where k is a constant of proportionality
Taking 𝑘 = 1 therefore 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
1𝑁 = 1𝐾𝑔𝑚/𝑠 2
1 Newton is defined as the force which when it acts on a mass of 1Kg it gives it an acceleration
of 1𝑚/𝑠 2
EXAMPLES
1. A body originally at rest attains a velocity of 30m/s in 6 seconds of its motion. Calculate
its acceleration. If the body weighs 60kg what will be the value of the force that brings
the acceleration?
𝑢 = 0 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑣 = 30 𝑚/𝑠 , 𝑚 = 60𝑘𝑔, 𝑡 = 6𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
𝑣 − 𝑢 30𝑚/𝑠 − 0𝑚/𝑠
𝑎= = = 5𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 6𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 60𝑘𝑔 × 5𝑚/𝑠 = 300𝑁
2. A 200kg car changes its speed from 15m/s to 45 m/s in 10 seconds. Work out the force
that cause the car’s acceleration. 𝑚 = 200𝑘𝑔, 𝑢 = 15𝑚/𝑠, 𝑣 = 45𝑚/𝑠, 𝑡 = 10
seconds.
𝑣 − 𝑢 45𝑚/𝑠 − 15𝑚/𝑠 30𝑚/𝑠
𝑎= = = = 3𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 10𝑠 10𝑠
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 200𝑘𝑔 × 3𝑚/𝑠 2 = 600𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠 2 = 600𝑁
APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
Newton’s second law of motion has the following applications:
• Finding the weight of a body.
W=mxg
• Used in analysing physical situations as follows:
The magnitude of any individual force can be determined if the mass of the object and the
acceleration of the object are known. When a force acts on an object, the object
accelerates in the direction of the force. If the mass of an object is held constant,

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 increasing force will increase acceleration. If the force on an object remains constant,
increasing mass will decrease acceleration.
3. NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
• It states that for every force of action acting on a body there is an equal and opposite
force of reaction to the body.
• It can also be cheaply expressed as for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
• Stepping from a rowing boat. When stepping the boat is pushed backwards then the boat
pushes a person forward with equal and opposite force of reaction
• Walking: Feet push backwards on the ground. The ground pushes forward against your
foot with an equal and opposite force of reaction. Therefore, a frictional force between
your feet and the ground is essential for forward motion.
• Kicking a football. The football is kicked forward then the ball pushes the foot with equal
and opposite force of reaction.
• Cannonball explosion. The ball and cannon act on each other with equal and opposite
forces.
• Vehicles move along a road because the reaction of the road pushes the car along in
response to the action of the wheels pushing on the road.
• Propulsion of a fish through the water. A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. But a
push on the water will only serve to accelerate the water. Since forces result from mutual
interactions, the water must also be pushing the fish forwards, propelling the fish through
the water. The size of the force on the water equals the size of the force on the fish.
• The bird flies by using its wings. The wings of a bird push air downwards. Since forces
result from mutual interactions, the air must also be pushing the bird upwards. The size of
the force on the air equals the size of the force on the bird. The direction of the force on
the air (downwards) is opposite to the direction of the force on the bird (upwards). For
every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-
reaction force pairs make it possible for a bird fly.
• When a gun is fired, the bullet travels in one direction while the gun recoils backwards.
Although the two forces are equal and opposite, the bullet’s velocity is greater than that
of the gun

• A balloon will always move in the opposite direction when the air inside it is released i.e.
a principle that rockets and jet engines use. The force (action) of the air coming out exerts
an equal and opposite force (reaction) on the balloon making it move.
• The water sprinkler works on action and reaction principle. The sprinkler rotates in the
direction opposite to that of the water jet.

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LINEAR MOMENTUM
• Is defined as the product of mass and velocity of the body. i.e 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠 ×
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
• SI unit of momentum is 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠.
• Momentum is a vector quantity.
• The direction of the momentum is the same as that of velocity.
EXAMPLES
2. A car of mass 600kg moves with a velocity of 40 m/s. Calculate the momentum of the
car.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 600𝑘𝑔 × 40𝑚/𝑠 = 24000𝑘𝑔/𝑠
IMPULSE
• The product of force and time
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝐹) × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑡)
• The SI Unit of impulse is Newton – second (Ns)
• 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
• 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
EXAMPLE
A hammer strikes a metal rod with a force of 20N. If the impulse lasts 0.4s, calculate the
impulse due to this force.
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 200𝑁 𝑥 0.4 𝑠 = 80𝑁𝑠

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

• It states that two or more bodies collide, their total momentum remains constant provided
no external forces are acting.
• It can also be stated that the total momentum before collision is equal to the total
momentum after collision
DERIVING THE LINAER MOMENTUM FORMULA
Two objects A and B of masses 𝑚𝐴 and 𝑚𝐵 are moving in the same direction with different
velocities

On collision, A pushes B with a force FA and B reacts by pushing A with an equal and opposite
force FB i.e. FA = FB
Since time spent in colliding is the same, A experiences an impulse 𝐹𝐵 𝑡 from B while B also
experience an impulse 𝐹𝐴 t from A.
Therefore, 𝐹𝐵 𝑡 = 𝐹𝐴 𝑡 (i)
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢

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Letting the final velocities of A and B be 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 respectively
Then, 𝐹𝐵 𝑡 = 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑚𝐴 𝑢𝐴 … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝐹𝐴 𝑡 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵 … … … … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Equating (ii) and (iii)
𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑚𝐴 𝑢𝐴 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵
𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵
𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵 = 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵
But 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
and 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

COLLISION
▪ A collision is an event in which moving bodies exert force on each other for a short time.
▪ During collusions bodies experience force leading to change in momentum
Types of collision
(a) Elastic collision
• In this type of collusion objects bounce back from the point of collusion.
• Both momentum and kinetic energy of the bodies are conserved. This is possible
within atoms.
• Examples of elastic collusions include; two inflated balls collide, collusion of gas
particles.
EXAMPLE
A cannon of mass 800kg fired a cannon ball of mass 3kg at a velocity of 120m/s. find the recoil
velocity of the cannon.
𝑚1 = 3𝑘𝑔, 𝑢 = 0𝑚/𝑠, 𝑣 = 120𝑚/𝑠, 𝑚2 = 800𝑘𝑔, 𝑢2 = 0, 𝑣2 =?
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
3 × 0 + 800 × 0 = 3 × 120 + 180 × 𝑣2
0 = 360 + 800𝑣2
−800𝑣2 = 360
360
𝑣2 = = −0.45𝑚/𝑠
800
The cannon recoiled backwards at a velocity of 0.45m/s. the negative value in the velocity shows
that the cannon moved (recoiled) in the opposite direction.

(b) Inelastic collisions

• In this kind of collusion object stick to each other when they collide and move
together in a single direction with the same velocity.
• Kinetic energies of the bodies are lost to sound and heat. Their total momentum is
conserved.
• Examples of inelastic collusions include; collusion of cars, bullet fired at a piece of
wood.
Example:
A mass of 3kg moving with a velocity of 4m/s collides with another mass of 2kg which is
stationary. After collusion the two masses stick together. Calculate the common velocity for the
two masses.

Momentum before collusion = momentum after collusion

12
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣
(2 × 0) + (3 × 4) = (3 + 2)𝑣
12𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠 = 5𝑣
Common velocity, 𝑉 = 2.4𝑚/𝑠

MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO MANEB QUESTIONS

2020 – 7
b. Explain how a seat belt in a vehicle reduces injury to the driver. (3 marks)
2020 – 10
b. Explain how Newton’s law of motion is used when one is walking
3. Newton’s law
2012-7.
a. State Newton’s third law of motion. (1mark)
2010-3.
b. Figure 3 is a diagram showing a person rowing a boat on a lake.

(i) Explain how rowing causes the boat to move. (3 marks)

(ii) Which Newton’s law of motion is demonstrated in the diagram? 1 marks)
(iii) Mention any two forces acting on the boat. (2 marks)

FRICTIONAL FORCE
Frictional force is the force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces sliding against each
other.
TYPES OF FRICTIONAL FORCE
(a) Static frictional force
• The force opposing motion between surfaces when the surfaces are just about to
move
Describe how the size of force required to move a metal block can be determined.

• Place a metal block on a bench

• Hook the spring balance to the block.
• Pull the block until the block is just about to move
• Record the value of this force. The pointer shows the force that is required to move the
block
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS ATTACHED AND FRICTIONAL FORCE
You are provided with a spring balance; 100g, 200g, 300g and 400g masses on the desk
a. Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 1

13
 b. Pull the string balance until the mass just starts to move
c. Record the reading on the spring balance in table 1
Mass (g) 100 200 300 400
Force applied
(N)
d. Repeat steps (b) and C using 200g, 300g and 400g masses
e. Draw a graph of force applied against mass
f. From the graph, deduce the relationship between mass and force applied on the spring
(b) Dynamic frictional force
• The force opposing motion when there is relative motion
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTIONAL FORCE
Weight (W) of an object placed on the bench is equal and opposite to the normal reaction (R)
between the surface of the bench and the block in contact.
(a) Coefficient of static frictional force
The ratio of static frictional force to the normal reaction R.
F = μs R where F = frictional force, μs = coefficient of static frictional force, R =
Normal reaction
𝐹
𝜇𝑠 =
𝑅
(b) Coefficient of dynamic frictional force
The ratio of dynamic frictional force to the normal reaction R
𝐹𝑘
𝜇𝑘 =
𝑅
APPLICATION OF FRICTIONAL FORCE
▪ Nails are able to hold pieces of wood tightly together because of friction.
▪ Conveyer belt in factories do not slip because of friction
▪ It slows down the speed of a parachute in order to land safely. This type of frictional
force is called air resistance
▪ The friction between the soles of our shoes and tyres of cars provide a grip on the ground
helps in movement.
▪ Each time you ride a bike, friction between the tyres and the road help you not to skid off.
▪ It is used in disc brakes that are used to slow down moving vehicles
▪ Writing on paper, chalkboard, etc. utilizes friction.
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTIONAL FORCE
▪ As parts rub against each other in machines they tear and wear.
▪ When there is friction energy is lost through heat and sound.
▪ Sound produced during friction causes noise
▪ Cars use a lot of fuel to overcome friction when moving.
WAYS OF REDUCING FRICTIONAL FORCE

14
 ▪ Lubricating the surfaces with oil. The oil separates the surfaces so that they do not touch
each other.
▪ By using cushions of air (separating two surfaces by air)
▪ Making an object have a stream lined shape (i.e if they are to move in fluids)
▪ Rolling an object instead of sliding it (e.g. ball bearings move by rolling, not sliding)
▪ Using ball bearings
MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
2021 – 8
b. The Table below shows the coefficients of sliding friction of surfaces A, B and C with
an equal pressing force of 50N.
Reaction (N) Coefficient friction (𝝁)
Surfaces A and B 50 0.74
Surfaces B and C 50 0.94
(i) identify the pair of surfaces on which the friction is high. (1 mark)
(ii) calculate the sliding friction for surfaces A and B. (3 marks)
TERMINAL VELOCITY
Terminal velocity is the maximum, constant velocity reached by an object falling through a
vacuum and fluids (gas or liquid).
FACTORS AFFECTING TERMINAL VELOCITY
1. Shape of the body. Roughly shaped objects have lower terminal velocity because they
met high resistance to their motion while stream lined ones have larger terminal velocity
because there is minimum resistance to their motion.
2. Surface area. Bodies with larger surface area have lower terminal velocity because it
meets higher resistance during its motion while bodies with small surface area have
larger terminal velocity because they meet less resistance during their motion. This shows
that surface area is inversely proportional to terminal velocity.
3. Weight of the body. Heavier bodies have higher terminal velocity while lighter bodies
have smaller terminal velocity though they can have the same shape and size.
4. Viscosity of the fluid. Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow. More viscous liquids
have low terminal velocity since there is more restraining force on the falling object
hence reducing terminal velocity than bodies which are less viscous.
5. Vacuum
Bodies will fall at the same velocity in vacuum although of different masses This is
because bodies do not meet any resistance during their free fall. For example, a stone and
a feather will fall at the same speed in vacuum
FALLING IN LIQUIDS
When a body is falling through a liquid, there are three forces that act on the body which are:
Weight (W), upthrust (U) and Frictional force (Fr).

When a body has just been released in a liquid, three forces act on it which are frictional force,
upthrust and weight. Initially weight is greater than frictional force and upthrust (𝑊 > (𝑈 + 𝐹𝑟)

15
hence the body accelerates downwards. As it accelerates downwards, frictional force starts to
increase while weight starts to decrease. A body reaches terminal velocity when weight equals
Frictional force and upthrust (𝑈 + 𝐹𝑟 ) = 𝑊. A body accelerates at this velocity until it reaches
the bottom of the container.

With the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe an experiment that could be done to
demonstrate that air resistance of a media affects the speed of an object falling through
media. Your description should use: 2 identical ball bearings, water, oil, and 2 transparent
jars of the same size.
▪ Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram below

▪ Fill one transparent jar with water and the other with oil
▪ Release the 2 identical ball bearings from the surface of the jars at the same time
▪ Observe the motion of the ball bearings as they fall through the water and oil
respectively until the ball bearings reach the bottom of the transparent jars
▪ It will be observed that the ball bearing falling through water is travelling very fast than
a ball bearing in oil. The ball bearing in water will reach the bottom of the transparent
jar faster than a ball bearing falling through oil since it was falling with low speed.
This shows that there are differences in the resistances of water and oil particles hence
differences in speed of the falling ball bearings.
A BODY FALLING THROUGH AIR
A body falling through air experiences the following forces: air resistance, and gravitational
force (Weight).

16
When a body is falling through air only two forces act on it. These forces are air resistance and
gravitational force. When a body has just been released, weight increases than air resistance
(W>Fr). As it accelerates downwards weight starts to decrease and air resistance starts to
increase. When air resistance equals the pull of gravity (Weight) then a body reaches terminal
velocity (W = Fr). A body falls at this velocity until it reaches the ground.
Bodies of different masses falls at different rates in air. A body with larger mass will reach the
bottom of the container first than a body with smaller mass.
A BODY FALLING THROUGH VACUUM
The only force acting on a body falling through vacuum is gravitational force. Mass has no effect
on the falling body in vacuum i.e. a feather and a stone will fall at the same velocity and will the
bottom of the container at the same time.

With the aid of a labelled velocity – time graph, describe the motion of a sky diver dropped
from an aeroplane in the sky before and after the parachute opens

a) Parachute not open

17
 When a skydiver is falling with parachute un-open, the pull of gravity is greater than
air resistance then the sky diver accelerates downwards. As the speed of the sky-diver
increases, air resistance increases and weight decreases. A sky diver reaches first
terminal velocity when air resistance is equal to weight. This terminal velocity without
opening a parachute is called Sky Diving.
b) Parachute open
The opening of the parachute increases the surface area hence an increase in the air
resistance. This result in slowing down of the parachute. As he slows down the air
resistance becomes equal to weight, thus second terminal velocity is reached. This
terminal velocity is lower than the previous one and is safe for landing.
MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
2020 – 11
a. Describe how a falling object in air reaches terminal speed (5 marks)
2019 – 9c
Figure 7 is a diagram showing a set-up of an experiment investigating the fluid
resistance to motion of objects. The ball bearings were released into the liquids at the
same time. Use it to answer the questions that follow.

(i) Which ball bearing reached the bottom of the cylinder first? (1 mark)
(ii) Mention any two variables that were kept constant in the experiment.
2019 – 11
a. Explain how a terminal speed is reached by an object falling through a liquid. (4
marks)
2011-1.
a. What is meant by “free fall” of an object? (2 marks)
b. State two forces that act on an object falling in the air. (2 marks)
2008-6.
a. State any two factors that affect the terminal velocity of a free falling object in air.
(2 marks)
b. Figure 6 is a diagram showing an object falling at terminal velocity. F1 and
F2 are forces acting on the object

(i) Name the forces F1 and F2. (1 mark each)

(ii) What would be the relationship between the magnitude of F1 and F2 at terminal velocity?

18
 (1 mark)
c. State Newton’s second law of motion. (1 mark)
2006-8.
A metal ball is released on the surface of lubricating oil in a tall glass tube. Explain the change in
velocity of the ball as it falls through the oil to the bottom of the tube. (8 marks)
2005-8.
Figure 3 is a diagram of a set up used in an experiment that was carried out to investigate how a
feather and metal ball would fall in a vacuum.

(i) Name the resultant force acting on the ball. (1mark)

(ii) State the direction of the resultant force in b(i)(2marks)
(iii) If the feather and the metal ball where allowed to fall at the same time. Draw in the diagram
to show the positions of both the feather and metal ball before they reach the bottom of the
tube. (1mark)

(iv) Explain your answer to b(iii) above. (2marks)

HOOK’S LAW
EFFECTS OF FORCE
▪ Forces can cause movement of a stationary object. For example, when an object is pushed, it
moves away.
▪ Forces can make moving objects stop. For example, when a goal keeper makes a moving ball
stop he exerts a pushing force on an object.
▪ Forces can turn things. For example, a natural force like wind can turn the blades of a wind
turbine to generate electricity.
▪ Forces can change the direction of an object. For example, when a force act on an object, the
object can change direction if you have changed the direction of the force.
▪ Forces can change the speed of the object. For example, when riding a bicycle, the speed of a
bicycle can increase by applying a larger force. Increasing in speed with time or making it
move faster is called accelerating. Therefore, acceleration is an increase in speed or velocity
with time.
▪ Forces can change the shape of an object. For example, when a wooden block is suspended at
the end of the spring it causes the stretching of the spring.

19
Effects of balanced forces
• Balanced forces cause no motion.
• The body is at equilibrium.
• It causes an object in motion to continue at constant speed in the same direction
Effects of unbalanced forces
• They cause a stationary object to move in the direction of the larger force
• They may slow down the motion of an object if greater force is acting in the opposite
direction of motion
• They increase speed of an object if larger force is acting in the same direction as that of
the motion of the object.
• They make a moving object to stop moving
HOOK’S LAW
▪ It states that provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension of a spring is
directly proportional to the load applied on the spring.
▪ Mathematically, the applied force, F, is directly proportional to the extension, e, i.e. 𝐹 ∝ 𝑒
Therefore: 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒, where k is a constant of proportionality called the spring constant.
𝐹
▪ Hence, 𝐾 = 𝑒
▪ The SI unit of the spring constant, k, is the newton/metre (N/m)
▪ The spring constant is a measure of the stiffness of the spring.
VERIFYING HOOK’S LAW
Materials needed: 1-meter ruler, a spiral spring, a clamp and clamp stand and masses of 100g,
150g and 250g.
Procedure

a. Hang the spring to the clamp stand

b. Measure the initial length of the spring under zero mass to the spring using meter ruler
c. Add 100g mass to the spring attached to the clamp
d. Record the new length of the spring using a meter ruler
e. Find extension of the spring by subtracting the initial length of the spring from final
length of the spring
f. Repeat steps c to e for masses 150g, 200g, 250g and 300g and record the results in the
table
Table of results
Mass (g) Force (N) Final reading Extension Y – X
(Y/cm) (cm)
100
150
200
250

20
 (2 marks)
g. Calculate and record extension of the spring in the table of results
h. Plot the graph of extension against applied force
i. Calculate force constant of the spring.
j. Deduce the relationship between extension produced in the spring and force applied.
From the graph plotted it shows that extension produced is direct proportional to the force
applied
INTERPRETING EXTENSION LOAD GRAPHS

▪ Elastic materials are materials that recover their shape and size after being deformed.
▪ Elasticity is the ability of an object to return to its original shape when the force has been
removed after it has been stretched, compressed, bent, or twisted.
▪ Elastic limit is a point where extension is no longer direct proportion to the applied force
▪ Yield point is a point where an elastic material breaks or is permanently deformed
▪ Mathematically, the applied force F is direct proportional to the extension e
𝑭 ∝ 𝒆 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑭 = 𝒌𝒆 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒌 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑭
𝒌=
𝒆
• The SI Unit of spring constant, k is newton per metre (N/m)
• Spring constant is the measure of the stiffness of the spring. This means the larger the
spring constant the stiffer the spring
For a spring, which obeys Hooke’s law, the value of k must be the same for any amount of
stretching force applied at its end.

From the Hooke’s law, the values of spring proportionality constant k and extension e determine
the stiffness of the spring or how difficult the spring is to stretch.
• A spring which is stiffer or difficult to stretch has a smaller extension e with a large
spring proportionality constant k.
• A spring which is easy to stretch has a large extension e with a smaller spring
proportionality constant k.
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING SPRING CONSTANT
1. A spring has a spring constant of 200N/m. If it is compressed by 0.06m. Calculate the
compressing force.
𝑘 = 200𝑁/𝑚, 𝑒 = 0.06𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒 = 200𝑁/𝑚 × 0.06𝑚 = 12𝑁
2. A force of 20N is used to compress a spring through 0.25cm. Calculate spring’s constant
in SI Unit.
3. A spring of a force constant of 100N/m stretches through 0.5m. calculate the force
causing the stretch.
COMBINATION OF SPRINGS IN SERIES

21
𝐹 = 𝑘1 𝑒 … … … … … … … … … . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑠 × 2𝑒 … … … … … … … . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
Since the same force is used
𝑘𝑠 × 2𝑒 = 𝑘1 × 𝑒
𝑘1 𝑒 1
𝑘𝑠 = = 𝑘1
2𝑒 2
This shows that the spring constant for two identical springs is equal to half of the spring
constant of one spring.
In general
𝑘1
𝑘𝑠 =
𝑛
Where 𝑘1 is a spring constant for one spring and 𝑛 is number of springs.
Describe an experiment that can be conducted to show that the constant of two springs
suspended series to each other is half the constant of one of the springs
a. Hang the spring to the clamp stand
b. Measure the initial length of the spring under zero mass to the spring using meter ruler
c. Add 100g mass to the spring attached to the clamp
d. Record the new length of the spring using a meter ruler
e. Find extension of the spring by subtracting the initial length of the spring from final
length of the spring
f. Calculate the spring constant using the formula
𝑭
𝒌=
𝒆
g. Hung two springs combined in series to each other to a clamp stand and record their
initial length using a meter ruler
h. Repeat steps c to f using the combined springs in series and record the results in the table
i. Compare the spring constants of the combined springs in series and that of one spring
It will be observed that the spring constants of two springs suspended in series to each other
is half the spring constant of one of the springs.

COMBINATION OF SPRINGS IN PARALLEL

𝑭 = 𝑘1 𝑒 … … … … … … … … . . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

1
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑝 × ( 𝑒) … … … … … … . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
2
1
∴ 𝑘1 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘𝑝 = 2𝑘1
2

22
In general, 𝑘𝑝 = 𝑛𝑘1 where 𝑘𝑝 is the spring constant for 𝑛 springs in parallel. This produces
stiffer spring system than single spring.
Describe an experiment that can be conducted to show that the constant of two springs
suspended parallel to each other is twice the constant of one of the springs
a. Hang the spring to the clamp stand
b. Measure the initial length of the spring under zero mass to the spring using meter ruler
c. Add 100g mass to the spring attached to the clamp
d. Record the new length of the spring using a meter ruler
e. Find extension of the spring by subtracting the initial length of the spring from final
length of the spring
f. Calculate the spring constant using the formula
𝑭
𝒌=
𝒆
g. Hung two springs combined in parallel to each other to a clamp stand and record their
initial length using a meter ruler
h. Repeat steps c to f using the combined springs in parallel and record the results in the
table
i. Compare the spring constants of the combined springs in parallel to each other and that
of one spring
It will be observed that the spring constants of two springs suspended in parallel to each
other is twice the spring constant of one of the springs.

APPLICATION OF HOOKES LAW

A. Calibration of spring balances
A spring which does not have any scale must be calibrated first before it is used.
Calibrating a spring simply means putting a scale on the spring so that it may be used to
find the weight of some given masses. Therefore, a calibrated spring is the one which has
a scale.
B. Elastic materials are used for making spring beds, diving boards i.e springs
C. Spiral springs are used in designing shock absorbers or shock breakers in car suspensions
since they can be stretched or compressed
D. Elastic materials are used to make rubber bands, rubber shoes
E. Elastic materials are used to make catapult for hunting birds, equipments in trampoline
games
MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
2022 – 1a
Figure 1 is a graph which was plotted after conducting an experiment in which different masses
were hung from the end of a spring held on a stand to find extension of the spring.

23
 (i) State the relationship between extension and mass shown by the graph (1 mark)
(ii) Find the extension of the spring when 400g mass is hung on the spring (1 mark)
(iii) Derive the unit of the slope of the graph (1 mark)
(iv) Give a reason for the points lying outside the graph line (1 mark)
2009 – 34
b. Give any three effects of the force on an object. (3 marks)

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

▪Circular motion is a movement of an object along the circumference of a circle or rotation
along a circular path or circular orbit
▪ Uniform circular motion is the motion of an object in a circle with constant or unform
speed.
EXAMPLES OF CIRCULAR MOTION
▪ Motion of a mud on a rotating bicycle wheel
▪ A gear turning inside a mechanism
▪ Satellites orbiting around the earth
▪ Motion of electrons around the nucleus
▪ Motion of planets around the sun
▪ Motion of satellites around planets
▪ A point on a moving tyre
▪ A car moving around a roundabout

24
 ▪ Motion of drops of water on a rotating umbrella
▪ Motion of a rotating mass attached to a spring balance
▪ Motion of a rotating ball attached to a spring
ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT
▪ Angular displacement of a particle is the angle swept through by the centre of the circle.
The distance traveled in a specified direction by an object experiencing motion in a
curved path is known as angular displacement.
▪ Angular displacement is measured in radians.
▪ One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of length equal to the
radius of a circle.

1 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 360°

𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑠) = 𝑟𝜃
EXAMPLE
The radius of a particle moving in a circular path sweeps through an angle of 60°at the
centre of the circle. Calculate the angular displacement of the particle in radians.
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
60° × 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜋
360° = 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∴ 60° = = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 1.05𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
360° 3
ANGULAR VELOCITY
▪ It is the rate of change of angular displacement.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Relationship between angular velocity and frequency
For one complete circular motion, 𝜗 = 360° = 2𝜋 radians and time taken “t” = T (periodic time)
𝜃 2𝜋
𝑣= =
𝑡 𝑡
1
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡 =
𝑓
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝜔) = 2𝜋 × 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑓)
Relationship between the angular velocity and tangential (linear) velocity
When a body is whirled around it moves with an angular velocity but when suddenly released it
flies off along a tangential velocity or with linear velocity.
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
𝑠 𝑟𝜃
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣) = =
𝑡 𝑡
𝜃
𝑏𝑢𝑡 = 𝜔
𝑡
∴ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑣) = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠(𝑟) × 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝜔)
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔

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EXAMPLE
1. A bicycle wheel makes 300 revolutions per minute (rpm). Calculate the angular velocity of
the wheel.
300𝑟𝑒𝑣 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑
1 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∴ 300𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = = 600𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑
1 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝜃 = 600𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑡 = 60𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝜃 600𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜔 = = = 10𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 31.4𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑡 60
2. Calculate the linear velocity of a ball whose radius is 1.5cm is rotating at frequency of
20Hz.
𝑟 = 0.015𝑚, 𝑓 = 20𝐻𝑍 , 𝑣 =?
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 × 20𝐻𝑍 = 125.6637061𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
∴ 𝑣 = 0.015𝑚 × 125.6637061𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 = 1.884955592𝑚/𝑠 ≈ 1.9𝑚/𝑠
EXERCISE
1. Calculate the angular velocity of the earth when it is rotating about its own axis (Time period
of the earth about its own axis = 24 hours)
2. A ball tied to a string is rotated at uniform speed in a circle of radius 10cm. it takes 1.5 s to
describe an arc length 6cm. Calculate its
(a) Tangential velocity
(b) Angular velocity
(c) Periodic time
3. The wheel of a car of radius 20cm is rotating at a frequency of 20Hz. Calculate the linear
speed of the car.
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
• This is the force which acts towards the centre of a circle and keeps a body in circular
path
• It can also be defined as the force that constraints an object in motions to move in a
circular motion
• It is also defined as the centre seeking force
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CENTRIPETAL FOCE
(a) Speed of revolution
• The force F required to keep the body in a circular path of constant radius is direct
proportional to the square of the speed of revolution.
• 𝐹 ∝ 𝑣2
• This means that as the speed of revolution increases the force required to move in
a circular path also increases.
(b) Radius of the circular path
• The force needed is inversely proportional to the radius r of the circular path when
the speed of the revolution of the body is constant. Then
1
𝐹∝
𝑟
• This means that as the radius of the circular path increases the amount of force
needed also increases
(c) Mass of a body undergoing circular motion
• The force F required is direct proportion to the mass undergoing circular motion
• 𝐹∝𝑚
• This means that as mass of a body undergoing circular motion increases the force
needed also increases
COMBINED EQUATION

26
 2
1 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹 ∝ 𝑣 , 𝐹 ∝ , 𝐹 ∝ 𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐹 ∝
𝑟 𝑟
𝐾𝑚𝑣 2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾 = 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐹 =
𝑟
CENTRIPETAL FORCE IN TERMS OF ANGULAR VELOCITY
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑟𝑤 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑟
𝑚(𝑟𝜔)2 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔2
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝐹 = = = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2
𝑟 𝑟
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE CENTRIPETAL FORCE FAILS?
• The force of adhesion between mud particles and the tyre or the water drops and the cloth
of the umbrella provides the centripetal force.
• When the wheel of the bicycle or the umbrella starts moving at higher speed, the centripetal
force acting towards the centre of the circle increases.
• Since the adhesive force is small, it is not able to provide the required centripetal force and
the mud particles or the water molecules fly off along the tangent.
• So, if there is no centripetal force, there can be no circular motion.

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
• This is the rate of change of angular velocity
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡
From Newtons second law of motion
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑣2
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 =
𝑟 𝑟
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
1. A 5 Kg mass moves at unform speed of 18m/s in a circular path of radius 0.5m. calculate
the centripetal force acting on the mass.
Solution
𝑚 = 5𝐾𝑔, 𝑣 = 18𝑚/𝑠, 𝑟 = 0.5𝑚
𝑚𝑣 2 5𝑘𝑔 × (18𝑚/𝑠)2
𝐹= = = 3240𝑁
𝑟 0.5𝑚
EXERCISE
A car of mass 1,200kg has to make a circular turn of radius 30m. if it is moving with uniform
speed of 10m/s, calculate the centripetal force acting on the car.

APPLICATIONS OF CIRCULAR MOTION

(i) A car negotiating a circular path on a level horizontal road
E.g. vehicles going round a bend or round about.
As vehicles or bicycles move around circular paths experience centripetal force which keep
them on their path. If this centripetal force is not strong enough a vehicle or object continues
in a straight line causing accidents.
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹=
𝑟
This give the maximum speed for the motorist not to skid off the track as
1
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝐹 ×
𝑚
(ii) Banked roads

27
 ➢ In order that a motorist does not fully depends on the frictional force between the
tyres and the road, circular path is given a small banking angle.
➢ The outer edge of the road is raised a little above the inner side so that track is
slopping towards the centre of the curve.

(iii)Leaning inward of a cyclist

➢ A cyclist going round a curve inwards to provide the necessary centripetal force,
so as to be able to go along the curved track.
➢ Part pf contact force or the reaction force provides the required centripetal force
acting towards the centre of the track.

(iv) An aircraft banking

➢ When an aircraft is banking, the pilot changes its direction by tipping the aircraft’s
wings. The vertical component of the lift force (L) on the wings balances the weight
while the horizontal component of L provides the centripetal force.

28
 (v) The conical pendulum
➢ A conical pendulum consists of a mass m revolving in a horizontal circle of radius R
at the end of a cord of length L. The vertical component of tension (T) is equal to the
weight of the mass while the horizontal component of the tension generates the
centripetal force for the circular motion.

(vi) At a fair ground.

As the cylinder spins, the floor drops away. Friction balances your weight. The centripetal
force is generated by the contact force. That is why you feel as though you are being pushed
back against the wall but what you are feeling is the push of the wall on your back.
(vii) Centrifuge
Centrifuge is a device that separates liquids of different densities or solids suspended in
liquids. The mixture is poured into a tube in the centrifuge, which is then rotated at high
speeds in a horizontal circle.
The tube is initially in vertical position and takes up horizontal position when the
centrifuge rotates.
The matter of low density moves inwards towards the centre of rotation and on stopping
the rotation, tube returns to vertical position with less dense material at the top

(viii) Drying machine

Wet clothes are rotated in a cylindrical drum containing a lot of perforations. Initially the
wet clothes move in a circular motion along with the drum. As the speed of the drum
increases, the adhesive force of the water in the clothes “gives up” and water breaks off
from the clothes and flies off through the perforations.
MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
2021 -12
a. Explain how the principle of circular motion is applied in drying wet clothes in a drying
machine. (5 marks)
2021 – 3
a. State the difference between angular velocity and linear velocity (2 marks)
b. Calculate the linear velocity of a ball whose radius is 1.5cm is rotating at frequency of
20Hz (5 marks)
MOMENTS OF FORCES
• The moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to rotate an object about some point.
• The tendency of a force to rotate a rigid body about any defined axis is called the Moment of
the force about the axis.

29
 • A moment of force about a point is the product of the force and perpendicular distance from
the point to the line of action of the force.
• The moment of the force about a point is either clockwise or anticlockwise about the point.
• The Moment of Force (F) about an axis through Point (A) or for short, the Moment of F
about A, is the product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance between
Point (A) and the line of action of Force (𝑭) 𝑀𝐴 = 𝐹 × 𝑑
• Moment of a force = force × perpendicular distance = 𝑓 × 𝑑
• The SI Unit of moment of a force is Newton metre (Nm)
• Moment of a force is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude and direction.
EXAMPLE
1. A student applies a force of 10N to the handle of a door, which is 0.8m from the hinges of the
door. Calculate the moment of the force.
Solution
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑚
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 10𝑁 × 0.8𝑚 = 8𝑁𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
• It states that ‘for a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments must equal
the sum of anticlockwise moments of force about any point.’
• It can also be stated that “when a body is in equilibrium under the action of forces, the
sum of clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments
about the same point”.
• Mathematically,
(𝐹1 × 𝑑1 ) + (𝐹2 × 𝑑2 ) = (𝐹3 × 𝑑3 ) × (𝐹4 × 𝑑4 )
VERIFYING THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
Materials needed: metre ruler, weights, strings
Procedure
a. Suspend a metre rule as shown below

b. Suspend two masses using loops of thread on either side of the knife – edge
c. Move the masses W1 and W2 until the ruler once again balances horizontally (make sure
the position of pivot does not change from initial balance point throughout the
experiment)
d. Note distances d1 and d2 of the masses from the pivot
e. Repeat steps b to d for other distances and record the results in the table
f. The ruler is balancing when the sum of clockwise moment is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moment.
2020 – 4
You are provided with spring balance, a hole punched metre ruler (with holes at 10cm, 30cm,
50cm, 70cm and 90cm); a nail fixed on a bench and a 400g mass.
a. Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 1

30
 b. Hook the spring balance at 90cm hole of the metre rule
c. Hook the mass at the 30cm mark on the metre rule
d. Raise the spring balance until the ruler is horizontal to the ground
e. Record the reading of the spring balance in Table 2
f. Repeat steps (c) to (e) using the following marks on the metre rule 50cm, 70cm and 90cm
Table 2
Distance of load from fulcrum (cm) Reading of spring balance
(Effort) (N)
30
50
70
90

g. Plot the graph of effort against distance of load from fulcrum

h. From the graph, deduce one way of reducing the effort on this lever
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
1. Figure 1 is a diagram showing a lever system in which a load of 100 Newtons placed at
1.5m from the fulcrum is balanced by a force of X Newtons exerted at 0.3m from the
fulcrum

Find the value of X. (3 marks)

▪ 𝐹1 × 𝑑1 = 𝐹2 × 𝑑2
▪ 100𝑁 × 1.5𝑚 = 𝑋𝑁 × 0.3𝑚
100𝑁 × 1.5𝑚 150𝑁𝑚
𝑋= = = 500𝑁
0.3𝑚 0.3𝑚
2. A uniform metre rule is pivoted at its centre P, and 3 masses are placed at A, B and C as
shown in the figure. Find the value for the weight W of the mass M placed at C so that
the metre rule is balanced horizontally.

(𝐹1 × 𝑑1 ) + (𝐹2 × 𝑑2 ) = 𝐹3 × 𝑑3

31
 (2𝑁 × 0.3𝑚) + (1𝑁 × 0.1𝑚) = 𝑊 × 0.4𝑚
(2𝑁 × 0.3𝑚) + (1𝑁 × 0.1𝑚) 0.6𝑁𝑚 + 0.1𝑁𝑚 0.7𝑁𝑚
𝑊= = = = 1.75𝑁
0.4𝑚 0.4𝑚 0.4𝑚
MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
2005-32.
a. State the principle of moments. (1 mark)
b. Figure 7 is a diagram showing a lever system in which a load of 100 Newtons placed at 1.5m
from the fulcrum is balanced by a force of X Newtons exerted at 0.3m from the fulcrum

Find the value of X. (3 marks)

2021 - 10
a. State the principle of moments for a body at equilibrium. (1 mark)
COUPLE
• Parallel forces which act in the same direction are called like parallel forces
• Parallel forces which act in the opposite directions are called unlike parallel forces
• A couple are two equal and unlike parallel forces acting on a body at different points

MOMENT OF A COUPLE (TORQUE)

• The product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distances between the lines of
action of the forces
• It is also defined as the total turning effect of a couple
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• The SI Unit of a torque is Newton – metre (Nm)
Example
A spanner that is used to tighten a nut is 300mm long. The force exterted on the handle of a
spanner is 100N. what is the torque on the nut?
Solution
𝑇 = 𝐹 × 𝑑 = 100𝑁 × 0.03𝑚 = 3𝑁𝑚
APPLICATIONS OF MOMENT OF A FORCE
• Turning a steering wheel. One hand apples a clockwise moment the other moment
cause the steering wheel to turn in the desired direction
• Using a screw driver. The force is applied by a hand makes a bolt to move a
perpendicular distance hence the nut rotates to get unscrewed
• Opening and closing of a door. When the hand applies force to either close or open a
door, that force cause a moment about the hinges of that door. This helps to open or close
the door.
• Playing a seesaw. When two people are seated on opposite sides of a seesaw each of
them exerts a moment about the pivot on which the seesaw is balanced. The moment of

32
 each child is the product of their weight and the distance between them and the pivot in
metres.
• Opening and closing of a tap. Two equal and opposite forces are applied to the tap
hence the tap rotates either to close or open it
• Closing and removing of a cork from the mouth of a bottle. Two fingers exert equal
and opposite force on the cork which makes the cork to rotate either to close or open the
bottle.
Examples of systems that use the principle of moments of a force.

CENTRE OF MASS
• Centre of mass is the point where the total mass of a body seems to be concentrated
• Centre of gravity is the point where the total weight of a body seems to be concentrated.
It can also be defined as the point through which the earth’s gravitational force acts on
the object.
CENTRE OF MASS OF A LAMINA
• A lamina is a body whose thickness is very small compared with the other dimensions of
the body.
DETERMINING THE CENTRE OF MASS OF A LAMINA
Materials needed: retort stand, string, card, pin, mass
Procedure
• Cut out the card in an irregular shape.
• Allow the card to swing freely from a pin fixed in a retort stand.

• Hang a mass on a thread from a point on the perimeter of the card

• Mark a line on the card following the path of the thread.
• Repeat this procedure five times and record the observations.
All five lines will cross at the same point on the card. The point where all five lines are crossing is
the centre of mass.
DETERMINING CENTRE OF MASS IN UNIFORM RODS
A uniform rod is the one in which the mass is distributed evenly along its length. For example, a
metre rule.
Materials needed: uniform metre ruler, mass, a knife edge

33
Procedure
• Balance a uniform metre rule of mass and adjust the position until the metre rule is
horizontal

• Note the position P where it is pivoted.

• The point where the ruler is balancing horizontally is the centre of mass.
ATERNATIVELY
The metre rule can be subdivided into four equal numbered pieces, each of mass m. We can
work out an equation to find the midpoint:
M=4m
4𝑚
𝑀= = 2𝑚
2
At 2m is where the whole mass of the uniform ruler gets concentrated.
MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
2021 – 10
a. State the principle of moments for a body at equilibrium. (1 mark)
2019 – 10
a. Define "centre of gravity'
2019 – 10
c. Figure 8 is a diagram showing two spheres connected by a straight rod of length 10 cm and
suspended in the air at the centre of gravity G.

Calculate the position of the centre of gravity G from the 40kg mass. (4 marks)
MAGNETISM
•Magnetisation is the process of making a magnetic material become a magnet.
•Magnets are objects which have the ability to attract other objects. Usually these objects
contain iron or steel.
• Materials that get attracted by magnets are Ferro-magnets. Examples of Ferro-magnets
are cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, dysprosium etc.
Magnetic poles
• These are places in the magnets to which magnetic materials are attracted. They are
found near the ends and they occur in pairs of equal strength.
• Magnetic attractions are stronger in the poles.
• North Seeking pole (N-pole): This always points roughly towards the Earth’s North
Pole.

34
 • South Seeking pole (S-pole): This always points roughly towards the Earth’s South
Pole.
The basic law of magnetism
• It states that unlike poles attract each other while like poles repel each other. For
example, a north pole attracts a south pole, a north pole repels a north pole and a south
pole repels a south pole.
Types of Magnetic materials
a. Soft magnetic materials
These are materials that are magnetized easily but they also lose their magnetism so
easily e.g. soft iron.
Magnets produced by soft materials are temporary.
b. Hard materials
➢ These are materials that get magnetized slowly and slowly they lose their
magnetism e.g. hard steel.
➢ Magnets produced by hard materials are permanent.
➢ Magnetism that get induced in iron is temporary where as that which gets induced
in steel is permanent. Magnets can be of different shapes and strength depending
on the use. There are bar magnets, horse shoe magnets, loud speaker magnets etc.
Magnetic field:
• This is a region around a magnet where a magnetic force is experienced by an object
placed in the region.
• The magnetic field is represented on paper by a set of lines which are referred to as field
lines.
• The density of the field lines indicates the intensity of the magnetic field.
• Magnetic field lines can be mapped by using iron filings or using a small plotting
compass Note the following facts:
(a) The pattern of each side is symmetrical.
(b) The magnetic field lines seem to originate from the North Pole to the South Pole.
(c) The field lines are more concentrated at the poles
(d) The magnetic field lines seem to come together at the poles (but not right at the ends).
WAYS OF MAKING MAGNETS (MAGENETISATION)
1. STROKING
• Stroking means making gentle caressing movements of a magnet along the magnetic
material.
• A piece of steel or iron metal is stroked by a bar magnet. The stroked side gains
magnetism but of opposite polarity. This can be single touch or double touch.
(a) Single stroking
• This is a method of magnetizing a magnetic material by stroking it repeatedly
with the pole of a permanent magnet.
Materials needed: a steel needle, bar magnet
Procedure
a. Place the steel needle on the bench
b. Stroke the steel needle with the south pole of the bar magnet along the whole length
of the steel needle.
c. One at the end lift the magnet well away from the steel needle i.e make a wide sweep.
Repeat the process several times.
d. Test for polarity of the steel using repulsion method.

35
▪ The steel needle becomes magnetised with the end becoming a S – pole and the other end
becoming a N – pole. The end of the magnetic material last touched by the magnet
acquires a polarity opposite to the one touching it.
(b) Double stroking
▪ This is done by stroking two magnets from the Centre outwards with unlike poles of
the magnets at the same time.
▪ The magnet s must be lifted high above the steel at the end of each stroke in both
methods.
▪ The pole produced at the end of the steel where the stroke ends is opposite to that of
the stroking pole.

2. ELECTRICAL METHOD
Materials needed: Iron bar, connecting wire, cell, switch, iron nail
Procedure
▪ Form a solenoid (coiled wire) by coiling the wire.
▪ Insert an iron bar in a solenoid
▪ Set up the experiment as shown

▪ When the iron nail is brought closer to an iron bar with the switch open, nothing
happens because the metal bar is not a magnet.

36
 ▪ When the iron nail is brought closer to an iron bar with the switch closed, it is
attracted. Therefore, an iron bar becomes a magnet when electric current goes
through the wire.
Properties of magnetic field lines.
▪ they have direction/move from N–S pole
▪ they do not intersect/cross
▪ are close at the poles
3. INDUCTION
Materials needed: office pins, two bar magnets
Procedure
▪ Place a magnet near an unmagnetised steel pin and note what happens
▪ Bring another an unmagnetised steel pin to the first an unmagnetised steel pin
attracted to the magnet.
▪ Separate the first pin from the magnet and note what happens to the second pin.
The first pin gets attracted to the magnet. The second pin gets attracted to the first pin. When the
first pin gets separated from the magnet the second pin falls. This shows that the bar magnet
sustains magnetism between the first and the second pin.
DOMAIN THEORY OF MAGNETISM
▪ It states that inside a magnet there are small regions in which the magnet direction of all
dipoles are aligned in the same directions.
▪ A dipole is the smallest particle of a magnetic material
Full magnetism
▪ When a material is fully magnetised material the domain walls move and the molecular
magnets align themselves in one particular direction

Partial magnetism
When a magnetised material is partially magnetised, the dipoles of a magnet align themselves in
different directions

DEMAGNETISATION
Demagnetization is the process through which magnets lose their magnetism
Ways of demagnetizing materials
(a) Hammering
▪ Dropping the magnet violently on the floor or hitting it disorganizes the alignment of
dipoles hence loss of its magnetism

37
 (b) Heating
Heating a magnetised material red hot and cool it suddenly disorganizes the alignment of
dipoles
(c) Electrical method
Placing a magnet in a coil where alternating current is passing disorganizes the alignment
of dipoles.
(d) Stopping the flow of current in an iron electromagnet. Magnetic material placed in a
solenoid needs electricity for electro-magnets to be produced hence stoppage of current
flow leads to loss of magnetism.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
• The phenomenon where electric current flows through a metallic object and the metallic
object acquires magnetic properties
MAGNETIC FIELDS DUE TO A STRAIGHT CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR
Materials needed: d.c source, a long straight stiff wire, stand and clamp, cardboard, rheostat,
iron fillings, switch.
Procedure
• Set up the apparatus as shown below

•Sprinkle iron fillings on the card and observe what happens when the switch is open
•Close the switch and tap the card gently and observe what happens
•If concentric circles are being formed on the current carrying conductor when the switch
is closed, then current in the conductor has produced a magnetic field around it
DETERMINING THE DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND CURRENT
CARRYING CONDUCTOR
Materials needed: a long stiff wire, stand and clamp, cardboard, rheostat, d.c source
Procedure
• Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram below

38
 • Sprinkle the plotting compasses on the cardboard and close the switch. Tap the
card gently and observe the direction of the plotting compass
• Reverse the direction of current in the wire and observe the direction of the
plotting compasses
• The direction of magnetic field is around the current carrying conductor. The
direction of magnetic field reverses when direction of electric current gets
reversed.
RULES FOR DETERMING THE DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD
(a) Right hand grip rule (thumb rule)
Holding a conductor in your right hand, the thumb pointing in the direction of the current.
The other fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field due to current in the wire

(b) Maxwell’s Corkscrew Rule

Imagine you are holding and turning a screw in your right hand with the screw pointing in
the direction of the current. Turn the screw clockwise so that it advances in the direction
of the current. The clockwise rotation of the screw gives the direction of the field due to
the current in the conductors

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT CARRYING SOLENOID

A Solenoid is a long cylindrical coil made up of a number of turns of a closely packed wire

DETERMINING MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERN DUE TO A CURRENT CARRYING

SOLENOID
Materials needed: solenoid, iron fillings, cardboards
Procedure
a. Mount a solenoid on a rectangular piece of a cardboard. Sprinkle some iron fillings on the
cardboard.

39
 b. Close the switch and tap the card gently and observe what happens
c. Repeat the experiment by placing a number of plotting compasses both inside and outside
the solenoid.
d. The plotting compasses show similar patterns as iron fillings and the direction of field
pattern is also indicated.
POLARITY OF A COIL (SOLENOID) CARRYING AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

The direction of current through the end being viewed is clockwise the end is found to be South
pole. If the direction is anticlockwise, then the end is found to be a north pole.

HOW TO SHOW THE MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERN AROUND A SHORT

CIRCULAR CURRENT-CARRYING COIL?

a. Mount a short circular coil on a cardboard and sprinkle iron filings on it.
b. Use plotting compasses to plot the field pattern due to the electric current flowing in the
coil.
At point A the current is coming out of the cardboard and at B the current is going into the
cardboard. Applying the right hand screw rule or the right hand grip rule at points A and B,
the direction of the field can be determined.

SIMPLE ELECTROMAGNETS
An electromagnet is a device made by coils of an insulated wire wound on a magnetic material
and then current passed through the coils.
Factors affecting the strength of an electromagnet
1. Amount electric current
As amount of electric current increases the strength of an electromagnet also increases

40
Describe an experiment to show the effect of an amount of electric current on the strength
of an electromagnet.
Materials needed: Insulated copper wire, soft iron nail, a cell in a cell holder, switch, a variable
resistor, ammeter, connecting wires, steel pins
Procedure:
a. Wind the insulated copper wire around the long nail and connect the circuit as shown
below

b. Close the switch and adjust the variable resistor so that a suitable current flows in the
circuit
c. Place the drawing pins at the base of the nail and note the maximum number of pins the
electromagnet can keep attracted to it
d. Repeat the experiment by varying current and note the maximum number of pins
attracted to the electromagnet
e. Plot a graph of maximum number of pins against current (A) and determine the
relationship.
If the number of pins getting attracted increases when current is increased, then increasing the
current results into an increase in the strength of an electromagnets.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS
1. THE ELECTRIC BELL

When the bell push is pressed, the circuit gets completed and electric current flows in the circuit.
The soft iron core gets magnetised and attract the soft iron armature and the hammer hits the
gong. This breaks the circuit then the soft iron core gets demagnetized then the soft iron armature
returns to original position. This completes the circuit and the process repeats.
2. THE TELEPHONE RECIEVER

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When a person speaks in the microphone on the other end of the line an electric current is set up
in the earpiece receiver having the same frequency as that of sound waves in the microphone. As
current in the earpiece is varying the diaphragm made of springs of magnetic alloy vibrates
accordingly. A similar sound to the one in the microphone is reproduced in the receiver
(earpiece).
FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD IN A
BAR MAGNET
MATERIALS: Connecting wires, two magnets, power supply.
PROCEDURE:
a. Place a conductor between two magnets.
b. Connect each end of a conductor to a power supply and allow an electric current to flow
through the wire.

c. Reverse the direction of electric current and observe what happens

Conductor is moved up when the current was in one direction and moved down when the
direction of the current is reversed. When current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field
is produced. Placing the current carrying conductor in a magnetic field causes a force to be
exerted in the conductor because of the interaction between two magnetic fields. The North
pole of the magnetic field in a conductor repels the North pole of the magnetic field in a bar
magnet. The South pole of the magnetic field in a conductor repels the South pole of the
magnetic field in a bar magnet. A force is provided on a current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field of a bar magnet.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT AMOUNT OF FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING
CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD OF A BAR MAGNET
(a) Amount of current
As amount of current passing through current carrying conductor in a magnetic field of a
bar magnet increases the force on the wire also increases
(b) Strength of a magnet

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 Stronger magnets produce a large force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
(c) The number of turns of the wire in the magnetic field
As number of turns of the wire in the magnetic field increases the force produced also
increases
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE
It states that when a thumb and firs two fingers of the left hand are held at right angles to each
other, the First finger points the direction of magnetic field, the second finger points the
direction of electric current and the thumb points the direction of force (Thrust) on the
conductor.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC MOR EFFECT

1. Simple d.c motor
An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy (kinetic
energy) i.e electric drill, vacuum cleaner, electric shaving machine, electric bell and
electric fan.

How does an electric motor works?

Current flowing in the coil produces/creates an electric field in the coil. The electric field in the
coil interacts with/cuts across the magnetic field between the magnets. This produces a thrust
force that makes the coil to rotate.

The direction of the motor can be changed by:

• Reversing the direction of the magnetic field.
• Reversing the direction of the current
The speed of rotation of the coil can be increased by:
• Increasing the current.

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 • Increasing the number of turns in the coil.
• Increasing the strength of a permanent magnet.
• Increasing the area of the coil placed in the magnetic field.
2. The moving loudspeaker

When current from the amplifier flows through the coil, a varying force on the coil causes
the paper cone connected to it to move thus producing sound waves which travel through
the surrounding air to the ear of the listener.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
• The process of inducing electric current by cutting magnetic fields of a magnet.
• It is also defined as the process of producing electricity by cutting magnetic field lines of
a coiled wire.
• The electric current produced by magnetic field lines cutting a conductor is called Induced
Current.
TO INDUCE AN ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE IN A CONDUCTOR (WIRE)
Materials needed: U shaped magnet, galvanometer, copper wire
Procedure
• Connect a copper wire XY to a sensitive centre zero galvanometer
• Place the wire in between the poles of a magnet and observe the galvanometer reading
• Quickly pull the wire horizontally away from the poles and stop
• Quickly re introduce the wire in between the poles of the magnet and stop.
• Keep the wire stationary and moving the magnet.

When XY wire is stationary the galvanometer pointer does not move. When the wire is moved out,
the pointer shows deflection in one side but return to zero position once the wire stops. When the
wire is re-introduced in between the poles, the pointer deflects but in the opposite direction.
However, when the wire stops the pointer once again returns to the zero position. When the magnet
is moved instead of the conductor. No deflection is observed when the wire or magnet is moved
vertically up or down.
Conclusion
The relative motion between the wire and a magnet an electromotive force is induced in the wire
and current flows in the circuit. This relative motion cuts the magnetic field lines.
TO INDUCE AN ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE IN A COIL USING MAGNET
Materials needed: insulated copper wire, bar magnet, galvanometer, connecting wires

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Procedure:
• Make a coil using insulated copper wire
• Connect the ends of the coil to a sensitive centre zero galvanometer
• Quickly introduce a bar magnet into the coil and stop
• With draw the magnet quickly from the coil and stop
• Move the coil and keep the magnet stationary and observe what happens to the pointer of
the galvanometer
• Move both the coil and the magnet in the same direction at the same speed and observe
what happens to the pointer of the galvanometer

When the magnet is introduced into the coil, the pointer of the galvanometer shows deflection in
one side but returns to zero position when the magnet is brought to rest
When the magnet is withdrawn from the coil, the pointer deflects but in the opposite direction.
When the magnet stops the pointer once again returns to zero position. When both the magnet and
the coil are moved at the same speed in the same direction
TO INDUCE AN ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE IN A COIL USING ANOTHER COIL
Materials needed: insulated copper wire, connecting wires, galvanometer, current source
Procedure
a. Make two coils using insulated copper wire
b. Connect the coils as shown in the diagram above

c. Close the switch in coil and observe what happens to pointer of the galvanometer
d. Open the switch and observe what happens to the galvanometer
When the switch is closed, the pointer of the galvanometer momentarily deflects to one side but
returns to zero position when the switch is left closed. When the switch is opened, the pointer
momentarily deflects but in the opposite direction and when the switch is left open, the pointer once
again returns to zero.

It can therefore be concluded that an e.m.f is induced in coil 1 the moment the switch in coil 2 is closed
or opened.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE MAGNITUDE OF THE INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE
FORCE
(a) The rate of change of the magnetic flux linked to the coil
The faster the magnet moves into coil or the coil moves along the magnet the greater
electromotive force and electric current induced
(b) The strength of magnetic field
The stronger the magnets the greater the induced electromotive force.
(c) The number of turns in the coil.

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 Increasing the number of wire passing or cutting through the magnetic field increases the
emf and the induced current.
(d) Type of magnet
The induced electromotive force is much higher in the presence of soft iron cover.
INVESTIGAING THE MAGNITUDE OF THE INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
Materials needed: Insulated copper wire, galvanometer, bar magnet, connecting wires
Procedure
a. Make coils of a few turns using the insulated copper wire. Connect the circuit as shown in
the diagram below.

b. Slowly plunge the magnet into the coil and observe what happens to the galvanometer
c. Plunge the magnet into the coil quickly and observe what happens to the galvanometer
reading
d. Repeat steps a to c with a stronger magnet, i.e. ceramic magnets, a coil with more turns
and observe what happens
When a magnet is slowly plunged into the coil, the induced e.m.f is less than when the magnet is
moved quickly. Same effect is observed when the coil is moved slowly or quickly towards the
magnet.
When stronger magnet is used, the induced electromotive force increases. When a coil has more
turns the induced e.m.f increases. Electromotive force also increases when a soft iron core is used.

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. FARADAY’S LAW
• It states that the electromotive force induced in a conductor is directly proportional to
the rate of change of the magnetic flux linked to the conductor.
• This means that the induced electromotive force increases if more magnetic field lines
are being cut by either bringing the magnet into the coil or the coil moved along the
magnet.
2. LENZ’S LAW
• It states that the direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the change
producing it.
• Therefore, an induced current always flows in a direction such that it opposes the
change producing it.
3. FLEMMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE
▪ It states that if the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand are mutually
perpendicular to each other, the First finger points in the direction of the Field and the
Thumb points in the Motion of the conductor then the Second finger points in the
direction of the Induced Current.

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GENERATORS
Generators make use of electromagnetic induction and they are based on the principle that a current
can be induced in a coil by rotating it in a magnetic field.
Generators are of different sizes. For example, dynamos are small generators that provide current
for cycle lights and alternators are huge generators that supply electricity to homes and industries.
Generators can either be a.c. generators or d.c generators.

(a) The AC generator

An a.c generator is made of a coil that rotates within a permanent magnet.

When a coil rotates between the poles of a magnet, an emf or current is induced in it because the
coil cuts the magnetic field. The induced current is taken to the external circuit through the brushes.
The output current is in the form of a.c. The alternating current, so produced, changes direction as
the coil turns through 3600. The value is at peak when the coil is cutting most magnetic field lines.
It falls away to zero as the coil moves out of the region and then begins to rise again but in the
opposite direction as the coil moves back into the maximum region of magnetic field.

The ways of increasing the magnitude (size) of induced current are:

• Increasing the strength of a magnet.
• Increasing the speed of rotation of a coil.
• Increasing the number of turns of a coil.
• Increasing the length of the coil which is within the magnetic field.
The a.c generator changes kinetic energy to electrical energy.
(b) The D.C generator

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When the coil is rotated about its axis by energy from burning fuel, it “cuts” across the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet, causing current to be induced. This induced current causes a
deflection of the galvanometer.

When the coil passes through the vertical position, the two halves of the split ring change from
one brush to another. This change over between the brushes and the two halves split-ring helps to
maintain the flow of the current in the same direction.

A BICYCLE DYNAMO
A bicycle dynamo consists of a coil of wire and a magnet. Movement of the bicycle wheel turns
the dynamo. The magnet inside turns as well. As the magnet moves the fixed coil cuts the lines of
force producing electric current in the coil. The current lights the rear lamp and the head lamp.

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING A DYNAMO AND AN ELECTRIC MOTOR.

Both an electric motor and a dynamo consist of a coil of wire in a magnetic field. The differences
are:
• The input in an electric motor is electrical energy while in a dynamo the input is kinetic energy.
• The electric motor circuit has a battery.
• Dynamos have slip rings while electric motors have commutators.

NOTE: An a.c. generator becomes a d.c generator if the slip rings are replaced by a commutator.

MUTUAL INDUCTION

An electric current creates a magnetic field around the conductor through which it flows.
When current is switched on and off in the primary coil, the strength of the field (magnetic flux)
keeps changing from zero to maximum and back to zero (alternating current does this
automatically without being switched on and off as it fluctuates from zero to maximum).
The change in magnetic flux induces a current in the secondary coil in a way that this current tend
to oppose the current in the primary coil and also fluctuates from zero to maximum.

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Thus a.c. input in the primary coil induces an a.c. output in the secondary coil. Thus the change in
the number of magnetic field lines threading the secondary circuit induces an electromotive force
in the secondary circuit in an opposite direction in accordance with Lenz’s law.
INVESTIGATING MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Materials needed: thin copper wire, a.c. power supply, galvanometer.
PROCEDURE:
1. Make two coils as shown in the diagram below
2. One side of the coil must be connected to the a.c. supply while the other side of the coil must be
connected to a galvanometer.

3. Close the switch. Observe what happens to the galvanometer.

When the switch is closed the pointer on the galvanometer gets deflected. The pointer on the
galvanometer gets deflected because the emf is induced in the coil connected to the
galvanometer.
When alternating current flows through the primary coil, alternating magnetic field is produced.
This alternating magnetic field cuts the secondary coil. The cutting of alternating magnetic field
on the secondary coil induces emf in the secondary coil, which causes deflection on the pointer
of a galvanometer. This type of induction is called mutual inductance.

Mutual inductance is the induction of an electromotive force in a coil of wire by changing the
current in a different coil.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE MAGNITUDE OF INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE

FORCE IN THE SECONDARY CIRCUIT
(a) Electromotive force in the primary coil.
As electromotive force in the primary coil increases the electromotive force in the
secondary coil also increases
(b) Number of turns in the primary and secondary coil.
As the number of turns is greater in the secondary coil than in primary circuit the induced
electromotive force is greater than when the number of turns is smaller in secondary coil.
TRANSFORMER
An electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another circuit by
electromagnetic induction.
TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
(a) Step up transformers
• Has more turns in secondary circuit than in primary circuit.
• It reduces current and increases voltage
With the aid of a well labelled diagram, explain how a step up transformer works. In your
diagram, show the coils in primary and secondary circuits and current source.

49
When a changing electric current is applied to a coil, it causes a changing magnetic field to be
produced in the primary coil. Alternating current in the primary circuit induces magnetism in the
secondary coil. The electromagnet guides the magnetic field so that filed lines pass through the
secondary coil thereby inducing an emf or current in the secondary circuit. Since there are more
turns on the secondary coil the induced emf will be larger than emf in the primary circuit.

Step down transformer

• The number of turns in the secondary circuit is less than number of turns in the primary
coil.
• The input voltage is greater than output voltage
With the aid of a well labelled diagram, explain how a step-down transformer works. In your
diagram, show the coils in primary and secondary circuits and current source.

When alternating current passes through the primary coil, it produces an alternating magnetic
field/flux in the core. The alternating magnetic field cuts and re-cuts the secondary coil and induces
an electromotive force (e.m.f)/voltage in it. Since there are more turns in the primary than in the
secondary coil, the induced e.m.f is less than that in the primary coil.
EFFICIENCY OF THE TRANSFORMER
This is the effectiveness of the transformer in transferring the input energy to output energy
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 = × 100%, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
For an ideal transformer power output = power input
𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑃
= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝐼𝑃 𝑁𝑠

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃

50
EXAMPLE 1
A step down transformer has 1200 turns in the primary coil and 50 turns in the secondary coil.
Calculate the voltage in the secondary coil if the voltage in the primary coil is 240 V.
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠 50 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 50 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 × 240𝑉
= = = ⟺ 𝑉𝑠 = = 10𝑉
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑠 240𝑉 1200 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 1200 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

EXAMPLE 2
A step up transformer has 100 turns in the primary coil. The input power is 6kW and current in
the primary coil is 30A. Work out the number of turns in the secondary coil if the output voltage
is 1200V.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ⟺ 6000𝑤 = 𝑉𝑃 × 30𝐴 ⟺ 𝑉𝑃 = 200𝑉
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 1200𝑉 𝑉𝑠 1200𝑉 × 100𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
= ⇔ = = 𝑉𝑠 = = 600𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 200𝑉 100 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 200𝑉

FACTORS AFFACTING THE EFFICIENCY OF THE TRANSFORMER

(a) Resistance of the coils
As current flows through the coils, the wires heat up and energy is lost inform of heat.
This can be reduced by making coils from thick copper wires which offers low resistance.
(b) Eddy currents
The alternating flux in soft iron core induces emf in which produces eddy currents. The
eddy currents are large and they produce much heat in the core. This reduces amount of
power transmission to the secondary coil from the primary coil. This can be reduced by
laminating the core. The laminated core is made up of thin sheets of soft iron plates
insulated from each other. The air between the laminates increase the resistance of the
core through minimising the eddy currents.
(c) Hysteresis losses
As the a.c current keeps on changing the direction of the core is continuously magnetised
and demagnetized as the dipoles keeps on changing direction. Some of the energy is lost
in form of heat due to internal friction between the dipoles. This energy loss is called
Heterosis losses. This can be reduced by a magnetically soft iron material (they easily
magnetised and demagnetized) like soft iron.
(d) Flux or magnetic leakage
This happens when some amount of magnetic flux in the primary fail to reach the
secondary coil. The induced emf in the secondary is therefore less than that which is
passing from the primary coil. This can be reduced by winding the primary and
secondary coils next or close to each other on a closed iron core. This can also be reduced
by winding the secondary coil on top of the primary.
Power losses can be minimised in the following ways:
• Using oil in a transformer to cool it down.
• Using thick irons covers to have high resistance.
• Use of properly designed transformers
• Using the core that is made from thin layers of soft iron glued together with an insulating
material between the strips
• Use soft iron core because it is easy ta magnetise.
ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION
Electrical power transmission is done in a grid system. A grid system is a network of cables,
most supported by pylons. The grid system connects the power stations to consumers.
Figure 6.31 is a grid system connecting Nkula falls to consumers.

51
At Nkula falls power station, electricity is generated at 3,300 V (3.3 KV) and stepped up in a
step-up transformer to 60,000 V (60 KV) to be sent over long distances on the super grid. Later,
the voltage is stepped down in step-down transformers at substations, for distribution to
industries. The voltage going to homes and schools is further stepped down to 240 V in step-
down transformers.
Power is always transmitted at very high voltage and very low current (e.g. 60, 000 V at 1 A) to
minimise power losses in form of heat.
WAYS OF MINIMISING POWER LOSS IN THE TRANSMISSION CABLES
(a) Using thick transmission wires. They offer low resistance hence power loss is reduced
(b) Using copper wires. Copper wires offer low resistance and are good conductors of
electricity
(c) Electric current transmitted has high voltage and has very low current.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF POWER GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION
(a) Hydroelectric power
• Dislocation of people living around place where dam has been constructed
• Releasing carbon dioxide during construction and flooding of the reservoir
• Disruption of the aquatic ecosystems and animal life
• The collapsing of the dam walls causes flooding
• The dam becomes the breeding site of mosquitoes which carry and transmit
malaria.
(b) Nuclear energy (power)
• Nuclear power plant may reject heat to water bodies e.g. sea. This causes an
undesirable increase of the water temperature which affects aquatic life.
• Emission of radioactivity to the environment to the environment which possess
health problems to people around it.
• Accidental nuclear explosions in nuclear power plants destroy properties and kill
many lives e.g. nuclear explosion of the Japan Fukushima plant on March 11th
2011 that killed over 1000 people.
• Nuclear bombs are used by terrorists and extremist groups to kill innocent people.
(c) Fossil fuels
• The emission of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide causes green hose effect
leading to global warming
• The burning of fossil fuels leads to production of Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide
contributes to smog and acid rain. This destroys the ozone layer hence emissions
from the sun i.e ultra violet rays can damage the skins
(d) Geothermal energy

52
 • Geothermal energy can cause volcanic eruptions since it is done in volcanic
regions.
(e) Solar power
• Solar power requires large area, causes land wastage.
(f) Biomass
• Biomass captures carbon dioxide out of air which contribute to lowering of
atmospheric carbon dioxide
MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
2022 - 3
c. Calculate the amount of current introduced in the primary coil of a 100% efficient
transformer if it converts 400V to 200V in order to operate a 5A hair drier. (3 marks)
2021 – 4
b. Figure 3 shows a circuit diagram of a light operated switch.

(i) Name device labelled A. (1 mark)

(ii) Give any two uses of the device labelled B. (2 marks)
2021 – 5
c. State any two factors that affect the magnitude and direction of induced electromotive force (2
marks)
2019 – 6
b. With the aid of a diagram, describe the arrangement of dipoles in a fully magnetized steel bar. (2
marks)
2019 – 12
b. Explain the effect on magnetism when a magnet is heated to red hot and suddenly
cooled down. (4 marks)
2012-2.
a. State two ways of inducing electromotive force(emf). (2 marks)
b. Mention any one application of an electromagnet. (1 mark)
2011-2.
d. Figure 2 is a diagram showing an experiment on electromagnetism in which a current
carrying wire passed through the centre of a card on which iron fillings were sprinkled.

(i) Draw an arrow in the compass to show the direction of field lines. (1 mark)

53
 (ii) What would happen to the direction of the compass needle if the direction of current was
reversed? (1 mark)
(iii) Give a reason for the answer in 2.d.(ii). (1 mark)
2010-6.
b. Figure 4 is a diagram of an electric circuit.

(i) Name the part labelled X. (1 mark)

(ii) What would happen if the part labelled X is brought close to iron fillings? (1 mark)
(iii) Give a reason for the answer in 6.b.(ii). (2 marks)
(iv) What is the role of the iron bar in the circuit? (1 mark)
e. A step down transformer has 1200 turns in the primary coil and 50 turns in the secondary coil.
Calculate the voltage in the secondary coil if the voltage in the primary coil is 240V.
(3 marks)
2008-4.
a. Figure 2 is a diagram of a transformer

(i) Name the type of transformer shown in the diagram. (1 mark)

(ii) Give a reason for the answer to 4.a.(i). (1 mark)
(iii) Calculate the output voltage of the transformer. (3 marks)
2007-4.
b.
(i) give one advantage of alternating current over direct current. (1mark)
(ii) state any two causes of energy loss in a transformer. (2marks)
(iii) How can each cause of energy loss mentioned in 4.b.(ii) be reduced? (2marks)
2005-1.
d. Figure 2 is a diagram of a compass needle placed under a connecting wire.

(i) Draw arrows on the diagram to show, when the switch is closed. The direction of movement
of:
(1) The compass needles.
(2) The current (2 marks)

54
 (2) electrical current

Compass needle of S

(1) Compass needle of N

(ii) What effect would the following changes have on the movement of the compass needle?
(1) reversing the cell. (1 mark)
(2) Increasing the number of cells. (2 marks)
a. Mention two devices which use electromagnets. (2 marks)
2004-4.
c.
(i) Explain the difference between an electric motor and an electric generator. (2 marks)
(ii) State any two factors which affect the amount voltage produced by a generator.
(2 marks)
2003-7.
b.
(i) Describe how a step up transformer works. (6 marks)
(ii) Explain two ways in which energy losses in a transformer are minimized. (4 marks)
2019 Karonga Diocese Mock – 2a
Using a well labelled diagram, explain how a magnet can be made by a single stroke method
2012-8.
e. Explain how a piece of steel could be magnetized by single touch stroking method. (2 marks)
2011-2.
b. Give any one method of demagnetizing a permanent magnet. (1 mark)
2003-7.
a. Briefly explain how a piece of iron can be magnetized by stroking. (5 marks)
INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
▪ Electronics is a branch of science that is concerned with the development of tiny
electrical circuits designed to process, store or transmit information.
▪ It is a branch of electricity that deals with electrical properties of some materials under
specified conditions.
Note: Electronic circuits have microchips and other semiconductor devices.
BAND THEORY
▪ It states that materials are considered to have two bands in which electrons are found i.e
valency band, conduction band and these two bands are separated by a gap called
forbidden gap

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 ▪For a material to conduct an electric current, electrons should be in conduction band.
However, electrons prefer to be in the valency band as this is the lowest energy level. To
move the electrons to the conduction band, energy is needed to cross through the
forbidden gap. One way of providing energy to cross the forbidden gap is to increase the
temperature of the material.
CONDUCTORS
▪ Are materials that allow electric current to pass through them easily i.e. copper, silver and
mercury etc.
▪ In conductors, the valency and conduction bands overlap and hence no energy is needed
to overcome the forbidden gap.
▪ All the electrons are free and mobile to conduct electric current.

The effect of temperature on electrical conductivity in conductors

▪ If a conductor is heated, the internal energy increases, the electrons collide with one
another hence electrical conductivity decreases.
INSULATORS
▪ In insulators the forbidden gap is very wide and electrons require a lot of energy to leave
the valence band and jump into the conduction band. The conduction band has no
electrons hence insulators cannot conduct electric current.

Heating to promote the electrons to the conduction band ends up breaking down the
material e.g. if the material is paper it burns off.

SEMICONDUCTORS

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 ▪ These are materials that allow electric current to pass through them partially or under an
increased temperature i.e. silicon and germanium, cadmium sulphide, indium antimonide
and gallium arsenide.
▪ Semiconductors have their electrons fixed in their lattice and these electrons are made
loose by some physical changes.
▪ In semiconductors the forbidden gap is bigger than in conductors. At low temperatures,
all the electrons are in the valency band. However, at room temperature some electrons
gain thermal energy and cross the forbidden gap to the conduction band. The material
then becomes a fair conductor.

Ways of improving conductivity of a semiconductor.

▪ Increasing their temperature
Electrons in semiconductors are made free to flow by increasing their temperature. When
temperature of a semiconductor increases, electrons gain more kinetic energy and
therefore manage to jump from the valence band into the conduction band which makes it
able to conduct electricity.
▪ Doping is the process of adding impurities to a semiconductor to improve its
conductivity. Doping increases, the number of charge carriers available for conductions.
This has been explained on extrinsic semiconductors.
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
(a) Intrinsic or pure semiconductors
(b) Extrinsic or impure semiconductors
(a) Intrinsic semi-conductors
▪ An intrinsic or pure semiconductor is any material which increases its electrical
conductivity from within itself (internally).
▪ At low temperatures, all electrons are locked up in the valency band
▪ At high temperatures the electrons may gain thermal energy and move to the conduction
band, in so doing the bond is broken. These free electrons roam within the lattice and are
thus available for conduction. These electrons are called thermal electrons.
(b) Extrinsic semiconductor
▪ An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor to which impurities are added to increase
its conductivity.
▪ Doping is the process of introducing very small amounts of impurities into a pure
semiconductor to increases its conductivity.
▪ Examples of impurities are trivalent atoms i.e. boron, aluminium, gallium and indium
and pentavalent atoms i.e. phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth.
TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
(a) n – type semiconductor (Donor doping)
Donor doping generates free electrons in the conducting band. This is done by adding
impurity atoms that have more number of valence electrons to a pure semiconductor with
less number of valence electrons. For example, adding impure atoms that have five

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 valence electrons (group 5 element e.g. phosphorous) to a semiconductor that has four
valence electrons (group 4 e.g. silicon).

Doping a silicon semiconductor by phosphorous

The impurity atom phosphorous forms covalent bonds with silicon but since silicon only
have four valence electrons; one spare valence electron is produced. This free electron
produced enters the band as an electron.

Since the free electron has a negative charge, the doped semiconductor material is known as
n-type semiconductor material. In this material, the majority carriers are electrons while
minority carriers are protons.

P – type semiconductor (acceptor doping)

Acceptor doping produces a hole in a semiconductor material. In acceptor doping, a
semiconductor material is doped with an impurity with less valence electrons, e.g. doping
a group four semiconductor with a group three material.
Doping a silicon semiconductor material with a boron
Boron forms covalent bond with silicon atom but the bond lacks one electron for a
complete outer shell. This will create a vacancy called a hole

Holes are said to have positive charges. Therefore, acceptor doped material is called p-
type semiconductor. Holes are the majority carriers in the p-type material while electrons
are minority carriers. In p-type semiconductor, impurities accept free electrons from a
semiconductor, hence the name acceptor doping.
p – n junction diode
• A device that is made when a p – type semiconductor and a n – type semiconductor of the
same material i.e. silicon has been joined together.

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 • Electrons move from the n – type to the p – type leaving a net negative charge in the p –
type region which prevents further movement of electrons from n – type to p - type. Holes
move from p – type to n – type region leaving a net positive charge in the n – type region
which prevents further movements of holes from p –type to n - type. A region is created
which has lost all its free electrons and holes called depletion layer. The resulting device
is called p – n junction diode.
• The movement of charges across the junction develops a potential difference with its
polarity that prevents further charge movement called barrier potential difference.

Characteristics of p – n junction diode

▪ It conducts electric current in forward biased but it acts as an insulator in reverse biased
Working of p – n junction diode
Materials needed: diode, dry cells, bulb, connecting wires.
PROCEDURE
• Connect a p – n junction diode with negative end (n – type) connected to the negative
terminal of the cell and positive end (p – type) connected to the positive terminal of the
cell. Observe what happens to the bulb.

• Reverse the connection of the diode in the circuit and observe what happens to the bulb.
The bulb lights in the forward biased which means current flows in the circuit and the bulb does
not give light when the diode is reversed which means current is not flowing in the circuit.
Forward biasing a diode

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A diode is said to be forward biased when its positive terminal is connected to the positive side of
the power supply while its negative terminal is connected to the negative side of the power supply.
P-type is connected to the positive side of the supply while N-type is connected to the negative
side of the supply.

Figure 7.10 is a sketch of current-voltage characteristics for a forward biased diode.

Reverse biasing a diode

A diode is said to be reverse biased when its positive terminal is connected to the negative side of
the power supply while its negative terminal is connected to the positive side of power supply. P-
type is connected to the negative side of the supply while the n-type is connected to the positive
side of the supply.

Effect of reverse biasing a diode

When a diode is reverse biased electrons and holes flow in opposite direction. This widens the
depletion region between n-type and p-type materials. As the gap widens the resistance also
increases, hence no current flows in the diode.
APPLICATION OF P – N JUNCTION DIODES
(a) Protecting electrical devices in a circuit: Some devices that operate on direct current
(d.c) break down when large volume voltages are connected in reverse opposite order to

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 supply terminals of the devices. To protect such devices, a diode is usually connected in
series with them and in reverse bias. It ensures that the device is protected by offering very
high (almost infinite) resistance to the flow of the current in the reverse direction when the
terminals are interchanged.
(b) Zener diodes

The Zener diode works by regulating the voltage applied across the device. When the
voltage increases abruptly to values that would damage the device. The diode breaks and
conducts. This protects the device by short circuiting. When the voltage falls normal the
diode returns to normal.
(c) Rectification: p-n junction diode can be used for rectification. This is the process of
converting alternating current to direct current is called rectification.
Types of Rectification using diodes
1. Half-wave rectification by a single diode
• The diode is used as a rectifier because it only allows the forward alternating current and
blocks the backward alternating current. Therefore, the current at the output flows one
way only, hence direct current.
• Half of the wave has been cut off, and this process of allowing only half of the wave to
produce current that flows in one direction is called half-wave rectification.
• A varying direct current is obtained across the resistor. In half wave rectification, half of
the energy is wasted.

2. Full wave rectification using two diodes

▪ A full-wave rectification maintains the DC output for either the positive or negative cycle
of input voltage. In a full-wave rectification, one pair of diodes conducts while the other
pair does not. If the current flowing through A is positive and B is negative the pair of
diodes D1 and D2 conduct, while diodes D3 and D4 do not conduct.
▪ If the current flowing through A is negative and B is positive the pair of diodes D3 and
D4 conduct, while diodes D1 and D2 do not conduct. The overall effect is that the current
always flows through the transistor in the same direction.

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 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND THEIR USES
1. CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device that stores small amount of charge. The SI unit of capacitance is
FARAD. Commonly microfarads are used because the farad is too big. It has he following
symbol:

Types of capacitors
(a) Variable capacitor
It has an area of overlap of the plate can be adjusted and the dielectric between the metal
plates is usually air.

Variable capacitor is useful in radio tuning circuits where radio stations of different
frequencies can be selected by changing the value of the capacitance of the variable
capacitor.

(b) Electrolytic capacitors

It is a special type of capacitor where one plate is always connected to the positive terminal
of the battery and the other plate to the negative terminal. Interchanging polarities damages
dielectric layer. These capacitors have large capacitance and are useful in power supply
circuits.

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 (c) Metal foil plastic capacitors
Metal foil capacitors has plastic as its dielectric. It has a small volume compacted to others.
Capacitors of large capacitance are used in the ignition system of car engines and buses.

USES OF CAPACITORS.
▪ Capacitors are used to maintain power to the memory of devices like calculators and mobile
phones when batteries are being changed or charged, to avoid loss of data.
▪ Capacitors are used in rectifier circuits to smoothen the d.c voltage signal obtained from
rectification of alternating voltages i.e. smoothening.
▪ Capacitors are used to absorb electrical signals that cause noise in sound systems.
▪ Capacitors are used in U.P.S. (Un-interrupted Power Supply) in computers to store and
supply power for a short time to a computer in the event of power blackout taking place
unexpectedly.
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS (LDR)
The light dependent resistor is a resistor whose resistance depends on light intensity.

Explain how part P operates as a light operated switch in the circuit during bright light.

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In daylight, light shines on the device M and its resistance decreases and more current flows in
the base of the device P. This current is enough to switch the device P on and the bulb N lights
up. In darkness, the resistance of device M increases and less current flows to the base of the
transistor P. This current is not enough to switch on the transistor. The bulb N does not light up.
How does light dependent resistor works?
In daylight, light shines on the LDR, its resistance decreases and more current flows in the base of
the transistor. This current is enough to switch the transistor on and the bulb lights up.
In darkness, the resistance of the LDR increases and less current flows to the base of the transistor.
This current is not enough to switch on the transistor. The bulb does not light up.

INTERCHANGING THE POSITION OF LGHT DEPENDENT RERISTOR AND

RESISTOR

Wopping the positions of the LDR and R enables the transistor to switch on in darkness. Therefore,
the bulb lights up when there is low light intensity (in darkness). The LDR is part of the potential
divider. In darkness, the resistance of the LDR rises, and so does its share of the battery voltage.
The voltage across the LDR is high enough to switch the transistor on and the bulb lights up.
In daylight, the resistance of the LDR is low, and so is its share of the battery voltage. The voltage
across the LDR is too low to switch the transistor on and the bulb does not light up.
DIODES
▪ A diode is a two terminal, one-way device which allows current to flow in one direction.
▪ In diodes, a single crystal of silicon or germanium is doped in such a way that one half of it
is p-type and the other is n-type.

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How does a diode function?
When the diode is forward biased, it has very low resistance. Current flows through it and
switches on the bulb.
When a diode is reverse biased, it has very high resistance. Current does not flow through it and
switches off the bulb.
Uses of diodes
(a) As a switch
▪ It allows current to flow in forward biased and it switches current off when the
direction is reversed
(b) As current rectifier
▪ It changes alternating current into direct current in the process called rectification
INDUCTORS
▪ An electronic component that stores energy in form of a magnetic field.
▪ The inductor measures inductance (the behavior of a coil of wire in resisting any change of
electric current through the coil)

Workability
When current flows through the coil, the loop builds up magnetic field. This inhibits the
flow of current. Once magnetic field is built current flows normally through the wire. When
the switch is open, the magnetic field around the coil keeps the current flowing in the coil
until field dies. Hence the bulb keeps on lighting for some time
Uses of inductors
▪ For making traffic light sensors that use a loop
▪ Used in red light cameras that are used to curb traffic violations to reduce road
accidents.
▪ Energy storage
▪ As transformers
▪ Magnetic field sensors
▪ Act as filters in analogue circuits. They let certain frequencies pass through them.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES
A light emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. This diode emits light
when current passes through it. This effect is called electroluminescence.
The symbol for a light emitting diode is shown below:

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Uses of light emitting diodes
▪ Aviation lighting
▪ Automotive headlamps
▪ Advertising and traffic signals and camera flashes.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
▪ An electrical device that converts light energy directly to electric energy by photovoltaic
effect. It is called solar cell.
▪ Symbol for photovoltaic cell is shown below

Working of photovoltaic cell

When sunlight falls on the solar cells, a potential is created across the cells. When the circuit is
completed a current flow through the components connected in the circuit.
Uses of photovoltaic cells
• To manufacture solar cells
• To power solar powered cars, boats and airplanes
THERMISTOR
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance depends on temperature. It is a temperature-
dependent resistor. It has the following symbol.

Functionality of the thermistor

When the temperature on a thermistor increases, its resistance decreases and vice versa. The
thermistor makes part of a potential divider. The thermistor has low resistance at high
temperature and allows more current to switch on the transistor in the circuit. The thermistor has
high resistance at low temperature and allows low current to switch off the transistor in the
circuit.
Uses of thermistors
• As current limiting devices for circuit protection
• For making resistant thermometers used to measure very low temperatures
• To monitor the temperature of the incubator
• Timers in degaussing coil of most CRT displays
TRANSISTORS
A transistor is a three-terminal device that conducts current in both directions.
A transistor is made by joining two p-n junctions joined back to back. The three terminals of the
transistor are base (b), collector (c) and emitter (e)

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How does a transistor work?
▪ There must be a small current in base circuit. The small base current switches on the
transistor and causes large current to pass in the collector emitter circuit. In case of high
current, the transistor does not work. When there is no current the transistor does not work
as well. THERE MUST BE A SMALL CURRENT.
Types of transistors
(a) p – n – p transistors
(b) n – p – n transistors

USES OF TRANSISTOR
(a) Transistor is used as a switch.
When a transistor is connected in a circuit, it can be used as a very sensitive, fast-acting
switch. A transistor can turn on and off electrically. This is done by varying the base
current.
If we connect a transistor in a circuit without the voltage and current, the bulb does not
light up because there is no current which flows to the base of a transistor to switch it on.
We say, the transistor has a blocking effect. So, it is switched off. If a battery is
connected between the base and the emitter of a transistor the bulb lights up.

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When a small battery is connected between the base and the emitter of a transistor, a small
amount of current flows in the base of the transistor. This current switches on the transistor and
the bulb lights up.
The transistor can switch on under the following conditions:
• The + and – connections to the battery must be in the right way.
• The voltage between the base and emitter (vbe) must be at least 0.6 V.
• The base current (Ib) must be at least 0.5 mA.
NOTE: A resistor is connected to the base of a transistor to limit current. The resistor is used to
protect the transistor from damage and ensure that there is correct potential difference at the
base.
The special resistors (light dependent resistor and thermistor) can be used to vary the base
current of the transistor.
(b) Transistor is used as an amplifier
An amplifier is a device that magnifies the input. A transistor magnifies small input signal to
produce larger output signal. The input might be current or voltage or sound. Figure 7.19 is a
circuit which can be used to demonstrate that a transistor acts as a current amplifier.

When the switch is closed a small base current Ib of 0.5 mA flows in the base of a transistor,
which in turn allows larger collector current Ic of 50 mA. The small changes in the base current
control large changes in the collector current. Therefore, the transistor acts as a current amplifier.

With the aid of a diagram, describe an experiment that could be done to identify unknown
substances W, X and Y in a sealed boxes given that they are a diode, an insulator and a
resistor but not necessarily in that order.
▪ A direct current circuit with a switch and ammeter is required.
▪ The circuit must be connected as shown in the diagram below:

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 ▪ Connect on the gap substance W, close the switch and measure the current in the circuit.
Reverse the connections of W and measure the current in the circuit. If in both directions
the ammeter reading is zero, then W is an insulator. Disconnect W from the circuit.
▪ Connect on the gap substance X, close the switch and measure the current in the circuit.
Reverse the connections of X and measure the current in the circuit. If in one direction
the ammeter reading is zero and the reverse direction the ammeter is greater than zero,
then X is a diode. Disconnect X from the circuit.
▪ Connect on the gap substance Y, close the switch and measure the current in the circuit.
Reverse the connections of Y close and measure the current in the circuit. If in both
directions the ammeter readings are greater than zero, then Y is a resistor. Disconnect Y
from the circuit.
MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
2021 – 13b
Explain in terms of band theory why insulators are bad conductors of electricity even if their
temperature is increased. (5 marks)
2021 – 4
b. Figure 3 shows a circuit diagram of a light operated switch.

(iii) Name device labelled A. (1 mark)

(iv) Give any two uses of the device labelled B. (2 marks)
2020 – 3
1. Figure 3 shows circuit with some electronic devices in use

a. Name the devices labelled M and N (2 marks)

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 b. Explain how part P operates as a light operated switch in the circuit during bright
light.
c. a. With the aid of a well labelled diagram, explain why a diode does not conduct
electricity when reverse biased.
2015 – 2
a. Figure below shows diagram of an electric circuit.

(i) Name the part labeled X (1 mark)

(ii) State two uses of the device labeled Y (2 marks)
(iii)Explain the importance of the small base voltage in the circuit (2 marks)
(iv) Which device could indicate that the current is flowing in the circuit? (1 mark)
(v) Explain how the device mentioned in 2a(iv) works (4 marks)
2011-2.
a. Give two types of semiconductors. (2 marks)
2011-8.
a. In terms of the band theory, explain why resistance of a semiconductor decreases when
temperature increases. (4 marks)
2008-4.
b.
(i) What are “semiconductors”? (1 mark)
(ii) Explain how raising the temperature of semiconductors affects their electrical conductivity.
(2 marks)
c. Figure 3 is a diagram of a transistor.

(i) Name the parts marked X and Y. (1 mark each)

(ii) Give any two uses of transistors. (2 marks)
(i) Why are “diodes” sometimes referred to as “rectifiers”? (2 marks)
(ii) Draw a circuit diagram consisting of a cell, a bulb and a diode such that the diode is forward
biased. (8 marks)

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2004-4.
d.
(i) What is a “semiconductor”? (1 mark)
(ii) Draw a circuit diagram in which a bulb, a cell and a diode are connected in series such that
the diode is forward biased. (2 marks)

(iii) What is meant by the term “doping” in relation to a semi-conductor? (2 marks)

(iv) State two functions of transistors. (2 marks)
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND SIGNALS
▪ A number of electronic devices have their output inform of data, sound and video signals.
▪ Examples are radio (sound signals), computer, television and mobiles (sound data and
video signals).
TYPES OF SIGNALS
(a) Analogue circuits.
▪ These are circuits that are built by combining various electronic components such as
diodes, resistors, capacitors and transistors.

▪ Are electronic circuits that operate with currents and voltages that vary
continuously with time and have no abrupt transitions between levels.

Characteristics of analogue signals

1. Amplitude. The maximum displacement of wave particles from position it shows
the highest amount of current or voltage
2. Frequency. The number of complete oscillations per second. It is measured in
Hertz
3. Phase. Two points on a wave front that appears to be the same
4. Wave length. Distance between successive points in phase
(b) Digital signals

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 ▪ Digital circuit is a circuit where the signal must be one of the two discrete levels.
The signal must be one or zero (1 and 0).
▪ These circuits are made by combining transistors and logic gates which help the
electronic device and logical decisions.
▪ The information in digital circuits appear in combinations of 0s and 1s where a 0
stands for off or open or low and a 1 stands for on or closed or high.
▪ The digital circuit produces digital signals. Digital signals are in form of high
(+ve) or low (-ve) and not contiguous.

Characteristics of Digital signals

▪ Bit intervals: this is the time required to send one single bit.
▪ Digital signals are descreate,
▪ The signal has limited number of defined values such as 1 and 0
▪ Bit rate is the number of bit intervals in one second.
Advantages of digital signals
▪ Digital data can be easily compressed and hence transmitted efficiently. This help in
transmission of large volume of voice, data, and image information.
▪ Digital signals are secure. There is minimal loss of data.
▪ Digital data transmission is cheaper compared to analogue data.
Differences between analogue and digital signals
▪ Analogue signal is a continuous signal whereas digital signals are time separated signals
▪ Analogue is denoted by sine waves while digital signals are denoted by square waves
▪ Analogue signals use a continuous range of values that help you to represent information
on the other hand digital signal uses discrete 0 and 1 to represent information
▪ Analogue is easily affected by noise while digital are stable and less prone to noise
▪ Analogue signals use more power while digital use less power
Modulation is the process of converting analogue signals to digital signals while demodulation
is the process of changing digital signals to analogue signals.
LOGIC GATES
Logic gates are circuits in which transistors act as high speed switches. It is also defined as
circuits which use tiny transistors as switches
Application of logic gates
▪ Switch on a water pump on a hot sunny day
▪ Sound an alarm if the pilot light of a boiler goes off
▪ Add two simple binary numbers together
▪ Switch on a fan if a dark door is shut and it is warm inside
TYPES OF LOGIC GATES
1. AND gate
▪ An electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high.
▪ It gives an output of 1 for both inputs 1.
▪ It has the following symbol.

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 ▪ It has the following electronic circuit

▪It has the following truth table.

Inputs Outputs
A B L
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
2. NOT gate
▪ An electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its output. If
the input variable is A the inverted output is NOT A.
▪ It means that for a positive logic system, a logic ‘0’ at the input produces a logic ‘1’
at the output, while a logic ‘1’ at the input produces a logic ‘0’ output.

▪ It has the following circuit diagram

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 ▪ it has the following truth table
Inputs Outputs
A L
0 1
1 0

3. NAND gate
▪ The outputs of all NAND gate are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an
AND gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

It has the following truth table.

Inputs Outputs
A B L
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
4. OR gate
▪ The inputs circuits A and B are in parallel and their combined circuit is in series
with the output L.
▪ It has the following circuit diagram

▪ It has the following symbol

▪ It has the following truth table

Inputs Outputs
A B L
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

5. NOR gate
▪ All the components are connected in parallel in the circuit.

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 ▪ Neither A and B are ON for the output L to be on.
▪ It has the following symbol

▪ It has the following circuit diagram

▪ It has following truth table

Inputs Outputs
A B L
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that are propagated in space or matter by oscillations
of electric and magnetic fields at right angles to each other and to their line of travel.
Examples of electromagnetic waves
Examples are visible light, Ultra violet light, infra–red, Gamma rays, Microwaves, Radio waves, and
X–rays.
Electromagnetic wave: is transverse wave that transfers electrical and magnetic energy.
Electromagnetic radiation: is energy that is transferred through space by electromagnetic
waves.

Electromagnetic Spectrum is a band containing different electromagnetic waves

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Ways in which electromagnetic spectrum is emitted
• Waves
• Radiation inform of visible light, U.V light, X – rays, gamma rays, radio waves, infra-red
waves, and micro waves

The electromagnetic waves that make up the electromagnetic spectrum are light waves, radio
waves, infra-red, micro waves, ultraviolet waves, x-rays and gamma rays.
WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY, AND ENERGY IN AN ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
Wavelength in an electromagnetic spectrum
The range of wavelengths is huge. The radio waves have The longest wavelength which is in
kilometres while gamma rays have the shortest wavelength which is less than one-billionth of a
millimetre.
Frequency in an electromagnetic wave
The electromagnetic waves with longest wavelength have lowest frequency, e.g. radio waves,
while the electromagnetic waves with the shortest wavelength have highest frequency, e.g.
gamma rays.
Energy in an electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic waves with longest wavelength and lowest frequency have lowest energy,
e.g. radio waves while the electromagnetic waves with the shortest wavelength and highest
frequency have highest energy, e.g. gamma rays.
Sources of electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic waves are emitted when electrically charged particles change energy (either
from low energy to high energy or from high energy to low energy). This usually takes place in
an atomic structure.
WAYS IN WHICH ENERGY CHANGES IN THE ATOMIC STRUCTURES
(a) When electrons move from one energy level to another, energy is released in form of
electromagnetic wave.
(b) It can also take place when electrons oscillate around the energy levels. This changes
their kinetic energy constantly. The greater the speed of oscillation, the higher the
frequency (f = V/𝜆), the shorter the wavelength and the greater the energy.
(c) Movement of the molecule. The vibration, bending, inversion or the rotation of molecular
arrangement
TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
(a) Radio waves

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 • Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. They are
found on the other end of spectrum. They have wide range of wavelengths from
1 × 10−6 𝑡𝑜 1 × 10−3 𝑚
• They are produced from electrons moving in conductors. The electrons produce
electricity which oscillates in Arial or Antenna.
• Radio waves are used for transmission of sound and picture information in radio and
television.
(b) Micro waves
• Micro waves are used for satellite communication and radar.
• They can also be used for heating food in a micro wave.
• In a micro wave oven, the food is heated because it contains water which is a stronger
absorber of micro waves.
Gamma radiation
• Gamma radiation is produced from transitions within the excited nucleus of an atom, and
usually results from some previous radioactive emission.
• Gamma radiation can also result from fission and fusion reactions or the destruction of a
particle.
• Gamma radiation is used in treating cancer because it kills cancer cells since its rays are
more penetrating. They are also used for sterilising food and medical equipment as they
can also kill bacteria.
X-ray radiation
• X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons lose energy very rapidly. Shorter
wavelength x-rays are very penetrating.
• Therefore, they can pass through dense metals like lead. Longer wavelength x-rays are
less penetrating, and can therefore pass through flesh, but not through the bone. This
makes the bones to show up on an x-ray photograph. X-rays are used in medicine.
Ultraviolet radiation
• Ultraviolet radiation is produced when there is high temperature due to large energy
changes in electrons of an atom.
• The sun produces a large amount of ultraviolet radiation, most of which is absorbed by
the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere and the remaining absorbed by our skin.
• Ultraviolet radiation is used by our skin in the production of vitamin D, (although excess
vitamin D is harmful, and can cause some skin diseases and damage the retina). It is also
used to cause fluorescence which gives out visible light.
Infra-red radiation
• Infra-red radiation is produced when there are small energy changes in an atom or
molecular vibrations.
• An object gives more infra-red radiation as its temperature rises. Infra-red is used for
haze photography.
• It is also used by earth resource satellites to determine the health of crops.

Visible light
• This is produced when an object is at very high temperature. At such, temperature the
object becomes hot, hence produces visible light.
• Visible light consists of seven radiations i.e. Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow,
Orange and Red (ROYGBIV).
• Visible light is used for a photographic film which is formed on the retina in the eye. It
also causes photosynthesis in plants.
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Common properties of electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic waves have certain fundamental properties in common. The common properties
of all electromagnetic waves are:

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 • They carry no charge.
• They are transverse in nature.
• They can travel through a vacuum. Do not need any material medium to travel.
• Under suitable conditions, they undergo reflection, refraction, diffraction and show
interference effect.
• They obey wave equation 𝑐 = 𝑓 × 𝜆 where 𝑐 is the speed of light, 𝑓 is frequency and 𝜆 is
wave length.
• They travel in free space (vacuum) at a speed of 3.0 ×108 m/s • They transfer energy
from one place to another.
• They can be emitted or absorbed by matter.
• They possess energy E that is directly proportional to its frequency i.e. 𝐸 ∝ 𝑓. Hence
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ = 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 ′ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
Electric and magnetic fields oscillate together but are perpendicular to each other and the
electromagnetic wave moves in a direction perpendicular to both of the fields.

• They obey the wave equation (V = f x )

• Under suitable condition, they can be reflected, refracted and diffracted and polarized.
• All their frequencies do not change when they travel from one medium to another because
their frequencies depend only on their source.
Methods of detecting electromagnetic waves
a. Gamma Radiations: can be detected by
 Photographic film
 Ionisation detectors
 Geiger-Muller tube
b. X-Rays: can be detected by
 photographic film
 Ionisation detectors
 Fluorescent screens
c. Ultra Violet Radiation: can be detected by
 Photographic film
 Paint and clothes washed in certain detergents fluorence by reradiating the UV radiation
they absorb.
d. Visible Radiation: can be detected by
 The eye, the glow of hot objects can be seen with our eyes.
 Photographic film.
 Semi-conductor devices
e. Infrared Radiation: can be detected by
 Infrared radiation is detected by our bodies by the heading effect of the skin.
 Photographic films.
 A thermopile

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f. Radio waves: can be detected by
 Radio aerials or antenna of an electrical equipment.
 Diodes
 Earphones
Applications of electromagnetic waves
GAMMA RAYS
(a) Used as tracers
▪ They are used in medicine to locate body organs that are not functioning properly.
E.g. a non-functioning of kidneys, a doctor uses small amount of Technetium-99 that
produces gamma rays to trace if kidneys have extracted Technetium in the blood.
(b) Used for sterilizing
▪ Gamma rays kill bacteria, moulds and insects or worms in food hence used to sterilize
food preventing it from going bad.
▪ In hospitals gamma rays are used to sterilize equipment that would otherwise be damaged
by heating e.g. plastic syringes.
▪ Controlled beam of gamma is used to kill cancerous cells. Care is taken because
uncontrolled beam of gamma rays cause cancer.
(c) Thickness control
▪ In industry the thickness of sheets of steel can be controlled by monitoring gamma rays
as they pass through the sheets

▪ If thickness changes, the current from the detectors automatically adjusts the rollers.
(d) Detecting flaws and cracks
▪ Gamma rays are used to check weak points in welded joints in materials. A gamma
source is placed on one side of the welded material and a photographic film on the other
side. Any crack or air bubble is shown up on the film.

OTHER USES OF GAMMA RAYS

1. Sterilizing medical equipment
- The rays are exposed to equipment just to kill bacteria, germs etc.
2. Radiotherapy
- Cancerous cells are damaged to prevent them from further growth
3. Used as tracers in medicine

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 - Radioisotopes which are short-lived are attached to medicine for easy monitoring via
special gamma camera
4. Used in astronomy
- Astronomers use gamma ray spectrometer to measure gamma rays emitted by nuclei
of atoms on the planet
5. Used in medical imaging e.g. Computed Tomography (CT)
6. Used in Nuclear Reactor to generate electricity
7. Used in Nuclear Bombs
X-RAYS
▪ X-rays are absorbed by dense structures like bones, teeth which is why X-ray photos are used
to help identify broken bones.
▪ They are used take photographs (radiographs) i.e. internal imaging.
▪ They are also used by engineers to check the welded metal joints.
▪ They are also used in hospitals in the management and treatment of skin disorder.
▪ They are used to check that food manufactured does not have foreign objects like metal
and stones.
OTHER USES OF X-RAYS
1. Used in medical imaging
- X-rays are used for diagnostic purposes to visualize the inside of the body
- It helps to identify fractures, locate foreign objects and diagnose conditions like
pneumonia or tumors
2. Cancer treatment
- High energy X-rays are used to target and destroy cancer cells. The process is called
radiotherapy
3. Airport security
- X-ray scanners are used to inspect luggage and cargo for security purposes
- This helps to identify prohibited or dangerous items
4. Food inspection
- X-rays can also be used to inspect food products for contaminants, foreign objects
and quality control
5. Petroleum industry
- X-rays help analyze rock samples for oil and gas exploration, providing valuable
information about subsurface structures
(e) Ultra-violet radiation
▪ They are used in dental and skin treatment.
▪ They are used for sterilisation.
▪ They are used in security markings invisible signatures on very important documents.
▪ Small amount of ultra-violet rays produces vitamin D in our skin. Large amount of ultra-
violet damage eyes and cause skin cancer. Darker skins absorb less ultra-violet radiation
that pass through the living cells.
▪ Chemicals which absorbs ultra-violet radiation are put in washing powders so that clothes
look brighter in sunlight.
▪ Ultra-violet lamps are used to detect forged bank notes. Forged bank notes glow
differently in ultra-violet light as compared to genuine ones.
▪ In medicine ultra-violet lamps are used for skin treatment.
▪ It is used to identify stolen items where security pen is used to mark the items. A security
pen uses ink that show up only under ultra-violet light.
OTHER USES OF U.V
1. Disinfectants
- Bacteria and capable of killing bacteria.
- Bacteria and viruses become inactive after being exposed to U.V therefore this
property of U.V is used to disinfect air, water surfaces and objects.
2. U.V lamps

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 - The lamp tube of U.V lamp consist of small amount of mercury. When the electric
current runs into internal circuit of the lamp, mercury gets excited and emits U.V
radiations these radiations further used in illumination
3. Production of vitamin D
- U.V radiation helps our body to synthesize vitamin D. The cholesterol presences in
our skin releases energy and gets converted into vitamin D. One of the sources of U.V
radiation is sunlight.
4. Sterilization
- Hospitals make use of U.V light for proper sterilization of surgical instruments
before the surgery
5. Cure of skin disorder
- U.V radiations are used in reducing in inflammation of swollen muscles. They also
reduce the rate at which skin cells are produced thereby delaying ageing process.
6. Tanning
- U.V radiations in the sunlight makes the skin cells to produce melanin, which is the
pigment responsible for tanning
7. Astronomy
- Celestial bodies produce (emit) U.V radiation. The hotter the celestial body, the more
will be the emission of radiations
- U.V rays can be used to study characteristics and the composition f the planets, stars
and asteroids
(f) Visible light
▪ It is used in photography.
▪ It is used in laser printing.
▪ It is used in aiming systems of weapons and other machinery
▪ Visible radiation helps one to see.
▪ Plants use visible light to make their own food through photosynthesis.
▪ Laser and optic fibre are visible light in communication.
OTHER USES OF VISIBLE LIGHT
1. Used for vision
- It enables people to see
- The light is reflected by the object to the eyes
- Then lenses refract the light rays so that the image is formed on the retina
2. Used for food making in plants
- Chlorophyll absorbs light energy from light waves into chemical energy
3. Used in photography
- Photographic image is created by capturing light which is reflected from the object
4. Used for fiber optic communication
- It is a method of transferring data from one place to another by sending pulses of
visible light through an optical fiber
- Light is just a form of carrier wave
- This kind of communication can transmit voice, video trough local networks or across
long distance

USES OF RADIO WAVES

1. Radiobroadcasting
- Sound signal is modulated using amplitude modulation of frequency modulation
- Modulated signal is then encoded and transmitted using a radio transmitter
- On the receiver side, you simply tune to frequency being transmitted
2. Cellular networks
- When you are talking on a phone, sound is converted to signal that is transmitted
through cell tower relays radio waves back to converting it first to a signal back to
sound.

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 3. Satellite communication
- Radio wave antennae transmitted waves to the satellite
- Satellite then sends back received signal to earth station
- This signal is then processed and information is extracted
4. Radar
- Transmitting antenna of a radar send radio waves into environment. These transmitted
waves travel in air and bounces back after striking an obstacle
- Reflected waves get collected by the radio receiver. Speed with which the waves
travel is known and time taken for the wave to return is recorded. Then distance can
be calculated.
(g) Infra-red
▪ They are used in remote controls for television and video recorders.
▪ Green houses allow infrared to pass through hence making it possible for plants to be
grown in very cold weather.
▪ Burglar alarms use beams of infrared to detect intruders. The intruder emits infra-red
which are detected by the burglar alarm.
(h) Radio waves
a. They are used in the transmission of radio and television signals.
b. They are used in radio communication
(i) Microwaves
▪ Microwaves are used for cooking in microwave ovens. The microwaves are absorbed by
water molecules in the food and on heating up, the water cooks the food.
▪ In satellite communication a microwave radio signal is transmitted from a dish aerial up
to another dish aerial in another location.
OTHER USES OF MICROWAVES
1. For cooking
- They can be used for heating food.
- In microwave oven, food is heated because it contains water which is stronger
absorber of microwaves.
2. For communication
- They are used for point to point communication links to transmit phone calls data and
TV signals
3. Medical application
- They are utilized in microwave thermos-therapy technique that uses microwaves to
generate localized heat in treating condition like tumor.
4. It is also used in sterilizing equipment
Problems associated with electromagnetic waves
(a) Ultraviolet rays cause sunburn that occurs when skin cells are damaged by the absorption
of energy.
(b) Gamma rays kill body living cells. They also cause cell mutation.
(c) X-rays cause cell mutation i.e. DNA changes. They can cause skin cancer i.e. abnormal
growth of living cells. They also affect childbirth i.e. rays can lead to deformity in the
infants.
(d) GLOBAL WARMING
The atmosphere allows short wavelength from the sun to pass easily to the earth surface.
This warms up the ground which radiates heat in form of infra-red radiation into the
atmosphere. The atmospheric gases (Carbon dioxide, water vapour, etc.) absorb the
radiation from the earth and in turn give out heat back to the earth making the earth
getting warmer.

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 As more and more carbon dioxide is being emitted by factories to the atmosphere, more
and more radiation is being directed back to the earth’s surface causing global warming.
(e) GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
This is the process of allowing in short wavelength radiation and protecting the radiated
long wavelength from escaping.

Note that a greenhouse consists of glass enclosure (house) with plants grown inside. Glass
allows visible light to and short wavelength radiations emitted by the sun to pass through
but glass cannot transmit the long wavelength given out by the plants. This traps the heat
from the sun inside the greenhouse making the inside warmer than outside.
APPLYING WAVE EQUATION IN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
A wave equation is given as:
c=fxλ
Where c is the velocity or speed in m/s, f is frequency in Hz and λ is wavelength in m.
Worked examples
1. Vizala Broadcasting Corporation broadcasts a wave of speed 3 x 108 m/s on a frequency
of 1.5 x 106 kHz. Find the wavelength of this wave.
𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑓 = 1.5 × 106 𝐻𝑧, 𝜆 =?
𝑐 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝜆= = = 200𝑚
𝑓 1.5 × 106 𝐻𝑧
2. United radio station emits radio waves of wavelength 300 m. Calculate frequency of a
radio wave if its speed is 3 x 108 m/s.
3. Mapemphero radio station emits radio waves at a frequency of 10 MHz

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 a. Calculate its frequency in Hertz.
b. Calculate its wavelength if its speed is 3 x 108 m/s.
4. The wavelength of a microwave is 100 m. Calculate its frequency given the speed of
electromagnetic waves = 3 x 108 m/s.
MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE SYLLABUS
2022 – 8
b. Mention any two ways in which electromagnetic spectrum is emitted. (2 marks)
2020 – 8
b. Give any three properties of electromagnetic waves (3 marks)
LIGHT AND LENSES
CONVERGING AND DIVERGING LENSES
Lenses (singular: lens) are usually made of glass or clear plastic.
Lenses produce images similar to those produced by curved mirrors but they do so by refraction
rather than reflecting the light.
There are two types of lenses namely:
▪ Convex (converging) lens.
▪ Concave (diverging) lens.
CONVEX (CONVERGING LENSES)
Convex lenses are lenses that are thicker in the middle than on the edges.

A converging lens is used to converge or bring together parallel rays of light passing through
them. The parallel rays of light falling on the converging lens converge on the principal focus or
focal point on the other side of it as shown below

Concave (diverging lenses)

Diverging lenses are lenses that are thinner in the middle than on the edges.
Concave lenses diverge (spread out) parallel rays of light that pass through the lens. In other
words, light rays passing through a concave or diverging lens are bent away from the principal
axis.

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Diverging lens causes parallel rays falling on it to diverge so that they appear to have come from
the principal focus from the same side as the rays enter.

Difference between convex lens and concave lens

▪ Converging lens converges light rays while diverging rays scatters light rays
▪ Convex ray forms a real image on the opposite side of a lens while concave rays forms a
virtual image on the same side as the lens
▪ Convex lens are thick at the middle and thin at the edges while concave lens are thin at
the middle and thick at the edges
▪ Convex lens has their focal length which is positive while concave lens has their focal
length which is negative
▪ In convex lens after refraction, Light rays meet (appear to meet) at one point while in
concave lens after refraction, light rays move away from one another
▪ In convex lens, the image they form can be real, virtual, magnified or diminished
depending on the object distance while concave lens always forms an image which is
virtual and diminished
▪ Convex lens is used to correct long sight which convex lens are used to correct short sight
Similarity
▪ Both lenses produce images by refracting light rays.
▪ Light rays bend when entering and leaving the lenses.
WITH REFERENCE TO DIAGRAMS, THE TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH
CONVERGING LENSES
(a) OBJECT (o) is the real thing while
(b) IMAGE (i) is the picture of the real thing.
(c) OBJECT DISTANCE (u) is the distance between the object and lens.
(d) IMAGE DISTANCE (v) is the distance between the image and the lens.

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 (e) OPTICAL CENTRE is the centre of a lens where light rays are not refracted or the
middle part of the lens. A light ray passing through the optical centre is never bent
because the sides of the lens are almost parallel in the middle.
(f) THE RADIUS OF CURVATURE (R)
The radius of curvature of the surface of a lens is the radius of the sphere of which the
surface forms a part. Each surface has its own radius of curvature r1, r

(g) PRINCIPAL AXIS is an imaginary line passing through the optical centre which is also
perpendicular to the plane of the lens.

(h) PRINCIPAL FOCUS or FOCAL POINT (F) It is the meeting point of a beam of light
rays passing through a convex lens.

(i) FOCAL LENGTH (f) is the distance between the focal point and the optical centre.
(j) FOCAL PLANE is a line perpendicular to the principal axis passing through focal point
or It is the distance between the lens and the perfect point of focus in an image.

DETERMINING THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVERGING LENS

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 1. Determining focal length of a converging lens using a distant object
▪ Materials required are Converging lens, metre rule, white paper (screen on the wall),
window frame (object).

▪ Position a convex lens vertically in front of far away window from the lens
▪ Place a white screen on the other side of the lens
▪ Adjust the screen until sharp image of window is seen
▪ Measure distance from the lens to the screen.
2. Determining the focal length using plane mirror
▪ The following materials are required: Pointed light source with a screen attached to it,
converging lens, lens holder, metre ruler, plane mirror.
▪ The apparatus is set as shown below

▪ Move the pointed light source so that a sharp, real and inverted image is formed alongside the
object.
▪ Measure the distance from the centre of the lens to the image. This distance is called focal length
(f).
The experiment above uses the principle of reversibility. A point source of light placed at the
focal point F of the converging lens will give a parallel beam of light emerging from the lens.
Placing a plane mirror perpendicular to the parallel beam will reflect the beam through the
converging lens to form an image at F coincident with the object.
3. Determining the focal length of a converging lens by using graphical method.
A. U + V AGAINST U
▪ The following materials are required: Converging lens, lens holder, metre ruler, candle
(object), matches, screen.
▪ Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram below

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 a. Adjust the position of the candle so that the distance from the candle to the centre of the
centre of lens (u) is 20cm
b. Light the candle
c. Move the screen until you get a clear image of the candle flame on the screen.
d. Measure the distance from the screen to the centre of the lens (v) and record it in the
table of results.
e. Repeat the experiment using object distances (u) shown in the table
Object distance (u) (cm) Image distance (v) (cm) U + V (cm)
20
25
30
35
40
f. Calculate u + v for each of the object and image distances and record in the table
g. Plot a graph of u + v against u

h. Find the focal length of the lens

The graph has a minimum (lowest) point given the letter X. this point is produced when the
object is at 2f. An object at 2f will form an image at 2f.
At point X: 𝑢 = 2𝑓
𝑣 = 2𝑓
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 4𝑓
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑢 + 𝑣) 𝑎𝑡 𝑋
𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
4

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 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢 𝑎𝑡 𝑋
𝑂𝑅 𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
2
EXAMPLE
Object distance, U (cm) Image distance, V (cm) (U + V) cm
20 60 80
25 37.5 62.5
30 30 60
40 24 64
50 21.5 71.5
Plot a graph of (U + V) cm against U (cm)

U at minimum point of the graph = 30 cm

Focal length of the lens is calculated as follows
𝑢 30𝑐𝑚 𝑢 + 𝑣 60
𝑓= = = 15𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑟 = = 15𝑐𝑚
2 2 4 4
𝟏 𝟏
𝑩. 𝑻𝑯𝑬 𝑮𝑹𝑨𝑷𝑯 𝑶𝑭 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕
𝒗 𝒖
The following materials are required: a candle, matches, meter ruler, lens holder and a screen.
a. Arrange the apparatus as shown in Figure 1.

b. Light the candle

c. Move the object (candle) until it is 50cm from the lens
d. Move the screen until a clear image of the object is formed on the screen
e. Measure the image distance, V and record it in Table 1

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 f. Repeat steps (c) to (e) for object distances shown in the table
g. Complete the 1⁄𝑣 and 1⁄𝑢 columns of the table
Table 1
Object distance, U Image distance, V 𝟏⁄ 𝟏⁄
𝑽 𝑽
(cm) (cm)
50
40
30
25
20

(6 marks)
h. Plot a graph of 1⁄𝑢 against 1⁄𝑣
i. Use the graph to find the focal length of the lens
A graph of 1/u against 1/v will be as shown

At x-intercept:
1 1 1
= 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 ∴ 𝑢 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 = 𝑢 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
𝑣 𝑢 1
𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑢)
At y – intercept
1 1 1
= 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 ∴ 𝑣 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 = 𝑣 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
𝑢 𝑣 1
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑣 )
𝑢+𝑣
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑠, 𝑓 =
2
EXAMPLE
Object distance, u (cm) Image distance, v (cm) 𝟏 𝟏
𝒗 𝒖
50 21.4 0.047 0.02
40 24 0.041 0.025
30 30 0.033 0.033
25 37.5 0.027 0.04
20 60 0.017 0.05

𝟏 𝟏
Plot a graph of 𝒗 against 𝒖

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 Extrapolating the graph to y – axis, 1/v = 0.067; at this point focal length (f) = image
distance (v)
1/v = 0.067; v = 14.9 Therefore,
f = v = 14.9 cm or
1/u = 0.067 u =
14.9
Therefore, f = u = 14.9 cm
IMAGE FORMATION ON CONVEX LENS
▪ All the rays of light that leave a single point on an object meet at the same image point.
▪ A ray, through the optical centre of the lens is un-deviated.
▪ A ray, parallel to the principal axis, passes through (appear to leave or come from F)
▪ A ray, through (or heading towards) F, emerges parallel to the principal axis.
Investigating the formation of image on convex lens
▪ The following materials are required: Lamp, object, converging lens, metre rule, screen.
▪ Arrange the apparatus as shown

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 ▪ Switch on the lamp.
▪ Observe what happens on the screen
When the lamp is switched on it produces light which illuminates the object. The rays of light from
an object are refracted by the converging lens. The converging lens converges the rays of light
and an image is formed on the screen.
Conclusion
Therefore, the image is formed on the screen by the converging lens.
POSITION AND NATURE OF THE IMAGE
Position of the image
The position of the image is found by measuring the distance between the lens and the screen.
This distance is called image distance, V.
Nature or characteristic of the image formed
The image which is formed by the converging lens has the following characteristics:
1. Either Real or Virtual
▪ A real image is the image which can be shown on the screen.
▪ A virtual image is the image which cannot be shown on the screen.
2. Either Magnified or Diminished.
▪ A magnified image is the one that is bigger than its object.
▪ A diminished image is the one that is smaller than its object.
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛)
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑚 =
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠)
𝑉
𝑀=
𝑈
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑚 =
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

3. Either Erect or Inverted.

▪ An erect image is the one that is upright (points in the same direction as its object).
▪ An inverted image is the one that is upside down (points in opposite direction to its
object).
Drawing ray diagrams
The position, size, and nature of the image can be found by drawing ray diagrams.
The following symbols are used in light ray diagrams.
▪ U object distance (in cm or cm) - distance between the centre of the lens and the object
▪ V image distance (in cm or m) - distance between the centre of the lens and the image.
▪ f focal length (in cm or m) – distance between the centre of the lens and the focal point F.
▪ F principal focus or focal point (no units)- the point on the principal axis when the ray of
light passes through.
▪ F is the same distance as the focal length; 2F is double the focal length.
Principal rays

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The following three principal rays are used in geometrical constructions of ray diagrams to find the
positions and sizes of images:
1. A ray which passes through the optical centre of the lens is not bent (undeviated).

A ray of light passing through the optical centre

2. A ray which is parallel to the principal axis passes through the focal point (principal
focus) after refraction through the lens.

A ray of light parallel to the principal axis before the lens

3. A ray which passes through the focal point F before the lens emerges (leaves the lens)
parallel to the principal axis.

A ray of light from F emerges parallel to the principal axis.

The position of the image is found by joining at least two principal rays.
EXAMPLES OF RAY DIAGRAMS
1. Object at a distance beyond twice focal length (beyond 2F).

An object placed behind 2F

The characteristics or nature of the image formed are:
▪ The image is real.
▪ The image is inverted and located between F and 2F.
▪ The image is smaller than the object (diminished).
Application: Cameras, telescopes, and eyes.
2. Object at 2F

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An object placed at 2F
The nature or characteristics of the image formed are:
▪ The image is real.
▪ The image is inverted (upside down)
▪ The image is of the same size as the object. The object is located at 2F and the image is
formed at 2F.
Application: Camera and terrestrial telescopes.
3. Object between F and 2F

The nature or characteristics of the image formed are:

▪ The image is real.
▪ The image is inverted (upside down).
▪ The image is magnified and located beyond 2F.
Application: Compound microscope, slide projector and motion picture projector.
4. Object at F

The nature or characteristics of the image formed are:

▪ The image is virtual (not formed on the screen since rays are parallel when they leave the
lens).
▪ The image is formed at infinity
▪ The image is upright.
▪ The image is magnified
Application: Search/spotlights and eyepiece telescope
5. Object between F and Lens.

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The nature or characteristics of the image formed are:
▪ The image is virtual.
▪ The image is upright.
▪ The image is enlarged.
▪ The image is formed and located on the same side of the object.
Applications: binoculars, microscopes, simple magnifiers, and telescopes.
DRAWING RAY DIAGRAMS TO SCALE
Ray diagrams can be drawn to scale to improve the accuracy.
Worked examples
1. A 3 cm high object is placed 18 cm in front of the converging lens of focal length 6 cm.
a. Draw a ray diagram to find the position of an image formed (scale 1cm:3 cm on both
axes)
b. Describe the nature of an image formed.
c. Calculate the magnification of the image.
𝐮 = 𝟏𝟖𝐜𝐦, 𝐭𝐨 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 𝐮 = 𝟔𝐜𝐦, f = 6cm, to scale f = 3 cm, ho = 3cm, to scale ho = 1cm

b. The image is real, inverted and of the same size as its object.
𝑉 6𝑐𝑚
𝑐. 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = =× 1
𝑈 6𝑐𝑚
2. An object 2 cm high is placed 4 cm in front of a converging lens of focal length of 5 cm.
a. Draw a ray diagram and find the position of the image formed. (using a scale of
1cm: 2 cm on both axes).
b. Describe the nature of the image formed.
c. Calculate the magnification of the image.
u = 4 cm, to scale u = 2 cm, f = 5 m, to scale f = 2.5 cm, ho = 2cm, to scale ho = 1cm

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Upright, magnified, not real (virtual)
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 10𝑐𝑚
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = =× 10
𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 1𝑐𝑚
THE LENS FORMULA
It is given by
1 1 1
= + , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑢 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
DERIVATION OF THE LENS FORMULA
If an object is placed at 2F, the image is also formed at 2F. Image is real, inverted and of the same
size as the object as shown below

From Figure 9.21 above, the object and the image are perpendicular to the principal axis (PA).
In triangle A: In triangle B: In triangle C: In triangle D:
ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑜
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜙 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜙 =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑣−𝑓 𝑓
But triangle A is congruent to triangle B and triangle C is congruent to D
The equations will be combined as shown below, and then hi is made the subject in each case:
ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑜
= =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑣−𝑓 𝑓
𝑣ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜 (𝑣 − 𝑓)
ℎ𝑖 = ℎ𝑖 =
𝑢 𝑓
Now the equations are combined since hi is common:
ℎ𝑜 (𝑣 − 𝑓) 𝑣ℎ𝑜
=
𝑓 𝑢
Dividing both side by ho, the equation becomes:
𝑣−𝑓 𝑣 𝑣 𝑓 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
= ⇔ − = ⇔ −1=
𝑓 𝑢 𝑓 𝑓 𝑢 𝑓 𝑢
Dividing by v throughout the equation becomes:
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING LENS FORMULA

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1. An upright object is placed 20cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 10cm. Using lens
formula calculate the image distance.
𝑢 = 20𝑐𝑚, 𝑓 = 10𝑐𝑚, 𝑣 =?
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇔ = − ⇔ = ∴ 𝑣 = 20𝑐𝑚
10 𝑣 20 𝑣 10 20 𝑣 20
2. An object is placed 10 cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 15 cm.
Calculate
a. The position of the image formed.
b. The magnification of the image.
𝑢 = 10𝑐𝑚, 𝑓 = 15𝑐𝑚, 𝑣 =?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 −5
= + ⇔ = − ⇔ = ⇔ 𝑣 = −30𝑐𝑚
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 15 10 𝑣 150
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑉 30𝑐𝑚
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = =× 3
𝑈 10𝑐𝑚
APPLICATIONS OF LENSES IN VARIOUS OPTICAL DEVICES
1. A simple camera
A camera is a device used to take photographs.

▪The converging lens: refracts rays of light and form inverted image on the film.
▪The aperture: a hole through which light rays enter the camera.
▪The focusing ring (threads): helps to focus an image so that a clear image is formed. The
focusing ring moves the lens towards or away from the firm until a clear image is formed.
▪ The diaphragm controls the size of the aperture. The aperture is made narrow on a brighter
day so that less light is allowed in. When there is less light, the aperture is made wider so
that more light enters the camera.
▪ The shutter: allows light into the camera by opening and prevents light from entering the
camera by closing.
▪ The shutter button is used to release the shutter to open and later close alone.
▪ The film is used to keep the picture of the image for the later processing. The film contains
light sensitive chemicals that change on the exposure to light. The film is then developed
to get what is called a negative. From the negative, a photograph (positive) may be printed
THE PROJECTOR

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It produces a real magnified image through functions of a small bulb which provides light;
condenser lens which converges and concentrates light onto a film. It has a projector lens which
refracts light and focuses it on the screen where the image is formed. The slide (film) is put up-
side down in order to obtain an upright image and furthermore, the slide is put between F and 2F
in order to get a magnified image.
PROJECTOR PARTS AND ITS FUNCTIONS
▪ Projector lens is a lens of long focal length and its function is to produce a focused,
magnified, real and upright image (when object is inverted) on the screen.
▪ Screen: Used to display the image formed
▪ Reflector which reduces loss of light produced. The light rays that are directed away from the
object are therefore reflected back towards the object by the concave mirror.
▪ Curved mirror – it is used to collect all the light rays and reflect them to the object (the
slide film).
▪ The light source – it is used to provide bright light in order to illuminate the object.
▪ The condensing lens – it is used to bring together the scattered rays of light and concentrate
them on the object.
Nature of image formed on projector
▪ The image is real, upright and magnified
HOW DOES SLIDE PROJECTOR WORKS?
The light from the source/lamp illuminates the object slide by passing through the condenser lenses
which concentrate light rays onto the slide. The projection lens converges the light rays onto the screen
where an image of the object slide is formed.
TELESCOPE
▪ A telescope is an instrument used to observe distant objects i.e stars, moon
It uses the following principles
▪ A distant object focuses a real, inverted and diminished image at principal focus, F.
▪ An object placed at focal point produces a virtual, upright and magnified image at
infinity.

How does a telescope works?

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Light rays from a distant object are striking the objective lens, Lo. The rays are travelling parallel
to each other but not parallel to the P.A. of the lens. The rays emerge from the lens to cross in the
focal plane of the lens. The rays continue to the eyepiece lens.
Parts of a telescope and their functions
▪ Objective lens: It has a long focal length (thin lens). It is used to produce a real and inverted
image of the object.
▪ Eyepiece lens: It has a shorter length (thick lens). It acts as a magnifying lens.
Nature of image formed on telescope
▪ The image is magnified, inverted and virtual
THE HUMAN EYE
• Like the camera the human eye uses convex lens to form an image of the object on the
retina
• Light enters the eye through cornea and pupil into the eye lens (convex lens) from the
object and focus in the retina forming a real, diminished and inverted image.
• Retina has sensitive cells that sends Image formation to the brain through optic nerves
• The brain interprets the information from the image.

Parts of the human eye and their functions

Iris
• The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye by controlling the size of the pupil.
• It enlarges the pupil in the dark and it closes, causing the pupil to contract in the bright light.
Pupil
• The pupil is a hole through which light enters the eye controlled by the iris.
• It becomes bigger in dim light and becomes smaller in bright light.
• Nocturnal (night) hunting animals such as owls and cats have very big pupil to enter the eye.
And these animals can see at night without any problems.
• During the day, these animals’ pupils are almost closed in order for them to see. The pupils
do not close enough for them to see in the bright sunshine. This is why most of them hide in
the shade and dark places such as big shady trees.
• This is why owls are mostly seen more at night than during the day.
Eye lens
• These are used to focus a sharp and inverted image on the screen called the retina.
• The special ability of the eye lens is that it can change its shape curvature.
Cornea
• This is the tough, transparent, and protective outer cover to the eye.
• All light entering the eye passes through the cornea.
• It also helps in the refraction of the rays of light.
Retina
▪ This is a light sensitive part of the eye where images are formed.
▪ The central pupil looks black. The black that is seen is the retina of the eye inside at the back
of the eye.

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Optic nerve
▪ This is connected to the retina at the back of the eye. The picture formed on the retina is
carried to the brain through this nerve (the optic nerve) for interpretation.
Ciliary muscle
▪ These muscles are connected to the lens.
▪ They are used to change the curvature (shape) of the lens so that the focal length changes to
what the eye would like to see.
▪ The focal length will be shorter when the lens is shorter and thicker and the focal length will
be longer when the lens is longer and thinner.
Formation of the image in a human eye using ray diagrams
A ray diagram can be used to show how light passes from a point on a real object (located
somewhere in space outside the eye) to the corresponding position on the image of the object on
the retina at the back of the eye.

Accommodation of the eye

This refers to the ability of the eye to focus light from objects placed at different distances into
the retina. This is achieved by changing the shape of the eye lens. The shape of the eye lens can
be changed by the help of the ciliary muscles.
This emphasizes the point that short fat lens has a stronger bending power of light rays, hence
they have a shorter focal point.

Nearby Objects
▪ Have a longer image distance.
Shorten the focal length
▪ Ciliary muscles contract
▪ Squeeze the lens into a more convex (fat) shape
▪ Pushes cornea bulge out further: greater curvature

Distant Objects

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• Have a shorter image distance.
Lengthen the focal length
• Ciliary muscles relax
• Lens assumes a flatter (thinner) shape
• Cornea is not pushed out = less curvature
Comparing a camera to human eye
Table 9.2 similarities between a camera and a human eye
The camera The eye
It has a convex lens system which produces a It has a convex lens system which forms a
real, inverted image real, inverted image
There is a light sensitive (film) on which the It has a light sensitive screen (the retina) with
image is formed. about 130 million light sensitive cells on
which an image is formed
Light is controlled by diaphragm which Light is controlled by the iris which increases
increases or decreases the size of aperture in or decreases the size of the pupil in reaction
reaction to the amount of light present. to the amount of light falling on the eye.
The inside surface is black. The inside surface is black (the retina is
black).
Table 9.3 differences between a camera and a human eye
Eye Camera
Focal length (f) of the lens changes i.e. the The focal length (f) of lens is just fixed.
eye lens becomes thicker and shorter or it
becomes longer and flatter.
The eye is normally open (it does not have The camera is normally closed (shutter
specified shutter) only opens when a picture is taken).
The eye has a fixed image distance (v) A camera has a changing image distance
(v)

Short sightedness (myopia) and its correction

A short sight is the situation whereby the eye fails to focus a distant object clearly because the
eye ball is too long for the rays from a distant object. In this situation, the light rays converge
before reaching the retina.
The problem can be corrected by placing a concave (diverging) lens which can delay the meeting
of the light rays.

Long sightedness (hypermetropia) and its correction

A long sight is the situation whereby the eye fails to focus a close object clearly because the eye
ball is too short for the rays from a close object. In this situation, the light rays converge at a
point just beyond the retina.
The problem can be corrected by placing a convex (converging) lens which can cause the rays of
light to meet at the retina and form a focused image.

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MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
2022 – 12
b. Briefly, explain how a concave type of lens assists a short sighted person. (5 marks)
2021 – 12
a. With the aid of a well diagram, describe the problem of long sight in the human eye. (5
marks)
2021 – 12
b. With the aid of a ray diagram, describe the nature of an image formed by a convex lens of
focal length 10cm, with the object 10cm high placed at 6cm from the lens. (Use a scale of 1cm: 5
units). (5 marks)

2019 – 7
a. Give any two properties of lenses
• they converge rays of light
• they diverge rays of light
• they refract light to form an image
b. An object l cm high is placed 20 cm in front of a convex lens with a focal length of 10 cm. Using
a ray diagram, find the image distance.
2011-7.
b. Explain how the focal length of a convex lens can be determined using a distant object. (3
marks)
c. State any two differences between a “camera” and a “human eye”. (2 marks)
2010-6.
g.
(i) State any three differences between a real image and a virtual image. (3 marks)
(ii) An object 6 cm long is placed 30 cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 10 cm. Use
the lens formula to calculate;
(1) image distance (4 marks)
(2) magnification of the object (2 marks)
2010-7.
a. Explain how an image is formed by a convex lens. (4 marks)
2009-2
a. Figure 2 shows part of a ray diagram.

(i) Complete the ray diagram to show the position of the image. (3 marks)

(ii) Calculate the magnification of the image. (4 marks)

102
2009-2.
c. Figure 4 is diagram of a slide projector.

(i) State the function of each of the following:

Concave mirror: (1mark)
Condenser lens: (1mark)
(ii) Describe the nature of the image formed on the screen. (3marks)
2008-2.
a
(i) Define “focal length” of a convex lens. (2 marks)
(ii) State any two ways of determining the focal length of a convex lens. (2 marks)
(iii) An object 10 cm high is placed 25 cm from the centre of a convex lens of focal length 10
cm. Draw a ray diagram to show the position of the image formed. (Scale: 1 cm to represent 5
cm) (6 marks)
2007-2.
c. (i) State any three similarities between a camera and a human eye. (3 marks)
(ii) What is the function of an aperture in a camera? (1 mark)
d.
An object placed 15 cm away from a convex lens of focal length 10 cm.
(i) Using the lens formula, calculate the image distance. (4 marks)
(ii) Calculate the magnification of the image. (2 marks)
(iii) What is the nature of the image produced? (3marks)
2004-5.
c.
An object 2 cm high is placed 7.5 cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 5 cm.
(i) Calculate the image distance. (4 marks)
(ii) Describe the image formed. (3 marks)
(iii) Calculate the magnification of the image. (2 marks)
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Nuclear Physics is a branch of physics that studies the nucleus of the atom, its internal structure
and its components.
Nuclear Physics is also defined as the study of the vast amount of energy that ca be obtained
from the nucleus of an atom and which is released through nuclear reactions.
Structure of an atom
An atom is a smallest electrically neutral particle of an element that take part in chemical
reaction.
An atom is made up of two parts. The central core called the nucleus where protons and neutrons
are closely packed. The outer orbit where electrons go around the nucleus
Electrons carry negative charge, protons carry positive charge and neutrons carry no charge

Two sub-atomic particles found inside the nucleus of an atom are:

➢ Protons
➢ Neutrons

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Atomic/ Charge number
▪ The number of protons inside the nucleus of an atom.
▪ It is denoted by letter Z
Mass number
▪ The number of protons and neutrons inside the nucleus of an atom.
▪ It is also defined as the number of nucleons inside the nucleus of an atom.
▪ It is denoted by letter A
Nuclear notation of an atom
The composition of an atom is represented by
𝑨
𝒁𝑿, where X is an element, A is mass number and Z is atomic number.

Example
Given that lithium atom, 73𝐿𝑖 . Identify atomic number, mass number and number of neutrons
𝑍 = 3 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝐴 = 7 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝑁 = 𝐴 − 𝑍 = 7 − 3 = 4 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
Example 2
Given that Uranium atom has 238 92𝑈, determine the mass number, atomic number and number of
neutrons.
𝐴 = 238, 𝑍 = 92, 𝑁 = 𝐴 − 𝑍 = 238 − 92 = 146

ISOTOPES
These are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass number due
to difference in the number of neutrons.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ISOTOPES
▪ Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons inside their nuclei. Therefore, all
the isotopes of an element contain the same number of electrons.
▪ Different isotopes of an element have different mass numbers.
▪ Since isotopes of an element have the same number of protons and electrons, all the
isotopes of an element show the same chemical properties, same electronic configurations,
and the same number of valence electrons.
▪ Isotopes of an element have different masses. So, the properties which depend upon the
atomic mass should be different for different isotopes. Many physical properties e.g.,
melting point, boiling point, density, etc., depend upon the atomic mass. So, different
isotopes of an element show different physical properties.
Isotopes of Hydrogen
1. Hydrogen, 11𝐻
2. Deuterium, 21𝐻
3. Tritium, 31𝐻
Isotopes of carbon
1. Carbon – 12, 126𝐶

104
 2. Carbon – 14, 146𝐶
Isotopes of oxygen
1. Oxygen – 16, 168𝑂
2. Oxygen – 18, 188𝑂
Isotopes of Chlorine
1. Chlorine – 35, 35
17𝐶𝑙
2. Chlorine – 37, 37
17𝐶𝑙
Isotopes of Uranium
1. Uranium – 235, 23592𝑈
238
2. Uranium – 238, 92𝑈
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
▪ It is the mass of one atom of an atom of an element compared to the mass of one carbon –
12 atom.
EXAMPLE
1. An element Y consists of isotopes of masses 10 and 11 with a percentage of 18.7% and
81.3% respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of Y. (5 marks)
10 × 18.7% 11 × 81.3%
+ ⇔ 1.87 + 8.943 = 10.813
100% 100%
2. Magnesium has three isotopes, Mg – 24, Mg – 25 and Mg – 26. The percentage of each is
78.70%, 10.13% and 11.17% respectively. Determine the relative atomic mass of
magnesium.
78.70% × 24 10.13% × 25 11.17% × 26
+ + ⇔ 18.888 + 2.5325 + 2.9042 = 24.3247
100% 100% 100%
RADIOACTIVITY
This is spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus to release either rays or particles
to acquire a more stable state. Radioactivity is the process of emitting radiation particles by an
unstable substance. Radioactive isotopes are isotopes that are unstable. These isotopes break up
spontaneously or their nuclei randomly disintegrate (breakdown). For these radioisotopes to be
stable, they release particles or radiation. The process is called radioactivity

Radioactivity happens in order to equalize or normalize its proton neutron ratio. A radioactive
substance is the one that breaks in order to gain a stable form.

Radioactive elements are atoms of some elements which can disintegrate to attain a stable state.
Examples of radioactive elements are: Uranium, Radium, Polonium
Types of radioactivity
(a) Natural radioactivity
The spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus to release either rays or particles.
Examples of nuclides which can undergo natural radioactivity are uranium-238, thorium-
234, radium-226 etc. It is the radioactivity that happens on its own naturally from natural
nuclides.
(b) Artificial radioactivity
This is done by exposing a stable naturally occurring nuclide to different atomic particles
inside a nuclear reactor. The different particles used in this bombardment are: neutrons,
protons, hydrogen isotopes etc.
Examples of artificial radioactivity
Neutron bombardment
When a stable non-radioactive uranium 238 is bombarded by a neutron particle a radioactive
uranium-239 is obtained
𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟏 𝟐𝟑𝟗
𝟗𝟐𝑼 + 𝟎𝒏 ⟶ 𝟗𝟐𝑼

Alpha bombardment.

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A stable non-radioactive atom make collision with an alpha particle and produce another atom
19
9𝐹 + 42𝛼 ⟶ 22
11𝑁𝑎 + 10𝑛
14
7𝑁+ 42𝛼 ⟶ 178𝑂 + 11𝐻
A proton or a neutron can be emitted during the process.
HALF-LIFE OF ISOTOPES
Half-life means time taken for a radioactive substance to be reduced to half of its original
substance. It can also be defined as the time taken for half the nuclei present to disintegrate.
Recall that radioactive decay is a random process. Different radioactive substances decay at
different rates.
For example: If you have 48 atoms of radium, then the time taken for 24 atoms to decay is
known as half-life of radium.

Here are some of the half-lives of some elements:

Element Half life
Thorium 1010yrs
Radium 1 620yrs
Bismuth – 210 5 days
Potassium – 218 3 minutes
Polonium – 214 10 -6yrs
Sodium 15 hrs
Uranium – 233 7 x 108yrs
Carbon 14 5 600yrs
From the information above, it means that the time taken for 48 atoms of uranium to decay and
become 24 is 700 000 000 years (7 x 108yrs). Note that the total masses of decayed and
undecayed remain the same as the original mass.
Activities and decay curves
Activity in radioactivity is the average number of disintegration per unit time in a radioactive
sample. The sample will decrease exponentially with time. The rate of decay of a radioactive
substance can be plotted on a graph. Usually the graph of decay of any substance is a curve
shape as shown in Figure 10.5

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING HALF LIFE

1. A radioactive source has a half-life of 30 minutes. Calculate the fraction left after 2 hours. (4
marks)
1
➢ after 30 minutes the fraction left is 2
1
➢ after 1 hour the fraction left is 4
1
➢ after 1 hour and 30 minutes the fraction left is 8

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 1
➢ after 2 hours the fraction left is 16
2. When a source of radiation is placed in front of a Geiger-Muller counter, the initial count rate
is 128.
After 16 minutes, the count rate is 8. Calculate the half-life of the source. (6 marks)
1 𝑡
➢ 𝑁 = 𝑁0 ( )𝑇
2
1 1 16
➢ = (2) 𝑇
16
1 1 16
➢ (2)4 = (2) 𝑇
16
➢ 4= 𝑇
➢ 4𝑇 = 16
➢ T=4
Half-life = 4 minutes
3. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 3 hours. What mass of the substance would remain
after 12 hours if the initial mass was 20g? (4marks)
1 𝑡 1 12ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 1 4 1
➢ 𝑁 = 𝑁0 (2)𝑇 = 20(2) 3ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 20 (2) = 20 (16) = 1.25𝑔
Advantages of using isotopes with short half-lives
➢ If an isotope has short half-life it gives a satisfactory decay curve when used in
experiments in school laboratories. The curve is simply plotted as activity A against
time t and you can read off the half-life on the graph.
➢ Remember, the radon-220 is used in school experiments, since it has a half-life of
about 53 seconds and readings taken over a few minutes will give a satisfactory decay
curve.
➢ A radioisotope with short half-life is used in agriculture because it does not cause
contamination of the soil.
➢ Radioisotopes of short half-life cease to act after their function has been completed.
These radioisotopes can be used for a short period in medicines and in agriculture.
This prevents the passing of radioisotopes from plants to consumers.
➢ Radioisotopes of short half-life decay into harmless substances.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
▪ Radioactive decay is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus or radioisotope to
become stable.
▪ Radioactivity is the spontaneous random emission (release) of particles from within the
nucleus of the atom.
▪ Spontaneous random means that the particles are released in bursts of irregular periods
(times). The original atom completely changes its form; it does not remain the same
element any longer. Radioactive decay involves the emission of an α– particle and a β-
particle.

▪ The nucleus which decays is called the parent nucleus. The stable nucleus which results
is called the daughter nucleus. The combination of the daughter nucleus and the particle
emitted is called the decay products. A daughter nucleus is always in excited state when
it is formed at the stable state of the third particle of radiation called Gamma ray ( ).

Alpha decay
When a nucleus undergoes α decay it loses two protons and two neutrons.
Therefore:
▪ Its mass number (A) decreases by 4.
▪ Its atomic number (Z) decreases by 2.

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If a nucleus X becomes a nucleus Y as a result of alpha decay, then the nuclear equation is given
as:
𝐴 𝐴−4 4
𝑍𝑋 ⟶ 𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝛼
For example, radium decays by alpha emission
226 222 4
88𝑅𝑎 ⟶ 86𝑅𝑛 + 2𝛼
Beta Decay ()
Beta particles are emitted by a nucleus which has many neutrons to be stable.
Unstable nucleus emits an electron while the proton remains in the nucleus. The nucleus effectively
loses a neutron and gains a proton because a neutron changes into a proton.
This makes the nucleus to increase its atomic number by 1. Therefore, the emitted beta particle is
taken as an electron.
When a nucleus undergoes β-decay:
▪ Its mass number (A) remains unchanged.
▪ Its atomic number (Z) increases by 1.
The nuclear equation becomes;
𝐴 𝐴 0
𝑍𝑋 ⟶ 𝑍+1𝑌 + −1𝛽
For example:
Carbon-14 decays by β-emission to nitrogen-14. Therefore, its equation is as follows:
14 14 0
6𝐶 ⟶ 7𝑁 + −1𝛽
Gamma emission (γ)
Gamma is emitted in an electromagnetic form when a stable excited nucleus gets settled. A
stable nucleus emits a photo of gamma radiation. Usually gamma rays are produced along beta or
alpha particle.
▪ Gamma radiation has no mass or atomic number.
▪ Gamma rays have very short wavelength.
The nuclear equations for a γ- emission are
𝐴 𝐴 0 0
𝑍𝑋 ⟶ 𝑍+1𝑌 + −1𝛽 + 0𝛾
PROPERTIES OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
There are three types of nuclear radiation that are emitted during radioactivity. These types of
nuclear radiation are Alpha (𝛼), Beta ( 𝛽) and Gamma (𝛾) named after the 1st three Greek letters.

Types of radioactive decay (Radiations)

1. Alpha decay is the process in which unstable nucleus breaks down and release alpha
particles.
Characteristics of alpha particles ( 𝟒𝟐𝜶)
• Alpha particles are Helium atoms because they have 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
• They have a net positive charge.
• They attract electrons from nearby atoms.
• They are least penetrating because they are big. They are stopped or absorbed by
a sheet of paper or few centimetres of air.
• They are the most ionizing of all the nucleus radiation.
• They are deflected towards the negative charge because they are positively
charged since unlike charges attract.
• They are deflected toward the South Pole of the magnetic field.
2. Beta decay is the process in which unstable nucleus breaks down to release beta particles
from the nucleus.
How does beta radiation occur?
Beta radiation occurs when a neutron in the nucleus of an atom splits into a proton and an
electron. The electron is hence emitted as a β–particle.
Characteristics of Beta particles ( −𝟏𝟎𝜷)
▪ They are negatively charged particles fast moving electrons. A neutron emits an
electron and becomes a proton then beta particles are emitted.

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 ▪ They do not have well defined path like alpha particles.
▪ They travel at the speed of 1 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
▪ They affect photographic paper although to small extend
▪ They have medium ionisation ability with gas as they travel
▪ They cause fluorescence with substances like zinc sulphate and other fluorescent
materials
▪ They are more penetrating than the alpha particles. They penetrate a layer of air and a
thin sheet of paper because they are lighter. They are stopped by a few millimetres of
aluminium.
▪ They are deflected towards the positive side of an electric field because they are
negatively charged. Their size of deflection is greater than in alpha particles because
beta particles are lighter than alpha particles.
▪ They are deflected towards the North pole of magnetic field.
3. Gamma decay is the process in which unstable nucleus releases gamma rays to attain
stable state

Characteristics of gamma rays ( 𝟎𝟎𝜸)

▪ They have no mass and charge hence they cannot deflect in an electric and magnetic
field
▪ They travel at the speed of 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 in air
▪ They possess photon energy = hf, where h is Planck’s constant and f is frequency
of the gamma ray.
▪ They cause fluorescence on certain materials
▪ They are the most penetrating because they have no mass. They penetrate a layer of
air, a sheet of paper and a sheet of aluminium. But they can be absorbed by thick, lead
metal.
▪ They have no ionization effect because they have no charge.
▪ They have least effect on photographic papers
▪ They show no deflection in both electric and magnetic fields because they have no
charge.
DEFLECTION SUMMARY
▪ _ _ _ _ 𝛽
▪ 𝛾
▪ + + + 𝛼 +

PENETRATING POWER SUMMARY

𝛼
𝛽
𝛾

Sheet of paper Sheet of aluminium Lead metal block thick

2cm thick
Dangers of radioactivity
▪ Radiations can change or damage the living cells as the body absorbs radiation energy
which can cause death
▪ Loss of hair, cancer, leukemia (a disease in which a body produces too much white blood
cells)
▪ Genetic damage
▪ Can cause skin burn.
▪ Can cause cell ionization in the body.
▪ Can cause uncontrolled growth of tissue and cancer.

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 ▪ Can affect genetic make-up that can result into deformed babies born.
▪ Can result into emission of enormous amount of energy in the form of heat.
▪ Causes redness of the skin.
▪ Blistering and sores.
PRECAUTIONAL MEASURES
▪ Handle radioactive substances with forceps never with bare hands.
▪ Cover any cut on the skin before handling radioactive substances
▪ Do not drink, eat or smoke when handling radioactive substances.
▪ Do not point radioactive substances towards a human body.
▪ Disposable gloves, protective clothing like lab coat and masks should be worn when
handling radioactive substances
▪ Return radioactive substances to their container soon after use and store them in lead
container.
▪ Always check for radiations after experiment.
▪ Do not stay long in a region of radioactive substances.
▪ Radioactive wastes should be buried in deep trenches inside the earth far away from place
of habitation
HOW TO DISPOSE OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
• Dump them in containers made of thick concrete or thick lead and sink them deep in
oceans and earth.
• Reprocessing: This involves carefully controlled nuclear reactions to recycle the nuclear
waste.
SOURCES OF RADIATION:
Sources of radiation can be categorized into two namely:
a. Natural sources
b. Artificial (human) sources
NATURAL SOURCES OF RADIATION
Three major sources of naturally occurring radiation are:
a. Cosmic radiation
This comes from the sun and outer space and consists of positively charged particles as well
as gamma radiation.
b. Terrestrial radiation
These are natural sources of radiation in the ground rocks, building materials and drinking
water supplies. Examples under this category include: Uranium, radium, thorium and radon
gas. The radon gas is as a result of decay of natural uranium in the soil. The radon which
emits alpha radiation rises from soil under the houses and can build up in homes.
c. Internal sources.
Our bodies also contain natural radio nuclides. Potassium 40 is one example.
ARTIFICIAL (HUMAN) SOURCES
The following information briefly describes example of human made sources of
radiation. Medical radiation sources
Examples include x-rays which have some similar properties to gamma rays.
consumer products
Examples include TV’s, older luminous dial watches, some smoke detectors etc.
Atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.
This leads to residues of radioactive substances as a result of testing nuclear weapons in
the atmosphere and water bodies.
DETECTORS OF RADIATIONS
A. Photographic film
When a photographic plate is exposed to radiation it goes foggy (darkens). People
working with radioactivity wear badges with photographic film in them. When
developed the photographic film fogs up. The more the film fogs up the more the
radioactivity they have been exposed to.

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 B. Gold leaf electroscope
Works on the principle that, “radiation is ionising”.

• A charged rod is brought to the metal cap of the electroscope to charge the metal cap. The
object to be detected is brought to the metal cap. The leaflets are observed in terms of
divergence or collapsing. If the leaflets diverge then the object has the same charge as
electroscope but if the leaflets collapses then they have opposite charge with the
electroscope.
C. The Geiger Muller Tube (Gm Tube)

• When a particle enters inside this tube it causes ionization of argon gas and a flow of
charge takes place
• The pulse of current caused by the flow of charge can be amplified and the pulse is
counted electronically by a scale or a rate meter.
D. Cloud Chambers Principles:
Radiation causes ionisation. Supersaturated vapour easily condenses to form a line of
cloud.
Expansion cloud chamber

A cloud chamber is mainly used to show the tracks of radioactive particles. The tracks of α-
particles are straight and thick. The tracks of β-particle are thin and straight. The γ-rays do not
produce tracks but they simply collide with electrons and give out enough. These electrons
enable the beta to cause ionization and produce its own shot tracks. When a radioactive particle

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 passes through air which is supersaturated with the vapour of a liquid, it produces ions that act
as a centre on which the liquid can condense. A line of liquid droplets is formed along the track
of the particle.
E. Diffusion Cloud Chamber

A cloud chamber is mainly used to show the tracks of radioactive particles. The tracks of α-
particles are straight and thick. The tracks of β-particle are thin and straight. The γ-rays do not
produce tracks but they simply collide with electrons and give out enough. These electrons enable
the beta to cause ionization and produce its own shot tracks.
Figure shows tracks produced by different radiations in a cloud chamber

When a radioactive particle passes through air which is supersaturated with the vapour of a liquid,
it produces ions that act as a centre on which the liquid can condense. A line of liquid droplets is
formed along the track of the particle.
F. Spark Counter

If an alpha source is brought up close to the gauze of the spark counter, it will ionize the air. The
ionization of air causes sparks between the gauze and wire. If a beta source is used insufficient
ions are produced for sparkling to take place. The spark counter can also be used to show the track
of a particle as a line of sparks.

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It has two plates, one is positively charged and the other negatively charged. Incoming radiation
ionises the air. Electrons go to the positively charged plate. The positive ions go to the negatively
charged plate. This flow of charges generates an electric current. This is registered by a sensitive
ammeter in an electric circuit.
H. Scintillation Counter

A scintillator is any material that produces flashes of light when radiation falls on it. Radiation
causes ionisation by knocking off the electrons from the atoms. When the electron vacancies are
refilled there are flashes of light. The flashes of light strike the photomultiplier. The
photomultiplier produces electrons at the cathode. Electrons go to the anode and flow as pulses
of electric current. The current is amplified and measured.
APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY
(a) Medicine
▪ Iodine – 131 is used to monitor the function of thyroid grand which controls
metabolism rate
▪ Radioactive sodium can be used to trace where there is a clot by injecting it into
the body
▪ Cobalt – 60 is used to kill harmful tissues like cancerous cells inside the human
body. Cancer cells are destroyed by gamma radiation from a high activity of cobalt
60.
▪ Gamma rays from cobalt – 60 are used for sterilization of disposable syringes and
plastic bags to kill bacteria.
(b) Agriculture and biology
▪ To monitor plants uptake of fertilizer and other minerals. For example,
radioactive phosphorus is used to assess the different abilities of plants to take up
phosphorous from different types of phosphate fertilizers.
▪ Radiation is used to sterilize insects and eliminate pests which destroy crops
▪ Mild Gamma rays can be used to irradiate wheat and maize to be stored for a
longer period of time without damage.
(c) Industries
▪ Gamma rays can be used to trace leakages in underground water pipes by noticing
where there is higher count rate there is a leakage without physical digging.
▪ Beta particles with long half-life can be used to monitor thickness paper
manufactured
▪ In industries, radioactivity is used to monitor the thickness of a metal. The thickness of
a metal sheet can be monitored during manufacture by passing it between a gamma ray

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 source and a stable detector. The thicker the sheet, the greater the absorption of gamma
rays.
▪ Beta particles can be used to monitor volume of tea leaves during packaging
process
(d) generation of atomic energy
a. Nuclear fission
i. Nuclear fission is the splitting of an unstable radioactive particle or nucleus
into two or more smaller particles (nuclei). During nuclear fission, a heavy
unstable nucleus disintegrates into two or more lighter stable nuclei. The
nucleon reaction releases energy in the process.
ii. Slow moving neutrons are used to strike nuclei of less stable heavy
elements.
235 1 144 90
92𝑈 + 0𝑁 56 𝐵𝑎 + 30 𝐾𝑟 + Energy
iii. As shown above the process involves the release of energy.
b. Nuclear fusion
i. it is the combining of two small nuclei to form heavy nucleus which is
unstable.
ii. Some mass is converted into large amount of energy.

2 + 3 4 + 1 + Energy
1𝐻 1𝐻 2𝐻 0𝑁

(e) Carbon dating

The radioactivity of carbon-14 can be used to date archaeological samples. This uses the
half–life of carbon-14. The activity of carbon-14 taken from an ancient piece of a human
bone can be compared with that of an equal mass of carbon-14 from a bone of living
human. From this comparison, it is possible to estimate the time that has passed since the
bone was part of the human being.
(f) Locating positions
The exact position of an underground pipe can be located if a small quantity of radioactive
liquid is added to the liquid being carried by the pipe. This also allows leakage to be
detected since the soil close to the leak becomes radioactive.

MANEB QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC

1. ISOTOPES
2010-5.
a.
(i) Name two particles found in the nucleus of an atom. (2 marks)
2. RADIOACTIVITY
2022 – 3
a. Give any two dangers of radioactive substances (2 marks)
b. Table 1 shows radioactive isotopes and their half lives
Isotope Half - life
Carbon 5 600 years
Calcium 30 years
Iodine 8 days
Sodium 15 hours
(i) Which isotope is ideal to be used as a tracer in medicine? (1 mark)
(ii) Give a reason for the answer in 3c (i) (1 mark)
2021 – 8
a. List any three uses of radioactivity. (3 marks)
2021 – 11
a. Explain how photographic plates are used to detect the radioactive emissions. (3 marks)
2020 – 4

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a. Give any two types of nuclear radiations
1. Explain how radioactivity is used in archaeology.
2020 – 5
a. Table 1 shows atomic numbers and numbers of neutrons of different atoms W, X, Y and Z
which are not their real chemical symbols.
Atom W X Y Z
Atomic number 6 7 6 8
Number of neutrons 6 7 8 8
(i) Identify two atoms that are isotopes
(ii) Explain the answer to 5 a (i)
(iii) Express atom Y in its nuclear notation (1 mark)
2019 – 9
a. The following equation shows decay of sodium (Na) into magnesium and other nuclear radiations;
24 24
11𝑁𝑎 ⟶ 12𝑀𝑔 + 𝑋 + 𝑦 − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(i) Name the particle X.
(ii) State any one property of X radiation. (1 mark)
b. Explain how nuclear radiations can be used to trace brain tumours. (2 marks)
2012-6d.
(i) Name two types of radioactivity. (2 marks)
(ii) Define “half- life” of a radioactive element. (1mark)
(iii) Mention any three properties of an alpha particle. (3 marks)
2012-8.
d. Explain any two uses of nuclear radiation. (4 marks)
2011-7.
d.
(i) Define “nuclear fission”. (1 mark)
(ii) Write down two symbols representing isotopes of hydrogen. (2 marks)
e. Explain why a charged leaf electroscope is not suitable for detecting beta radiation. (2 marks)
f. Thorium decays by alpha emission to radium .
(i) What do the numbers 228 and 88 represent in ?
(ii) Write the nuclear equation for the decay of thorium . (3 marks)
2010-5.
a.
(ii) Name two particles found in the nucleus of an atom. (2 marks)
(iii) State two characteristics of a radioactive substance. (2 marks)
(iv) State any two uses of nuclear radiation. (2 marks)
b. Table 1 shows the activity of a radioactive element with time.
Activity (Disintegrations per 40 30 20 10
second)
Time (days) 0 4 8 16
(i) Plot a graph of activity against time. (5 marks)
(ii) Use the graph to find the time taken for the activity to drop from 30 to 15 disintegrations
per second. (2 marks)
c. Name the particles emitted when radium decay to radon . (2 marks)
2009-3.
a. Define “radioactivity". (2marks)
b. Name three types of radiation. (3 marks)
c. Mention any two instruments that are used to detect radiation. (2 marks)
d. (i) How do chemical properties of the isotopes of uranium, and compare? (1mark)
(ii) Give a reason for the answer to 3.d.(i). (2 marks)
e. Mention any one natural source of radiation. (1 mark)

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 f. A radioactive source has a half-life of 30 minutes. Calculate the fraction left after 2 hours. (4
marks)
2008-3,
a. Define “nuclear fusion”. (2 marks)
b. The equation below shows the fusion of heavy hydrogen
→
(i) Name the products:
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
(ii) Identify the type of radioactive decay. (1 mark)
c. Uranium, , decays in a series of stages as follows:
Stage 1;
Stage 2;
(i) Which particles are emitted at each stage?
Stage 1; (1 mark)
Stage 2: (1 mark)
(ii) Apart from the particles mentioned in 3.c.(i), what else is emitted at each stage? (1 mark)
d. State any three safety precautions that must be followed when handling radioactive
substances. (3 marks)
d. When a source of radiation is placed in front of a Geiger-Muller counter, the initial count
rate is 128.
After 16 minutes, the count rate is 8. Calculate the half-life of the source. (6 marks)
2007-8.
Describe the following radioactive processes: alpha decay, beta decay and gamma emission.
In the description include atomic numbers, penetration power, ionizing ability and behaviour
in magnetic and electric fields.
Alpha decay: (5marks
Beta decay: (5marks)
Gamma emission: (4 marks)
2006-3.
a. Define “nuclear fission”. (2marks)
b. Name two particles found in the nucleus of an atom. (2marks)
c. Two radioactive samples showed the following characteristics.
Sample Effect of gold leaf electroscope Effect of cardboard on sample
A No effect Sample passes through
B Discharged Sample blocked
(i) Identify particles emitted by samples A and B. (1mark each)
(ii) Why does the particle emitted by sample B get blocked by the card board?
(2marks)
d. Figure 1 is a diagram showing radiation passing through an electric field.

(i) Name the particles taking paths X, Y and Z. (1mark each)

(ii) Explain why particle Z will deflect towards the positive plate. (3marks)

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 2005-4.
c.
(i) the half-life of a radioactive substance is 3 hours. What mass of the substance would remain
after 12 hours if the initial mass was 20g? (4marks)
(ii) Why is it important to use radioisotopes with a short half-life as tracers in Agriculture?
(2 marks)
(iii) Explain why fission is a useful process in industry. (3marks)
➢ Useful in the production of nuclear energy.
2004-6.
a. State any two safety precautions to be taken when handling radioactive substances. (2
marks)
b. Describe the “alpha particles” and “beta particles” (6 marks)
c. Explain why gamma radiation is used in sterilization of medical equipment. (3 marks)
c.
(i) The Radon-222 (Rn) isotope is formed from the alpha decay of radium-226 (Ra).
Write a nuclear equation to show this change. (Atomic number of Ra is 88). (3 marks)
(ii) Figure 4 is a diagram showing radiation passing through ax; electric field. Draw and label in
the diagram the paths taken by the alpha-particles and the beta-particles. (2marks)

(iii) Explain Why the behaviour of particles is as shown in 6c(ii). (4marks)

2003-2.
a. What are isotopes? (2marks)
b. Chlorine has two isotopes and .
(i) Give the number of neutrons in the nucleus of (1mark)
(ii) Given that the two isotopes are present in ordinary chlorine in the ratio of three atoms of to
one atom of , Calculate the average atomic mass of chlorine. (4marks)
d. How would the chemical properties of the two isotopes compare? Give a reason for your
answer (2marks)
d.
(i) What is radioactivity? (2marks)
(ii) When the nucleus of radium emits an alpha particle, it decays to radon according to the
equation:

(1) Besides radon, what other particle is produced when radium decays? (1mark)
(2) How does the mass of the decaying atom compare with the masses of the Products? (1mark)
(3) Name the alpha particle in this equation? (1mark)
e. Explain how gamma rays are emitted. (4marks)
f. Give one use of gamma rays. (1mark)
g. Give one way of detecting radioactive particles. (1mark)

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