21AD1302 - ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERT SYSTEMS

UNIT -I

UNIT1 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ITS ISSUES 9

Definitions - Importance of AI, Evolution of AI - Applications of AI, Classification of AI
systems with respect to environment, Knowledge Inferring systems and Planning,
Uncertainty towards Learning Systems

Introduction to AI

The field of artificial intelligence, or AI, goes further still: it attempts not just to understand
but also to build intelligent entities. AI is one of the newest fields in science and engineering.
Work started in earnest soon after World War II, and the name itself was coined in 1956. AI
currently encompasses a huge variety of subfields, ranging from the general (learning and
perception) to the specific, such as playing chess, proving mathematical theorems, writing
poetry, driving a car on a crowded street, and diagnosing diseases. AI is relevant to any
intellectual task; it is truly a universal field.
It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which can
behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions.

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

One of the booming technologies of computer science is Artificial Intelligence which is ready
to create a new revolution in the world by making intelligent machines. The Artificial
Intelligence is now all around us. It is currently working with a variety of subfields, ranging
from general to specific, such as self-driving cars, playing chess, proving theorems, playing
music, Painting, etc.

AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer science which has a great scope
in future. AI holds a tendency to cause a machine to work as a human.

Some main reasons to learn about AI:

o With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve real-
world problems very easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic
issues, etc.
 o With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana,
Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment
where survival of humans can be at risk.
o AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.

Goals of Artificial Intelligence

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by
itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.

Artificial Intelligence is not just a part of computer science even it's so vast and requires lots
of other factors which can contribute to it. To create the AI first we should know that how
intelligence is composed, so the Intelligence is an intangible part of our brain which is a
combination of Reasoning, learning, problem-solving perception, language understanding,
etc.

To achieve the above factors for a machine or software Artificial Intelligence requires the
following discipline:

o Mathematics
o Biology
o Psychology
o Sociology
o Computer Science
 o Neurons Study
o Statistics

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and
high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because
of that AI systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action
multiple times with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a
bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such as
AI technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the
products as per customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-
driving car which can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for
 security purpose, Natural language processing to communicate with the human in
human-language, etc.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

Every technology has some disadvantages, and the same goes for Artificial intelligence.
Being so advantageous technology still, it has some disadvantages which we need to keep in
our mind while creating an AI system. Following are the disadvantages of AI:

o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires
lots of maintenance to meet current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still
they cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they
are trained, or programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it
does not have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with
human, and may sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are
getting more dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas
but still AI machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be
creative and imaginative.

Importance of artificial intelligence

o Artificial Intelligence's importance and subsequent components have been known for
a long time. They are being seen as tools and techniques to make this world better.
o Its importance lies in making our life easier. These technologies are a great asset to
humans and are programmed to minimize human effort as much as possible. They can
operate in an automated fashion. Therefore, manual intervention is the last thing that
can be sought or seen during the operation of parts involving this technology.
o These machines speed up your tasks and processes with guaranteed accuracy and
precision, making them a useful and valuable tool. Apart from making the world an
error-free place with their simple and everyday techniques, these technologies and
 applications are not only related to our ordinary and everyday life. It is affecting and
holds importance for other domains as well.

Evolution of AI

Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren
McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
o Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection
strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.
o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered
Machine learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's ability to
exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called a Turing test.

The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial
intelligence program" Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had
proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for
some theorems.
o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer
scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as
an academic field.

At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or COBOL were
invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.

The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve
mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which
was named as ELIZA.
o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named
as WABOT-1.
The first AI winter (1974-1980)

o The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI winter
refers to the time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage of
funding from government for AI researches.
o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was decreased.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)

o Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert
systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human
expert.

o In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of
Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford University.

The second AI winter (1987-1993)

o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.
o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high
cost but not efficient result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective.

The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

o Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary
Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a world chess champion.
o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum
cleaner.
o Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like
Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-present)

o Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had
to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could
understand natural language and can solve tricky questions quickly.
 o Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was
able to provide information to the user as a prediction.
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in the
infamous "Turing test."
o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two
master debaters and also performed extremely well.
o Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistant and
which had taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on other side didn't notice
that she was talking with the machine.

Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep learning, big data, and
data science are now trending like a boom. Nowadays companies like Google, Facebook,
IBM, and Amazon are working with AI and creating amazing devices. The future of Artificial
Intelligence is inspiring and will come with high intelligence.

Application of AI

Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It is becoming essential for
today's time because it can solve complex problems with an efficient way in multiple
industries, such as Healthcare, entertainment, finance, education, etc. AI is making our daily
life more comfortable and fast.

Following are some sectors which have the application of Artificial Intelligence:

1. AI in Astronomy

o Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems. AI

technology can be helpful for understanding the universe such as how it works, origin,
etc.

2. AI in Healthcare

o In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming more advantageous for the healthcare
industry and going to have a significant impact on this industry.
 o Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis than
humans. AI can help doctors with diagnoses and can inform when patients are
worsening so that medical help can reach to the patient before hospitalization.

3. AI in Gaming
o AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games like
chess, where the machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.

4. AI in Finance
o AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance industry is
implementing automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and
machine learning into financial processes.

5. AI in Data Security

o The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing very
rapidly in the digital world. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure.
Some examples such as AEG bot, AI2 Platform,are used to determine software bug
and cyber-attacks in a better way.

6. AI in Social Media

o Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user
profiles, which need to be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI can
organize and manage massive amounts of data. AI can analyze lots of data to identify
the latest trends, hashtag, and requirement of different users.

7. AI in Travel & Transport

o AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is capable of doing various
travel related works such as from making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels,
flights, and best routes to the customers. Travel industries are using AI-powered
chatbots which can make human-like interaction with customers for better and fast
response.
8. AI in Automotive Industry
o Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their user for
better performance. Such as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual
assistant.
o Various Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can
make your journey more safe and secure.

9. AI in Robotics:
o Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics. Usually, general robots are
programmed such that they can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI,
we can create intelligent robots which can perform tasks with their own experiences
without pre-programmed.

o Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent
Humanoid robot named as Erica and Sophia has been developed which can talk and
behave like humans.

10. AI in Entertainment
o We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some
entertainment services such as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI
algorithms, these services show the recommendations for programs or shows.

11. AI in Agriculture
o Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for
best result. Now a day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this
field. Agriculture is applying AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring,
predictive analysis. AI in agriculture can be very helpful for farmers.

12. AI in E-commerce
o AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming
more demanding in the e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover
associated products with recommended size, color, or even brand.
13. AI in education:
o AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can
communicate with students as a teaching assistant.
o AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual tutor for students, which will be
accessible easily at any time and any place

Types of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two types of main
categorization which are based on capabilities and based on functionally of AI. Following is
flow diagram which explain the types of AI.

AI type-1: Based on Capabilities

1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:

o Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with
intelligence.The most common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world
of Artificial Intelligence.

o Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for one
specific task. Hence it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable
ways if it goes beyond its limits.
o Apple Siriis a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined
range of functions.
 o IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert
system approach combined with Machine learning and natural language processing.
o Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-
commerce site, self-driving cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.

2. General AI:
o General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with
efficiency like a human.
o The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and
think like a human by its own.
o Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general AI and can
perform any task as perfect as a human.
o The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.
o As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of efforts and
time to develop such systems.

3. Super AI:
o Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human
intelligence, and can perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It
is an outcome of general AI.

o Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think, to
reason,solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its own.

o Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such

systems in real is still world changing task.
Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality

1. Reactive Machines
o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best
action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
o Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. Limited Memory
o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period
of time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These
cars can store recent speed of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and
other information to navigate the road.

3. Theory of Mind
o Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be
able to interact socially like humans.
o This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are making lots of
efforts and improvement for developing such AI machines.

4. Self-Awareness
o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be
super intelligent, and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-
awareness.

o These machines will be smarter than human mind.

o Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.
AGENTS AND ENVIRONMENTS
An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors and
acting upon that environment through actuators. This simple idea is illustrated in Figure.

A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors and hands, legs, vocal tract, and
so on for actuators. A robotic agent might have cameras and infrared range finders for sensors
and various motors for actuators. A software agent receives keystrokes, file contents, and
network packets as sensory inputs and acts on the environment by displaying on the screen,
writing files, and sending network packets.

Figure. Agents interact with environments through sensors and actuators

We use the term percept to refer to the agent’s perceptual inputs at any given instant. An
agent’s percept sequence is the complete history of everything the agent has ever perceived.
In general, an agent’s choice of action at any given instant can depend on the entire percept
sequence observed to date, but not on anything it hasn’t perceived. By specifying the agent’s
choice of action for every possible percept sequence, we have said more or less everything
there is to say about the agent. Mathematically speaking, we say that an agent’s behavior is
described by the agent function AGENT FUNCTION that maps any given percept sequence
to an action.
The agent function for an artificial agent will be implemented by an agent program. It is
important to keep these two ideas distinct. The agent function is an abstract mathematical
description; the agent program is a concrete implementation, running within some physical
system.
GOOD BEHAVIOR: THE CONCEPT OF RATIONALITY

A rational agent is one RATIONAL AGENT that does the right thing—conceptually
speaking, every entry in the table for the agent function is filled out correctly.
What is rational at any given time depends on four things:
• The performance measure that defines the criterion of success.
• The agent’s prior knowledge of the environment.
• The actions that the agent can perform.
• The agent’s percept sequence to date.

THE STRUCTURE OF AGENTS

The job of AI is to design an agent program that implements the agent function— the
mapping from percepts to actions. We assume this program will run on some sort of
computing device with physical sensors and actuators—we call this the architecture:
agent = architecture + program .
Obviously, the program we choose has to be one that is appropriate for the architecture. If the
program is going to recommend actions like Walk, the architecture had better have legs. The
architecture might be just an ordinary PC, or it might be a robotic car with several onboard
computers, cameras, and other sensors. In general, the architecture makes the percepts from
the sensors available to the program, runs the program, and feeds the program’s action
choices to the actuators as they are generated.

Types of AI Agents

Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence and
capability. All these agents can improve their performance and generate better action over the
time. These are given below:

o Simple Reflex Agent

o Model-based reflex agent

o Goal-based agents
o Utility-based agent
o Learning agent
1. Simple Reflex agent:

o The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take decisions on the
basis of the current percepts and ignore the rest of the percept history.
o These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.
o The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts history during their
decision and action process.
o The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which means it maps the
current state to action. Such as a Room Cleaner agent, it works only if there is dirt in
the room.
o Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:
o They have very limited intelligence
o They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the current state
o Mostly too big to generate and to store.
o Not adaptive to changes in the environment.

Schematic diagram of a simple reflex agent.

2. Model-based reflex agent

o The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable environment, and track the
situation.
 o A model-based agent has two important factors:
o Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world," so it is called
a Model-based agent.
o Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based on percept
history.
o These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and based on the
model they perform actions.
o Updating the agent state requires information about:
a. How the world evolves
b. How the agent's action affects the world.

A model-based reflex agent.

3. Goal-based agents

o The knowledge of the current state environment is not always sufficient to decide for
an agent to what to do.
o The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.
o Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent by having the
"goal" information.
 o They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
o These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions before
deciding whether the goal is achieved or not. Such considerations of different scenario
are called searching and planning, which makes an agent proactive.

model-based, goal-based agent

4. Utility-based agents

o These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra component of
utility measurement which makes them different by providing a measure of success at
a given state.
o Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to achieve the goal.
o The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible alternatives, and an
agent has to choose in order to perform the best action.
o The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how efficiently each
action achieves the goals.
 o
o model-based, utility-based agent

5. Learning Agents

o A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past experiences,
or it has learning capabilities.

o It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt automatically
through learning.

o A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:

a. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning from
environment
b. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes that how
well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
c. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
d. Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions that
will lead to new and informative experiences.
Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for new ways to
improve the performance.
Agents and Environments

An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not a part of
an agent itself. An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is present.

The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with something to sense
and act upon it. An environment is mostly said to be non-feministic.

Features of Environment

As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the point of view
of an agent:

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable

2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

o If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at each
point of time then it is a fully observable environment, else it is partially observable.
o A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the internal
state to keep track history of the world.
o An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called
as unobservable.

2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:

o If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next state
of the environment, then such environment is called a deterministic environment.
o A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined completely
by an agent.
o In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry about
uncertainty.

3. Episodic vs Sequential:

o In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the current
percept is required for the action.
o However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to
determine the next best actions.

4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent

o If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then such an
environment is called single agent environment.
o However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an
environment is called a multi-agent environment.
o The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from single
agent environment.

5. Static vs Dynamic:
 o If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such
environment is called a dynamic environment else it is called a static environment.
o Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to continue
looking at the world while deciding for an action.
o However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at each
action.
o Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword puzzles are
an example of a static environment.

6. Discrete vs Continuous:

o If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can be
performed within it, then such an environment is called a discrete environment else it
is called continuous environment.
o A chess gamecomes under discrete environment as there is a finite number of moves
that can be performed.
o A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.

7. Known vs Unknown

o Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but it is an agent's
state of knowledge to perform an action.
o In a known environment, the results for all actions are known to the agent. While in
unknown environment, agent needs to learn how it works in order to perform an
action.
o It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially observable and an
Unknown environment to be fully observable.

8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

o If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's
environment, then such an environment is called an Accessible environment else it is
called inaccessible.
 o An empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an example of an
accessible environment.
o Information about an event on earth is an example of Inaccessible environment.

Intelligent Agents:

An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment using sensors
and actuators for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn from the environment to
achieve their goals. A thermostat is an example of an intelligent agent.

Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:

o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.

o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.

Rational Agent:

A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and acts in a way
to maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.

A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational agents to use
for game theory and decision theory for various real-world scenarios.

For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement learning
algorithm, for each best possible action, agent gets the positive reward and for each wrong
action, an agent gets a negative reward.

Rationality:

The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can be

judged on the basis of following points:

o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.

o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
 o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.

Structure of an AI Agent

The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent function. The
structure of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent program. It can be
viewed as:

Agent = Architecture + Agent program

Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:

Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.

Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.

Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An agent program

executes on the physical architecture to produce function f.

PEAS Representation

PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI agent or
rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS representation model. It is made
up of four words:

o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors

PEAS for self-driving cars:

Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:

Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort

Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian

Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn

Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

Example of Agents with their PEAS representation

Agent Performance Environment Actuators Sensors

measure

1. o Healthy o Patient o Tests Keyboard

Medical patient (Entry of
o Hospital o Treatments
Diagnose symptoms)
o Minimized o Staff
cost

2. o Cleanness o Room o Wheels o Camera

Vacuum
o Efficiency o Table o Brushes o Dirt
Cleaner detection
o Battery life o Wood floor o Vacuum
Extractor sensor
o Security o Carpet
o Cliff sensor
o Various
obstacles o Bump
Sensor
o Infrared
Wall
Sensor

3. Part - o Percentage of o Conveyor o Jointed Arms o Camera

picking parts in belt with o Hand o Joint angle
Robot correct bins. parts, sensors.
o Bins

Knowledge Inferring Systems

Knowledge inference is the process of deducing new information or insights from existing
knowledge. Knowledge inferring systems use data and existing knowledge to make
inferences, predictions, and draw conclusions. These systems often rely on techniques from
various AI subfields, such as machine learning, natural language processing, and knowledge
representation.

Example: A knowledge inferring system could analyze medical records to identify potential
disease patterns, even if the data doesn't explicitly mention the disease. By identifying
correlations and patterns within the data, the system can infer new insights.

Planning

Planning in artificial intelligence refers to the process of determining a sequence of actions

that an agent or system should take to achieve a desired goal. It involves developing
strategies to navigate a complex environment, taking into account various constraints,
uncertainties, and goals.

Example: In robotics, planning might involve determining the optimal path for a robot to
navigate through an environment while avoiding obstacles to reach a specific destination.

Types of Planning:

Classical Planning: Involves generating a sequence of actions that lead from an initial state to
a goal state. This is commonly represented using formal languages like STRIPS (Stanford
Research Institute Problem Solver).

Hierarchical Planning: Breaks down a complex planning problem into sub-problems and
plans for accomplishing sub-goals.

Probabilistic Planning: Incorporates uncertainty into the planning process, considering the
probabilities of different outcomes.

Temporal Planning: Accounts for time and scheduling constraints in the planning process.

Multi-Agent Planning: Involves planning for multiple agents that might have conflicting
goals or limited communication.
Planning Process:

Problem Definition: Specify the initial state, goal state, actions available, and constraints.

Search: Search algorithms explore the space of possible actions and states to find a plan that
leads to the goal.

Action Selection: Determine which action to take at each step based on the search results and
the current state.

Execution and Monitoring: Execute the planned actions while monitoring the environment
for changes.

Replanning: If unexpected changes occur, the system might need to adjust the plan
dynamically.

Both knowledge inferring systems and planning play crucial roles in various applications of
AI, ranging from healthcare and robotics to natural language understanding and smart
systems. These fields continue to evolve as AI research advances, leading to more
sophisticated and effective approaches for inferring knowledge and making intelligent plans.

Uncertainty towards learning systems

Uncertainty towards learning systems, particularly artificial intelligence (AI) and machine
learning (ML) systems, is a natural and complex phenomenon that arises due to a variety of
factors. These factors can encompass technical, ethical, social, and psychological aspects.
Here are some reasons why uncertainty might exist towards learning systems:

Lack of Understanding: Many people do not fully comprehend how AI and ML systems
work. The technical intricacies can be challenging to grasp, leading to misunderstandings,
skepticism, and even fear.

Bias and Fairness: Concerns about biased or unfair outcomes from AI systems can lead to
uncertainty. If the training data contains biases, the AI can perpetuate or even amplify those
biases, causing issues in various applications like hiring, lending, or law enforcement.
Complex Decision-Making: Complex AI systems might make decisions that are difficult to
explain or understand. This lack of transparency can be unsettling, especially in critical areas
like healthcare or autonomous vehicles.

Ethical Dilemmas: Learning systems might encounter situations where there's no clear ethical
choice. Deciding how an AI should act in such cases can be challenging and raises moral
dilemmas.

Job Disruption: Concerns about job displacement due to automation by AI and ML can create
uncertainty among workers in various industries.

Privacy and Data Security: The use of AI often requires substantial amounts of personal data,
raising concerns about privacy breaches and data security.

Unintended Consequences: AI systems can sometimes produce unexpected outcomes or

behaviors, which can lead to concerns about their reliability and safety.

Regulation and Accountability: There might be uncertainty about how to regulate AI systems
and hold them accountable for their actions, especially when mistakes occur.

Dependence on AI: As society becomes more reliant on AI for decision-making, there's

unease about what might happen if these systems fail or make incorrect judgments.

Science Fiction Portrayals: Media often portrays AI in extreme or dystopian scenarios,

contributing to fears and misconceptions about their capabilities and intentions.

Addressing these uncertainties involves a multi-faceted approach:

Education: Improving public understanding of AI technologies is crucial to demystify their

operations and alleviate fears.

Transparency and Explainability: Researchers are working on methods to make AI systems

more transparent and explainable, enabling users to understand why a particular decision was
made.

Ethical Frameworks: Developing and adhering to ethical guidelines can help ensure that AI
systems are developed and deployed responsibly.
Regulation and Policy: Governments and organizations can create regulations and policies
that ensure the responsible and ethical use of AI.

Collaboration: Collaboration between experts in AI, psychology, ethics, and sociology can
help address the broader implications of AI adoption.

Safeguarding Data: Implementing strong data privacy and security measures can help
alleviate concerns about misuse of personal information.

In essence, addressing uncertainty towards learning systems involves not only technical
advancements but also a holistic understanding of the societal impact of AI and an ongoing
dialogue between stakeholders.