Earth Science Reviewer

heat, pressure, or chemically active fluids. They retain some

Tropospheric and Stratospheric Ozone original structure despite significant changes.
Tropospheric ozone (ground-level ozone) can cause lung  Examples:
irritation and damage. It is a harmful pollutant in the lower Marble: Formed from the metamorphism of limestone,
atmosphere, contributing to respiratory problems. characterized by its crystalline structure and used in sculpture
Stratospheric ozone is good while tropospheric ozone is bad. and architecture.
Schist: A medium to high-grade metamorphic rock with
Layers of the Atmosphere
visible mineral grains, often featuring a foliated texture.
1. Troposphere is where humans and most of the
Minerals
biosphere reside, and is the lowest layer. A mineral is a naturally occurring, solid substance with a
2. Stratosphere contains the ozone layer. definite chemical composition.
3. Mesosphere is where meteorites burn up. Big Bang Theory
4. Thermosphere is a layer with extremely high The estimated age of the universe is 13.7 billion years, based
temperatures. on the central idea that all matter began from a single point of
5. Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere, origin. Cosmic background radiation serves as evidence
and the layer in contact with outer space. supporting this theory, explaining the primordial creation and
Salinity and Aquatic Life expansion of space at the beginning of time.
Weathering in the Rock Cycle
 Lake water is used to represent low salinity. Ocean Weathering breaks down rocks into smaller particles,
and sea water have higher salinity levels, while contributing to the formation of sedimentary rocks.
brackish water is a mix of fresh and saltwater. Mineral Composition & Geological History
The presence of specific minerals helps geologists infer the
 Bodies of water are classified into either saltwater or
environmental conditions during a rock’s formation.
freshwater, based on salinity. Salinity refers to the Rocks with Organic Material
saltiness or amount of dissolved salts present in a Rocks likely to contain organic material and formed in bodies
body of water. of water are sedimentary.
Greenhouse Effect Mica
Planting more trees absorbs CO2 and helps maintain Earth's Mica is transparent, exhibits perfect cleavage, and has a
energy balance by reducing greenhouse gases. slippery feel. It is a mineral that commonly occurs in igneous
CO2 Emissions and Environmental Impact and metamorphic rocks. It’s often found in schist and granite,
Increased carbon dioxide emissions contribute to the where it forms as thin, flaky layers.
greenhouse effect, trapping heat in Earth's atmosphere. Nebula
Cleavage in Minerals A nebula is a giant cloud of gas and dust in space.
Cleavage refers to the tendency of a mineral to break along Age of the Universe
flat surfaces. The estimated age of the universe is 13.8 billion years,
Sedimentary Rocks Formation according to the Big Bang Theory.
Lithification of sediments (compaction and cementation) is the Big Crunch
primary process that forms sedimentary rocks. The term Big Crunch describes the potential collapse of the
Rock Cycle universe back into a singularity.
The rock cycle shows how all rock types can transform into Encounter Theory
one another through processes such as weathering, heat, and This theory suggests planets were formed from material
pressure. ejected from the sun during an encounter with another celestial
Intrusive vs. Extrusive Igneous Rocks body.
Extrusive rocks cool quickly, resulting in smaller crystals, Planetesimal Theory: This theory describes Earth starting
while intrusive rocks cool slowly, leading to larger crystals. from a solid mass smaller than its present size.
Types of Rock Tidal Theory: Suggests that planets were formed from the
1. Igneous Rocks gravitational pull and interactions of passing stars and other
Definition: Formed from the solidification of molten rock
celestial bodies.
(magma or lava).
 Examples: Oscillating Theory
Granite: Coarse-grained and often light-colored, formed from The Oscillating Universe theory, also called the pulsating
slow cooling of magma beneath the Earth’s surface. theory, proposes that the universe will eventually contract after
Basalt: Fine-grained and typically dark-colored, formed from expanding. Richard Tolman, a Caltech professor, proposed this
the rapid cooling of lava at the surface. theory. Tolman called the birth of another universe as the big
2. Sedimentary Rocks bounce.
Definition: formed from the accumulation and compaction of Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin
mineral and organic particles or the precipitation of minerals proposed that accretion of minute solid particles created
from water. They often contain fossils and are characterized by planets, not by gaseous or liquid condensation.
layering, or stratification. Lithification is the process through Steady State theory
which sediments harden to become sedimentary rocks, This theory proposes that as the universe continuously expand,
involving both compaction and cementation. its average density remains constant. It was proposed by
 Examples: Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle in 1948.
Sandstone: Composed mainly of sand-sized mineral particles Most Abundant Elements
or rock fragments, often formed in desert or river Hydrogen and helium are the most abundant elements in the
environments. universe.
Limestone: Mainly composed of calcite, often formed from Solubility
the remains of marine organisms or chemical precipitation. Solubility refers to the ability of a substance to dissolve in a
3. Metamorphic Rocks solvent at a specific temperature.
Definition: Formed from the alteration of existing rocks
(igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) due to