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Mathematics for Business Science and Technology with
MATLAB and Excel Computations Third Edition Steven
Karris Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Steven Karris
ISBN(s): 9781934404010, 1934404012
Edition: 3
File Details: PDF, 3.71 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
 T H
MA
Mathematics
for Business, Science, and Technology
with MATLAB ® and Excel ® Computations
Third Edition
Steven T. Karris

y
1 4,00 0

Includes a
12 ,00 0
Profit Comprehensive
1 0,00 0
Treatment of Probability
Revenue
8,0 00 and Statistics Illustrated
$
Cos t with Numerous
6 ,0 00

Examples
4,0 00
B reak-Even P oint

2,0 00

0 x
10 0 20 0 30 0 4 00 50 0
Unit s S old

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
 Mathematics Students and working professionals will find Mathematics
for Business, Science, and Technology with MATLAB®
for Business, Science, and Technology and Excel® Computations to be a concise and easy-to-
learn text. It provides complete, clear, and detailed expla-
with MATLAB® and Excel® Computations nations of the principal mathematical concepts including
probability and statistics, and these are illustrated with
Third Edition numerous practical examples.

This text includes the following chapters and appendices:

• Numbers and Arithmetic Operations • Elementary Algebra • Intermediate Algebra
• Fundamentals of Geometry • Fundamentals of Plane Trigonometry • Fundamentals of
Calculus • Introduction to Probability and Statistics • Random Variables • Common Probability
Distributions and Tests • Curve Fitting, Regression, and Correlation • Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) • Introduction to MATLAB • The Gamma and Beta Functions and their Distributions
• Introduction to Markov Chains • The Lambda Index • The Black-Scholes Stock Options Model
• The Alltman Bankuptcy Z-Score
Each chapter contains numerous practical applications supplemented with detailed instructions
for using MATLAB and Excel to obtain quick answers.

Steven T. Karris is the president and founder of Orchard Publications, has undergraduate and
graduate degrees in electrical engineering, and is a registered professional engineer in California
and Florida. He has more than 35 years of professional engineering experience and more than 30
years of teaching experience as an adjunct professor, most recently at UC Berkeley, California.

Orchard Publications
Visit us on the Internet
www.orchardpublications.com or email us:
[email protected]

ISBN-13: 978-1
1-9
934404-0
02-7
7

ISBN-10: 1-9
934404-0
02-0
0 $60.00 U.S.A.
 Mathematics
for Business, Science, and Technology
Third Edition
With MATLAB®and Excel®Computations
Steven T. Karris

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology with MATLAB® and Excel® Computations, Third Edition

Copyright © 2007 Orchard Publications. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval
system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Direct all inquiries to Orchard Publications, 39510 Paseo Padre Parkway, Fremont, California 94538, U.S.A.
URL: http://www.orchardpublications.com, e-mail: [email protected].

Product and corporate names are trademarks or registered trademarks of the MathWorks™, Inc., and Microsoft™
Corporation. They are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Control Number: 2007922089

Copyright Number: TX-5-471-563

ISBN-13: 978-1-934404-02-7
ISBN-10: 1-934404-02-0

Disclaimer
The publisher has used his best effort to prepare this text. However, the publisher and author makes no warranty of any
kind, expressed or implied with regard to the accuracy, completeness, and computer codes contained in this book, and
shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential damages in connection with, or arising out of, the
performance or use of these programs.
 Preface
This text is written for
a. high school graduates preparing to take business or science courses at community colleges or
universities
b. working professionals who feel that they need a math review from the very beginning
c. young students and working professionals who are enrolled in continued education
institutions, and majoring in business related topics, such as business administration and
accounting, and those pursuing a career in science, electronics, and computer technology.
Chapter 1 is an introduction to the basics of algebra.
Chapter 2 is a continuation of Chapter 1 and presents some practical examples with systems of
two and three equations.
Chapters 3 and 4 discuss the fundamentals of geometry and trigonometry respectively. These
treatments are not exhaustive; these chapters contain basic concepts that are used in science and
technology.
Chapter 5 is an abbreviated, yet a practical introduction to calculus.
Chapters 6 and 7 serve as an introduction to the mathematics of finance and economics and the
concepts are illustrated with numerous real−world applications and examples.
Chapters 8 through 12 are devoted to probability and statistics. Many practical examples are
given to illustrate the importance of this branch of mathematics. The topics that are discussed,
are especially important in management decisions and in reliability. Some readers may find
certain topics hard to follow; these may be skipped without loss of continuity.
In all chapters, numerous examples are given to teach the reader how to obtain quick answers to
some complicated problems using computer tools such as MATLAB®and Microsoft Excel.®
Appendix A contains a review of the basic arithmetic operations, introduces the SI system of
units, and discusses different types of graphs. It is written for the reader who needs a review of the
very basics of arithmetic.
Appendix B is intended to teach the interested reader how to use MATLAB. Many practical
examples are presented. The Student Edition of MATLAB is an inexpensive software package; it
can be found in many college bookstores, or can be obtained directly from
The MathWorks™ Inc., 3 Apple Hill Drive, Natick, MA 01760−2098
Phone: 508 647−7000, Fax: 508 647−7001
http://www.mathworks.com
e−mail: [email protected]
Appendix C introduces the gamma and beta functions. These appear in the gamma and beta
distributions and find many applications in business, science, and engineering. For instance, the
Erlang distributions, which are a special case of the gamma distribution, form the basis of queuing
theory.
Appendix D is an introduction to Markov chains. A few practical examples illustrate their
application in making management decisions.
Appendices E, F, and G are introductions to the Lambda Index, Black−Scholes stock options
pricing, and the Altman Z−score bankruptcy prediction respectively.
Every chapter and appendix in this text is supplemented with Excel and / or MATLAB scripts to
verify the computations and to construct relevant plots. The pages where the Excel and
MATLAB scripts appear are listed in the Table of Contents.

New to the Second Edition

This is an refined revision of the first edition. The most notable changes are the addition of the
new Chapters 6 and 7, chapter−end summaries, and detailed solutions to all exercises. The latter
is in response to many students and working professionals who expressed a desire to obtain the
author’s solutions for comparison with their own.

New to the Third Edition

This is an refined revision of the second edition. The most notable is the addition of Appendices
E, F, and G. All chapters and Appendices A through D have been rewritten, and graphs have
been redrawn with the latest MATLAB® Student Version, Release 14.
All feedback for typographical errors and comments will be most welcomed and greatly
appreciated.

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
[email protected]
Table of Contents
1 Elementary Algebra 1−1
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................1−1
1.2 Algebraic Equations......................................................................................1−2
1.3 Laws of Exponents ........................................................................................1−5
1.4 Laws of Logarithms .....................................................................................1−10
1.5 Quadratic Equations...................................................................................1−13
1.6 Cubic and Higher Degree Equations..........................................................1−15
1.7 Measures of Central Tendency...................................................................1−15
1.8 Interpolation and Extrapolation.................................................................1−20
1.9 Infinite Sequences and Series.....................................................................1−23
1.10 Arithmetic Series........................................................................................1−23
1.11 Geometric Series.........................................................................................1−24
1.12 Harmonic Series .........................................................................................1−26
1.13 Proportions .................................................................................................1−27
1.14 Summary .....................................................................................................1−29
1.15 Exercises .....................................................................................................1−33
1.16 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises .....................................................1−35
Excel Computations: Pages 1−7, 1−11, 1−16, 1−17, 1−33, 1−36
MATLAB Computations: Pages 1−7, 1−11

2 Intermediate Algebra 2−1

2.1 Systems of Two Equations ........................................................................................ 2−1
2.2 Systems of Three Equations...................................................................................... 2−6
2.3 Matrices and Simultaneous Solution of Equations................................................... 2−7
2.4 Summary ................................................................................................................. 2−26
2.5 Exercises.................................................................................................................. 2−30
2.6 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ..................................................................2−32
Excel Computations: Pages 2−23, 2−24, 2−30, 2−31
MATLAB Computations: Pages 2−15, 2−16, 2−24, 2−25, 2−32, 2−36

3 Fundamentals of Geometry 3−1

3.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................3−1
3.2 Plane Geometry Figures.............................................................................................3−1
3.3 Solid Geometry Figures............................................................................................3−16
3.4 Using Spreadsheets to Find Areas of Irregular Polygons.........................................3−20
3.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................3−23

Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition i

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 3.6 Exercises.................................................................................................................. 3−27
3.7 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises.................................................................. 3−29
Excel Computations: Pages 3−20, 3−30

4 Fundamentals of Plane Geometry 4−1

4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 4−1
4.2 Trigonometric Functions......................................................................................... 4−2
4.3 Trigonometric Functions of an Acute Angle .......................................................... 4−2
4.4 Trigonometric Functions of an Any Angle ............................................................. 4−3
4.5 Fundamental Relations and Identities .................................................................... 4−6
4.6 Triangle Formulas.................................................................................................. 4−12
4.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions .......................................................................... 4−13
4.8 Area of Polygons in Terms of Trigonometric Functions ....................................... 4−14
4.9 Summary ................................................................................................................ 4−16
4.10 Exercises ................................................................................................................ 4−18
4.11 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ................................................................ 4−19
Excel Computations: Pages 4−9 through 4−11, 4−13, 4−19 through 4−21
MATLAB Computations: Page 4−15

5 Fundamentals of Calculus 5−1

5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 5−1
5.2 Differential Calculus ............................................................................................... 5−1
5.3 The Derivative of a Function ................................................................................. 5−3
5.4 Maxima and Minima............................................................................................. 5−11
5.5 Integral Calculus ................................................................................................... 5−15
5.6 Indefinite Integrals................................................................................................ 5−16
5.7 Definite Integrals .................................................................................................. 5−16
5.8 Summary ............................................................................................................... 5−21
5.9 Exercises................................................................................................................ 5−23
5.10 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 5−24
Excel Computations: Pages 5−8, 5−11, 5−18
MATLAB Computations: Pages 5−24 through 5−26

6 Mathematics of Finance and Economics 6−1

6.1 Common Terms........................................................................................................ 6−1
6.1.1 Bond............................................................................................................... 6−1
6.1.2 Corporate Bond ............................................................................................. 6−1
6.1.3 Municipal Bond ............................................................................................. 6−1

ii Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 6.1.4 Treasury Bond ............................................................................................... 6−1
6.1.5 Perpetuity ...................................................................................................... 6−1
6.1.6 Perpetual Bond.............................................................................................. 6−1
6.1.7 Convertible Bond .......................................................................................... 6−2
6.1.8 Treasury Note ............................................................................................... 6−2
6.1.9 Treasury Bill .................................................................................................. 6−2
6.1.10 Face Value ................................................................................................... 6−2
6.1.11 Par Value...................................................................................................... 6−2
6.1.12 Book Value................................................................................................... 6−3
6.1.13 Coupon Bond ............................................................................................... 6−3
6.1.14 Zero Coupon Bond ...................................................................................... 6−3
6.1.15 Junk Bond.................................................................................................... 6−3
6.1.16 Bond Rating Systems................................................................................... 6−3
6.1.17 Promissory Note .......................................................................................... 6−4
6.1.18 Discount Rate.............................................................................................. 6−4
6.1.19 Prime Rate ................................................................................................... 6−4
6.1.20 Mortgage Loan ............................................................................................ 6−4
6.1.21 Predatory Lending Practices........................................................................ 6−5
6.1.22 Annuity ....................................................................................................... 6−5
6.1.23 Ordinary Annuity........................................................................................ 6−5
6.1.24 Sinking Fund ............................................................................................... 6−6
6.2 Interest .................................................................................................................... 6−6
6.2.1 Simple Interest............................................................................................. 6−6
6.2.2 Compound Interest...................................................................................... 6−8
6.2.3 Effective Interest Rate ............................................................................... 6−22
6.3 Sinking Funds........................................................................................................ 6−24
6.4 Annuities............................................................................................................... 6−29
6.5 Amortization ......................................................................................................... 6−34
6.6 Perpetuities............................................................................................................ 6−36
6.7 Valuation of Bonds................................................................................................ 6−39
6.7.1 Calculating the Purchase Price of a Bond................................................... 6−40
6.7.2 Total Periodic Bond Disbursement............................................................. 6−42
6.7.3 Calculation of Interest Rate of Bond .......................................................... 6−44
6.8 Spreadsheet Financial Functions ......................................................................... 6−45
6.8.1 PV Function .............................................................................................. 6−46
6.8.2 FV Function .............................................................................................. 6−48
6.8.3 PMT Function........................................................................................... 6−49
6.8.4 RATE Function......................................................................................... 6−50
6.8.5 NPER Function.......................................................................................... 6−51
6.8.6 NPV Function ........................................................................................... 6−52
6.8.7 IIR Function.............................................................................................. 6−54

Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition iii

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 6.8.8 MIIR Function........................................................................................... 6−56
6.8.9 IPMT Function.......................................................................................... 6−58
6.8.10 PPMT Function ........................................................................................ 6−59
6.8.11 ISPMT Function........................................................................................ 6−60
6.9 The MATLAB Financial Toolbox ....................................................................... 6−61
6.9.1 irr MATLAB Function............................................................................... 6−61
6.9.2 effrr MATLAB Function............................................................................ 6−62
6.9.3 pvfix MATLAB Function .......................................................................... 6−62
6.9.4 pvvar MATLAB Function ......................................................................... 6−63
6.9.5 fvfix MATLAB Function ........................................................................... 6−64
6.9.6 fvvar MATLAB Function .......................................................................... 6−65
6.9.7 annurate MATLAB Function.....................................................................6−66
6.9.8 amortize MATLAB Function .....................................................................6−67
6.10 Comparison of Alternate Proposals .......................................................................6−68
6.11 Kelvin’s Law...........................................................................................................6−71
6.12 Summary ................................................................................................................6−75
6.13 Exercises.................................................................................................................6−78
6.14 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ................................................................6−81
Excel Computations: Pages 6−10 through 6−14, 6−28, 6−29, 6−33, 6−35,
6−45 through 6−52, 6−54, 6−56, 6−58 through 6−61, 6−81
MATLAB Computations: Pages 6−61, 6−68

7 Depreciation, Impairment, and Depletion 7−1

7.1 Depreciation Defined................................................................................................ 7−1
7.1.1 Items that Can Be Depreciated ...................................................................... 7−2
7.1.2 Items that Cannot Be Depreciated ................................................................. 7−2
7.1.3 Depreciation Rules.......................................................................................... 7−2
7.1.4 When Depreciation Begins and Ends ............................................................. 7−3
7.1.5 Methods of Depreciation ................................................................................ 7−3
7.1.5.1 Straight−Line (SL) Depreciation Method.......................................... 7−4
7.1.5.2 Sum of the Years Digits (SYD) Method ............................................. 7−5
7.1.5.3 Fixed-Declining Balance (FDB) Method ........................................... 7−6
7.1.5.4 The 125%, 150%, and 200% General Declining Balance Methods... 7−8
7.1.5.5 The Variable Declining Balance Method........................................... 7−9
7.1.5.6 The Units of Production Method ..................................................... 7−10
7.1.5.7 Depreciation Methods for Income Tax Reporting ........................... 7−11
7.2 Impairments ............................................................................................................ 7−18
7.3 Depletion ................................................................................................................ 7−19
7.4 Valuation of a Depleting Asset .............................................................................. 7−20
7.5 Summary ................................................................................................................. 7−25

iv Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 7.6 Exercises ..................................................................................................................7−27
7.7 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises..................................................................7−28
Excel Computations: Pages 7−4, 7−6, 7−7, 7−9, 7−10, 7−29 through 7−32
MATLAB Computations: Pages 7−30, 7−31, 7−33

8 Introduction to Probability and Statistics 8−1

8.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................8−1
8.2 Probability and Random Experiments ......................................................................8−1
8.3 Relative Frequency ...................................................................................................8−2
8.4 Combinations and Permutations ..............................................................................8−4
8.5 Joint and Conditional Probabilities...........................................................................8−7
8.6 Bayes’ Rule ..............................................................................................................8−11
8.7 Summary .................................................................................................................8−13
8.8 Exercises..................................................................................................................8−15
8.9 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises..................................................................8−16
Excel Computations: Pages 8−6, 8−16

9 Random Variables 9−1

9.1 Definition of Random Variables...............................................................................9−1
9.2 Probability Function .................................................................................................9−2
9.3 Cumulative Distribution Function ...........................................................................9−2
9.4 Probability Density Function....................................................................................9−9
9.5 Two Random Variables ..........................................................................................9−11
9.6 Statistical Averages ................................................................................................9−12
9.7 Summary .................................................................................................................9−20
9.8 Exercises .................................................................................................................9−23
9.9 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises .................................................................9−24
Excel Computations: Page 9−3

10 Common Probability Distributions and Tests of Significance 10−1

10.1 Properties of Binomial Coefficients ....................................................................10−1
10.2 The Binomial (Bernoulli) Distribution...............................................................10−2
10.3 The Uniform Distribution ..................................................................................10−6
10.4 The Exponential Distribution ..........................................................................10−10
10.5 The Normal (Gaussian) Distribution ...............................................................10−12
10.6 Percentiles.........................................................................................................10−32
10.7 The Student’s t−Distribution ...........................................................................10−36
10.8 The Chi−Square Distribution...........................................................................10−40

Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition v

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 10.9 The F Distribution ........................................................................................... 10−43
10.10 Chebyshev’s Inequality .................................................................................... 10−46
10.11 Law of Large Numbers ..................................................................................... 10−46
10.12 The Poisson Distribution ................................................................................. 10−47
10.13 The Multinomial Distribution ......................................................................... 10−52
10.14 The Hypergeometric Distribution ................................................................... 10−53
10.15 The Bivariate Normal Distribution ................................................................. 10−56
10.16 The Rayleigh Distribution ............................................................................... 10−56
10.17 Other Probability Distributions ....................................................................... 10−59
10.17.1 The Cauchy Distribution.................................................................... 10−59
10.17.2 The Geometric Distribution .............................................................. 10−59
10.17.3 The Pascal Distribution...................................................................... 10−59
10.17.4 The Weibull Distribution................................................................... 10−60
10.17.5 The Maxwell Distribution.................................................................. 10−61
10.17.6 The Lognormal Distribution .............................................................. 10−61
10.18 Critical Values of the Binomial Distribution ................................................... 10−62
10.19 Sampling Distribution of Means ...................................................................... 10−63
10.20 Z −Score ........................................................................................................... 10−64
10.21 Tests of Hypotheses and Levels of Significance............................................... 10−65
10.22 Tests of Significance......................................................................................... 10−72
10.22.1 The z−Test ......................................................................................... 10−72
10.22.2 The t−Test ......................................................................................... 10−73
10.22.3 The F−Test......................................................................................... 10−74
10.22.4 The Chi−SquareTest.......................................................................... 10−75
10.23 Summary.......................................................................................................... 10−80
10.24 Exercises.......................................................................................................... 10−89
10.24 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises.......................................................... 10−91
Excel Computations: Pages 10−28, 10−29, 10−35, 10−36, 10−39, 10−40, 10−43,
10−45, 10−51, 10−55, 10−60, 10−62, 10−69 through 10−75,
10−77, 10−78, 10−93, 10−95
MATLAB Computations: Pages 10−21, 10−28, 10−31, 10−32, 10−37, 10−41

11 Curve Fitting, Regression, and Correlation 11−1

11.1 Curve Fitting ....................................................................................................... 11−1
11.2 Linear Regression ................................................................................................ 11−2
11.3 Parabolic Regression ........................................................................................... 11−7
11.4 Covariance ........................................................................................................ 11−10
11.5 Correlation Coefficient ..................................................................................... 11−12
11.6 Summary ........................................................................................................... 11−17
11.7 Exercises ............................................................................................................ 11−20

vi Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 11.8 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................11−22
Excel Computations: Pages 11−3, 11−4, 11−6, 11−7, 11−8, 11−11 through 11−13,
11−15, 11−22 through 11−25

12 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 12−1

12.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................12−1
12.2 One−way ANOVA..............................................................................................12−1
12.3 Two−way ANOVA..............................................................................................12−8
12.3.1 Two−factor without Replication ANOVA............................................. 12−8
12.3.2 Two−factor with Replication ANOVA .................................................12−14
12.4 Summary ............................................................................................................12−25
12.5 Exercises.............................................................................................................12−29
12.6 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................12−31
Excel Computations: Pages 12−6 through 12−8, 12−13, 12−14, 12−22 through 12−24,
12−31, 12−33, 12−35, 12−37

A Numbers and Arithmetic Operations A−1

A.1 Number Systems..................................................................................................A−1
A.2 Positive and Negative Numbers..........................................................................A−1
A.3 Addition and Subtraction ...................................................................................A−2
A.4 Multiplication and Division ................................................................................A−7
A.5 Integer, Fractional, and Mixed Numbers..........................................................A−10
A.6 Reciprocals of Numbers ....................................................................................A−11
A.7 Arithmetic Operations with Fractional Numbers.............................................A−13
A.8 Exponents..........................................................................................................A−22
A.9 Scientific Notation ............................................................................................A−25
A.10 Operations with Numbers in Scientific Notation.............................................A−27
A.11 Square and Cubic Roots....................................................................................A−30
A.12 Common and Natural Logarithms ....................................................................A−32
A.13 Decibel ..............................................................................................................A−33
A.14 Percentages........................................................................................................A−34
A.15 International System of Units (SI)....................................................................A−35
A.16 Graphs ...............................................................................................................A−40
A.17 Summary............................................................................................................A−44
A.18 Exercises ............................................................................................................A−50
A.19 Solutions to End−of−Appendix Exercises .........................................................A−51
Excel Computations: Pages A−13 through A−18, A−26, A−30 through A−35,
A−37, A−39, A−51

Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition vii

Copyright © Orchard Publications
B Introduction to MATLAB® B−1

B.1 MATLAB® and Simulink® ............................................................................... B−1

B.2 Command Window ............................................................................................. B−1
B.3 Roots of Polynomials ........................................................................................... B−3
B.4 Polynomial Construction from Known Roots ..................................................... B−4
B.5 Evaluation of a Polynomial at Specified Values.................................................. B−5
B.6 Rational Polynomials........................................................................................... B−8
B.7 Using MATLAB to Make Plots ........................................................................ B−10
B.8 Subplots ............................................................................................................. B−18
B.9 Multiplication, Division, and Exponentiation .................................................. B−18
B.10 Script and Function Files .................................................................................. B−26
B.11 Display Formats ................................................................................................. B−31
MATLAB Computations: Entire Appendix

C The Gamma and Beta Functions and Distributions C−1

C.1 The Gamma Function ..........................................................................................C−1

C.2 The Gamma Distribution ...................................................................................C−15
C.3 The Beta Function .............................................................................................C−17
C.4 The Beta Distribution ........................................................................................C−20
Excel Computations: Pages C−5, C−11, C−16, C−17, C−19
MATLAB Computations: Pages C−3 through C−5, C−10, C−16, C−19, C−20

D Introduction to Markov Chains D−1

D.1 Stochastic Processes............................................................................................ D−1

D.2 Stochastic Matrices............................................................................................. D−1
D.3 Transition Diagrams ........................................................................................... D−4
D.4 Regular Stochastic Matrices ............................................................................... D−5
D.5 Some Practical Examples .................................................................................... D−7
Excel Computations: Pages D−8, D−11, D−14

E The Lambda Index E−1

E.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... E−1

E.2 The Lambda Index Defined.................................................................................. E−1

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 E.3 Spreadsheet Construction .....................................................................................E−2
Excel Computations: Page E−2

F The Black−Scholes Stock Options Model F−1

F.1 Stock Options ....................................................................................................... F−1

F.2 The Black-Scholes Model Equations .................................................................... F−2
F.3 Spreadsheet for the Black−Scholes Model............................................................ F−3
Excel Computations: Page F−3

G Forecasting Bankruptcy G−1

G.1 The Financial Ratios..............................................................................................G−1

G.2 Interpretation of The Altman Z−Score .................................................................G−2
G.3 Spreadsheet for The Altman Z−Score...................................................................G−2
Excel Computations: Page G−2

References R−1

Index IN−1

Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition ix

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Chapter 1
Elementary Algebra

T
his chapter is an introduction to algebra and algebraic equations. A review of the basic
arithmetic concepts is provided in Appendix A. It also introduces some financial functions
that are used with Excel. Throughout this text, a left justified horizontal bar will denote the
beginning of an example, and a right justified horizontal bar will denote the end of the example.
These bars will not be shown whenever an example begins at the top of a page or at the bottom of
a page. Also, when one example follows immediately after a previous example, the right justified
bar will be omitted.

1.1 Introduction
Algebra is the branch of mathematics in which letters of the alphabet represent numbers or a set of
numbers. Equations are equalities that indicate how some quantities are related to others. For
example, the equation
5
°C = --- ( °F – 32 ) (1.1)
9

is a relation or formula that enables us to convert degrees Fahrenheit, °F , to degrees Celsius, °C .

For instance, if the temperature is 77°F , the equivalent temperature in °C is
5 5
°C = --- ( 77 – 32 ) = --- × 45 = 25
9 9

We observe that the mathematical operation in parentheses, that is, the subtraction of 32 from
77 , was performed first. This is because numbers within parentheses have precedence (priority)
over other operations.
In algebra, the order of precedence, where 1 is the highest and 4 is the lowest, is as follows:
1. Quantities inside parentheses ( )
2. Exponentiation
3. Multiplication and Division
4. Addition or Subtraction

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

Example 1.1
Simplify the expression
3
–2
a = ----------------------------
2
(8 – 3) × 4
Solution:
This expression is reduced in steps as follows:
3
–2
Step 1. Subtracting 3 from 8 inside the parentheses yields 5 . Then, a = -------------
2
-
5 ×4

–8
Step 2. Performing the exponentiation operations we get a = --------------
-
25 × 4

–8
Step 3. Multiplying 25 by 4 we get a = --------
-
100

Step 4. Dividing – 8 by 100 we get a = – 0.08 (Simplest form)

An equality is a mathematical expression where the left side is equal to the right side. For example,
7 + 3 = 10 is an equality since the left and right sides are equal to each other.

1.2 Algebraic Equations

An algebraic equation is an equality that contains one or more unknown quantities, normally repre-
sented by the last letters of the alphabet such as x , y , and z . For instance, the expressions
x + 5 = 15 , 3 × y = 24 , and x × y = 12 are algebraic equations. In the last two equations, the
multiplication sign between 3 and y and x and y is generally omitted; thus, they are written as
3y = 24 and xy = 12 . Henceforth, terms such as 3y will be interpreted as 3 × y , xy as x × y ,
and, in general, XY as X × Y .
Solving an equation means finding the value of the unknown quantity that will make the equation
an equality with no unknowns. The following properties of algebra enable us to find the numerical
value of the unknown quantity in an equation.
Property 1
The same number may be added to, or subtracted from both sides of an equation.

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 Algebraic Equations

Example 1.2
Given the equality
7 + 5 = 12
prove that Property 1 holds if we
a. add 3 to both sides
b. subtract 2 from both sides
Proof:
a. Adding 3 to both sides we get
7 + 5 + 3 = 12 + 3 or 15 = 15
and thus, the equality holds.
b. Subtracting 2 from both sides we get
7 + 5 – 2 = 12 – 2 or 10 = 10
and thus, the equality holds.

Example 1.3
Solve the following equation, that is, find the value of x .
x – 5 = 15
Solution:
We need to find a value for x so that the equation will still hold after the unknown x has been
replaced by the value that we have found. For this type of equations, a good approach is to find a
number that when added to or subtracted from both sides of the equation, the left side will con-
tain only the unknown x . For this example, this will be accomplished if we add 5 to both sides of
the given equation. When we do this, we get
x – 5 + 5 = 15 + 5
and after simplification, we obtain the value of the unknown x as
x = 20

We can check this answer by substitution of x into the given equation. Thus, 20 – 5 = 15 or
15 = 15 . Therefore, our answer is correct.

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

Example 1.4
Solve the following equation, that is, find the value of x .
x + 5 = 15
Solution:
Again, we need to find a number such that when added to or subtracted from both sides of the
equation, the left side will have the unknown x only. In this example, this will be accomplished if
we subtract 5 from both sides of the given equation. Doing this, we get
x + 5 – 5 = 15 – 5
and after simplification, we obtain the value of the unknown x as
x = 10
To verify that this is the correct answer, we substitute this value into the given equation and we
get 10 + 5 = 15 or 15 = 15 .

Property 2

Each side of an equation can be multiplied or divided* by the same number.

Example 1.5
Solve the following equation, that is, find the value of y .
y
--- = 24 (1.2)
3
Solution:
We need to eliminate the denominator 3 on the left side of the equation. This is done by multi-
plying both sides of the equation by 3 . Then,
y
--- × 3 = 24 × 3
3
and after simplification we get
y = 72 (1.3)
To verify that this is correct, we divide 72 by 3 ; this yields 24 , and this is equal to the right side of

* Division by zero is meaningless; therefore, it must be avoided.

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 Laws of Exponents

the given equation.

Note 1.1
In an algebraic term such as 4x or ( a + b )x , the number or symbol multiplying a variable or an
unknown quantity is called the coefficient of that term. Thus, in the term 4x, the number 4 is the
coefficient of that term, and in ( a + b )x , the coefficient is ( a + b ) . Likewise, the coefficient of y in
(1.2) is 1 ⁄ 3 , and the coefficient of y in (1.3) is 1 since 1y = y . In other words, every algebraic
term has a coefficient, and if it is not shown, it is understood to be 1 since, in general, 1x = x .

Example 1.6
Solve the following equation, that is, find the value of z .
3z = 24
Solution:
We need to eliminate the coefficient 3 of z on the left side of the equation. This is done by divid-
ing both sides of the equation by 3 . Then,
3z 24
------ = ------
3 3
and after simplification
z = 8

Other algebraic equations may contain exponents and logarithms. For those equations we may
need to apply the laws of exponents and the laws of logarithms. These are discussed next.

1.3 Laws of Exponents

m
For any number a and for a positive integer m, the exponential number a is defined as
a⋅a⋅a⋅…⋅a
(1.4)
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎩

m = number of a′s
where the dots between the a’s in (1.4) denote multiplication.
The laws of exponents state that
m n m+n
a ⋅a = a (1.5)
Also,

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

⎧ a
m–n
if m > n
m
⎪
a------ = ⎪ 1 if m = n
(1.6)
n ⎨
a ⎪ 1
------------ if m < n
⎪ n–m
⎩ a

m n mn
(a ) = a (1.7)
The nth root is defined as the inverse of the nth exponent, that is, if
n
b = a (1.8)
then
b = n a (1.9)
If, in (1.9) n is an odd positive integer, there will be a unique number satisfying the definition for
n a for any value of a*. For instance, 3 512 = 8 and 3 – 512 = – 8 .
If, in (1.9) n is an even positive integer, for positive values of a there will be two values, one posi-
tive and one negative. For instance, 121 = ± 11 . For additional examples, the reader may refer
to the section on square and cubic roots in Appendix A.

If, in (1.8) n is even positive integer and a is negative, n a cannot be evaluated. For instance, –3
cannot be evaluated; it results in a complex number.
It is also useful to remember the following definitions from Appendix A.
0
a = 1 (1.10)
p⁄q q p
a = a (1.11)
–1 1 1
a = ----- = --- (1.12)
a 1 a

These relations find wide applications in business, science, technology, and engineering. We will
consider a few examples to illustrate their application.

Example 1.7
The equation for calculating the present value (PV) of an ordinary annuity is

* In advance mathematics, there is a restriction. However, since in this text we are only concerned with real numbers, no
restriction is imposed.

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 Laws of Exponents

–n
1 – ( 1 + Interest )
PV = Payment × ------------------------------------------------ (1.13)
Interest
where
PV = cost of the annuity at present
Payment = amount paid at the end of the year
Interest = Annual interest rate which the deposited money earns
n = number of years the Payment will be received.

Example 1.8
Suppose that an insurance company offers to pay us $12,000 at the end of each year for the next
25 years provided that we pay the insurance company $130,000 now, and we are told that our
money will earn 8% per year. Should we accept this offer?
Solution:
Payment = $12,000 , Interest = 0.08 (8%) , and n = 25 years . Let us calculate PV using (1.13).
– 25
1 – ( 1 + 0.08 )
PV = 12000 × ---------------------------------------- (1.14)
0.08
We will use Excel to compute (1.14). We select any cell and we type in the following expression
where the asterisk (*) denotes multiplication, the slash ( / ) division, and the caret (^) exponenti-
ation.
=12000*(1−(1+0.08)^(−25))/0.08

Alternately, we can use MATLAB ® * with the statement

PV=12000*(1−(1+0.08)^(−25))/0.08
Both Excel and MATLAB return $128,097 and this is the fair amount that if deposited now at
8% interest, will earn $12,000 per year for 25 years. This is less than $130,000 which the insur-
ance company asks for, and therefore, we should reject the offer.
Excel has a “build-in” function, called PV that computes the present value directly, that is, with-
out the formula of (1.13). To invoke and use this function, we perform the sequential steps
fx>Financial>PV>Rate=0.08>Nper=25>Pmt=12000>OK. We observe that the numeri-

* An introduction to MATLAB is provided in Appendix B. MATLAB applications may be skipped without loss
of continuity. However, it is highly recommended since MATLAB now has become the standard for advanced
computation. The reader may begin learning it with the inexpensive MATLAB Student Version.

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

cal value is the same as before, but it is displayed in red and within parentheses, that is, as negative
value. It is so indicated because Excel interprets outgoing money as negative cash.

Note 2.2

Excel has several financial functions that apply to annuities.* It is beyond the scope of this text to
discuss all of them. The interested reader may invoke the Help feature in Excel to get the descrip-
tion of these functions.
Property 3
Each side of an equation can be raised to the same power.

Example 1.9
Solve the following equation, that is, find the value of x .

x = 5 (1.15)
Solution:
As a first step, we use the alternate designation of the square root; this is discussed in Appendix A,
Page A−31. Then,
1⁄2
x = 5 (1.16)
Next, we square (raise to power 2) both sides of (1.16), and we get
1⁄2 2 2
(x ) = 5 (1.17)
Now, multiplication of the exponents on the left side of (1.17) using (1.7) yields
1 2
x = 5
and after simplification, the answer is
x = 25

Example 1.10
Solve the following equation, that is, find the value of z .
3 z = 8 (1.18)

* Annuities are discussed in Chapter 6, Page 6−6.

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 Laws of Exponents

Solution:
As a first step, we use the alternate designation of the cubic root. This is discussed in Appendix A.
Then,
1⁄3
z = 8 (1.19)
Next, we cube (raise to power 3) both sides of (1.19) and we obtain
1⁄3 3 3
(z ) = 8 (1.20)
Now, multiplication of the exponents on the left side using relation (1.7), Page 1−6, yields
1 3
z = 8
and after simplification, the answer is
z = 512

Other equations can be solved using combinations of Properties (1.5 through (1.7), Page 1−6.

Example 1.11
Let us consider the temperature conversion from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius. This is
discussed in Appendix A, Page A−31. The relation (1.21) below converts degrees Fahrenheit to
o
degrees Celsius. We wish to solve for F so that the conversion will be degrees Celsius to degrees
Fahrenheit.
Solution:
We begin with
5
°C = --- ( °F – 32 ) (1.21)
9

Next, we multiply both sides of (1.21) by 9 ⁄ 5 . Then,

⎛9 9 5
--- ⎞ ⋅ °C = ⎛ --- ⎞ ⋅ --- ( °F – 32 ) (1.22)
⎝5⎠ ⎝5⎠ 9

and after simplifying the right side, we get

9
--- °C = °F – 32 (1.23)
5

Now, we add 32 to both sides of (1.23)to eliminate – 32 from the right side. Then,

Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition 1−9

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

9
--- °C + 32 = °F – 32 + 32 (1.24)
5
Finally, after simplification and interchanging the positions of the left and right sides, we obtain
9
°F = --- °C + 32
5

1.4 Laws of Logarithms

Common and natural logarithms are introduced in Appendix A. By definition, if
y
x = a (1.25)
where a is the base and y is the exponent (power), then
y = log a x (1.26)
The laws of logarithms state that
log a ( xy ) = log ax + log a y (1.27)

x
log a ⎛ --- ⎞ = log ax – log a y (1.28)
⎝y⎠

n
log a ( x ) = n log a x (1.29)

Logarithms are very useful because the laws of (1.27) through (1.29), allow us to replace multipli-
cation, division and exponentiation by addition, subtraction and multiplication respectively. We
used logarithms in Appendix A to define the decibel.
As we mentioned in Appendix A, the common (base 10) logarithm and the natural (base e) loga-
rithm, where e is an irrational (endless) number whose value is 2.71828 ....., are the most widely
used. Both occur in many formulas of probability, statistics, and financial formulas. For instance,
the formula (1.30) below computes the number of periods required to accumulate a specified
future value by making equal payments at the end of each period into an interest − bearing
account.
ln ( 1 + ( Interest × FutureValue ) ⁄ Payment )
n = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1.30)
ln ( 1 + Interest )
where:
n = number of periods (months or years)
ln = natural logarithm

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 Laws of Logarithms

Interest = earned interest

Future Value = desired amount to be accumulated
Payment = equal payments (monthly or yearly) that must be made.

Example 1.12
Compute the number of months required to accumulate Future Value = $100,000 by making a
monthly payment of $500 into a savings account paying 6% annual interest compounded
monthly.
Solution:
The monthly interest rate is 6% ⁄ 12 or 0.5% , and thus in (1.30), Interest = 0.5%=0.005 ,
Future Value = $100,000 , and Payment = $500 . Then,

ln ( 1 + ( 0.005 × 100, 000 ) ⁄ 500 -)

n = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1.31)
ln ( 1 + 0.005 )
We will use Excel to find the value of n. In any cell, we enter the following formula:
=LN(1+(0.005*100000)/500)/LN(1+0.005)

Alternately, we can use the MATLAB statement*

n=log(1+(0.005*100000)/500)/log(1+0.005)
Both Excel and MATLAB return 138.9757 ; we round this to 139 . This represents the number of
the months that a payment of $500 is required to be deposited at the end of each month. This
number, representing months, is equivalent to 11 years and 7 months.
Excel has a build−in function named NPER and its syntax (orderly arrangement) is
NPER(rate,pmt,pv,fv,type) where, for this example,
rate = 0.005
pmt = −500 (minus because it is a cash outflow)
pv = 0 (present value is zero)
fv = 100000
type = 0 which means that payments are made at the end of each period.

* With MATLAB, the function log(x) is used for the natural logarithm, and the command log10(x) is used for
the common logarithm.

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

Then, in any cell we enter the formula

=NPER(0.005,-500,0,100000,0)
and we observe that Excel returns 138.9757 . This is the same as the value that we found with the
formula of (1.31).

The formula of (1.30) uses the natural logarithm. Others use the common logarithm.
Although we can use a PC, or a calculator to find the log of a number, it is useful to know the fol-
lowing facts that apply to common logarithms.
I. Common logarithms consist of an integer, called the characteristic and an endless decimal
called the mantissa*.
II. If the decimal point is located immediately to the right of the msd of a number, the character-
istic is zero; if the decimal point is located after two digits to the right of the msd, the charac-
teristic is 1 ; if after three digits, it is 2 and so on. For instance, the characteristic of 1.9 is 0 , of
58.3 is 1 , and of 476.5 is 2 .
III. If the decimal point is located immediately to the left of the msd of a number, the characteris-
tic is – 1 , if located two digits to the left of the msd, it is – 2 , if after three digits, it is – 3 and so
on. Thus, the characteristic of 0.9 is – 1 , of 0.0583 is – 2 , and of 0.004765 is – 3 .
IV. The mantissa cannot be determined by inspection; it must be extracted from tables of common
logarithms.
V. Although the common logarithm of a number less than one is negative, it is written with a neg-
ative characteristic and a positive mantissa. This is because the mantissas in tables are given as
positive numbers.
VI. Because mantissas are given in math tables as positive numbers, the negative sign is written
above the characteristic. This is to indicate that the negative sign does not apply to the man-
tissa. For instance, log 0.00319 = 3.50379 , and since – 3 = 7 – 10 , this can be written as
log 0.00319 = 7.50379 – 10 = – 2.4962 .
A convenient method to find the characteristic of logarithms is to first express the given number
in scientific notation;† the characteristic then is the exponent.

* Mantissas for common logarithms appear in books of mathematical tables. No such tables are provided here since we will
not use them in our subsequent discussion. A good book with mathematical tables is Handbook of Mathematical Functions
by Dover Publications.
† Scientific notation is discussed in Appendix A.

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 Quadratic Equations

For negative numbers, the mantissa is the 9's complement* of the mantissa given in math tables.

Example 1.13
Given that x = 73, 000, 000 and y = 0.00000000073 , find
a. log x b. log y
Solution:
7
x = 73, 000, 000 = 7.3 × 10
a.
log x = 7.8633
– 10
y = 0.00000000073 = 7.3 × 10
b.
log y = – 10.8633 = 0.8633 – 10 = – 9.1367

1.5 Quadratic Equations

Quadratic equations are those that contain equations of second degree. The general form of a qua-
dratic equation is
2
ax + bx + c = 0 (1.32)

where a, b and c are real constants (positive or negative). Let x1 and x2 be the roots† of (1.33).
These can be found from the formulas
2 2
– b + b – 4ac – b – b – 4ac
x 1 = -------------------------------------- x 2 = -------------------------------------- (1.33)
2a 2a
2
The quantity b – 4ac under the square root is called the discriminant of a quadratic equation.

Example 1.14
Find the roots of the quadratic equation
2
x –5 x + 6 = 0 (1.34)

* The 9's complement of a number is obtained by subtraction of that number from a number consisting of 9's with the same
number of digits as the number. For the example cited above, we subtract 50379 from 99999 and we obtain 49620 and
this is the mantissa of the number.
† Roots are the values which make the left and right sides of an equation equal to each other.

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

Solution:
Using the quadratic formulas of (1.33), we obtain

2
( – 5 ) + ( – 5 ) – 4 × 1 × 6- = ------------------------------
x 1 = –------------------------------------------------------------------ 5 + 25 – 24- = 5---------------
+ 1- = 5-----------
+ 1- = 3
2×1 2 2 2
and
2
– ( –5 ) – ( –5 ) – 4 × 1 × 6 5 – 25 – 24 5– 1 5–1
x 2 = ------------------------------------------------------------------ = ------------------------------- = ---------------- = ------------ = 2
2×1 2 2 2
We observe that this equation has two unequal positive roots.

Example 1.15
Find the roots of the quadratic equation
2
x + 4x + 4 = 0 (1.35)
Solution:
Using the quadratic formulas of (1.33), we get
2
– 4 + 4 – 4 × 1 × 4 – 4 + 16 – 16 – 4 + 0
x 1 = --------------------------------------------------- = ------------------------------------ = ---------------- = – 2
2×1 2 2
and
2
–4– 4 –4×1×4 – 4 – 16 – 16 –4–0
x 2 = -------------------------------------------------- = ----------------------------------- = ---------------- = – 2
2×1 2 2
We observe that this equation has two equal negative roots.

Example 1.16
Find the roots of the quadratic equation
2
2x + 4x + 5 = 0 (1.36)
Solution:
Using (1.33), we obtain
2
–4+ 4 –4×1×5 – 4 + 16 – 20 – 4 + –4
x 1 = --------------------------------------------------- = ------------------------------------ = ------------------------ ( value cannot be determined )
2×2 4 4
and

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 Cubic and Higher Degree Equations

2
4 – 4 – 4 × 1 × 5- = ----------------------------------
x 2 = –-------------------------------------------------
– 4 – –4
– 4 – 16 – 20- = ----------------------- ( value cannot be determined )
2×2 4 4

Here, the square root of – 4 , i.e., – 4 is undefined. It is an imaginary number and, as stated ear-
lier, imaginary numbers will not be discussed in this text.
In general, if the coefficients a, b and c are real constants (known numbers), then:
2
I. If b – 4ac is positive, as in Example 1.14, the roots are real and unequal.
2
II. If b – 4ac is zero, as in Example 1.15, the roots are real and equal.
2
III. If b – 4ac is negative, as in Example 1.16, the roots are imaginary.

1.6 Cubic and Higher Degree Equations

A cubic equation has the form
3 2
ax + bx + cx + d = 0 (1.37)
and higher degree equations have similar forms. Formulas and procedures for solving these equa-
tions are included in books of mathematical tables. We will not discuss them here since their
applications to business, basic science, and technology are limited. They are useful in higher
mathematics applications and in engineering.

1.7 Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of central tendency are very important in probability and statistics and these are dis-
cussed in detail in Chapters 8 through 12. The intent here is to become familiar with terminolo-
gies used to describe data.
When we analyze data, we begin with the calculation of a single number, which we assume repre-
sents all the data. Because data often have a central cluster, this number is called a measure of cen-
tral tendency. The most widely used are the mean, median, and mode. These are described below.
The arithmetic mean is the value obtained by dividing the sum of a set of quantities by the number
of quantities in the set. It is also referred to as the average.
The arithmetic mean or simply the mean, is denoted with the letter x with a bar above it, and is
computed from the equation

∑ x
x = ---------- (1.38)
n

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

where the symbol Σ stands for summation and n is the number of data, usually called sample.

Example 1.17
The ages of 15 college students in a class are
24, 26, 27, 23, 31, 29, 25, 28, 21, 23, 32, 25, 30, 24, 26
Compute the mean (average) age of this group of students.
Solution:
Here, the sample is n = 15 and using (1.38) we obtain
24 + 26 + 27 + 23 + 31 + 29 + 25 + 28 + 21 + 23 + 32 + 25 + 30 + 24 + 26
x = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15

389
x = --------- = 26.27 ≈ 26
25
where the symbol ≈ stands for approximately equal to.
We will check out answer with the Excel AVERAGE function to become familiar with it.
We start with a blank worksheet and we enter the given numbers in Cells A1 through A15. In A16
we type =AVERAGE(A1:A15). Excel displays the answer 26.26667 . We will use these values for
the next example; therefore, it is recommended that they should not be erased.

The median of a sample is the value that separates the lower half of the data, from the upper half.
To find the median, we arrange the values of the sample in increasing (ascending) order. If the
number of the sample is odd, the median is in the middle of the list; if even, the median is the
mean (average) of the two values closest to the middle of the list. We denote the median as M d .

Example 1.18
Given the sample of Example 1.17, find the median.
Solution:
The given sample is repeated here for convenience.
24, 26, 27, 23, 31, 29, 25, 28, 21, 23, 32, 25, 30, 24, 26
We can arrange this sample in ascending (increasing) order with pencil and paper; however, we
will let Excel do the work for us. Unless this list has been erased, it still exists in A1:A15. Now, we

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 Measures of Central Tendency

erase the value in A16 by pressing the Delete key. We highlight the range A1:A15 and click on
Data>Sort>Column A>Ascending>OK. We observe that the numbers now appear in ascend-
ing order, the median appears in A8 and has the value of 26 , thus, for this example, M d = 26 .

Excel can find the median without first sorting the data. To illustrate the procedure, we undo sort
by clicking on Edit>Undo Sort and we observe that the list now appears as entered the first time.
We select any cell, we type =MEDIAN(A1:A15), and we observe that Excel displays 26 . Again, we
will use these values for the next example; therefore, it is recommended that they should not be
erased.

The mode is the value in a sample that occurs most often. If, in a sequence of numbers, no number
appears two or more times, the sample has no mode. The mode, if it exists, may or may not be
unique. If two such values exist, we say that the sample is bimodal, and if three values exist, we call
it trimodal. We will denote the mode as M o .

Example 1.19
Find the mode for the sample of Example 1.17.
Solution:
We assume that the data appear in the original order, that is, as
24, 26, 27, 23, 31, 29, 25, 28, 21, 23, 32, 25, 30, 24, 26
Let us sort these values as we did in Example 1.17. When this is done, we observe that the values
24 , 25 , and 26 each appear twice in the sample. Therefore, we say that this sample is trimodal.
Excel has also a function that computes the mode; however, if the sample has no unique mode, it
displays only the first, and gives no indication that the sample is bimodal or trimodal. To verify
this, we select any cell, and we type =MODE(A1:A15). Excel displays the value 24 .

Note 2.3
Textbooks in statistics provide formulas for the computation of the median and mode. We do not
provide them here because, for our purposes, these are not as important as the arithmetic mean.
In Chapters 9 and 10 we will discuss other important quantities such as the expected value, vari-
ance, standard deviation, and probability distributions. We will also present numerous practical
applications.
Another useful measure of central tendency is the moving average. The following discussion will
help us understand the meaning of a weighted moving average.

Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition 1−17

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

Suppose that the voltages displayed by an electronic instrument in a 5−day period, Monday
through Friday, were 23.5, 24.2, 24.0, 23.9 and 24.1 volts respectively. The average of those five
readings is
Average = 23.5 + 24.2 + 24.0 + 23.9 + 24.1- = 23.94
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
5

Now, suppose that on the following Monday the reading was found to be 24.2 volts. Then, the
new 5−day average based on the last five days, Tuesday through Monday is
24.2 + 24.0 + 23.9 + 24.1 + 24.2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------ = 24.08
5

We observe that the 5−day average has changed from 23.94 to 24.08 volts. In other words, the
average has “moved” from 23.94 to 24.08 volts. Hence, the name moving average.
However, a more meaningful moving average can be obtained if we assign weights to each reading
where the most recent reading carries the most weight. Thus, using a 5−day moving average we
could take the reading obtained on the 5th day and multiply it by 5, the 4th day by 4, the 3rd day
by 3, the 2nd day by 2, and the 1st day by 1. We could now add these numbers and divide the sum
by the sum of the multipliers, i.e., 5+4+3+2+1=15. Thus, the 5−day weighted moving average
would be
1 × 24.2 + 2 × 24.0 + 3 × 23.9 + 4 × 24.1 + 5 × 24.2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 24.09
15

and the value 24.09 is referred to as the Weighted Moving Average (WMA).
An Exponential Moving Average (EMA) takes a percentage of the most recent value and adds
in the previous value’s exponential moving average times 1 minus that percentage. For instance,
suppose we wanted a 10% EMA. We would take the most recent value and multiply it by 10%
then add that figure to the previous value’s EMA multiplied by the remaining percent, that is,
Most Recent Value × 0.1 + Previous Value's EMA × ( 1 – 0.1 ) (1.39)
Alternately, we can use the following formula to determine the percentage to be used in the calcu-
lation:
2
Exponential Percentage = --------------------------------------------
- (1.40)
Time Periods + 1
For example, if we wanted a 20 period EMA, we would use
2 - = 9.52 %
-------------- (1.41)
20 + 1

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 Measures of Central Tendency

For the example* below, we will use the Simulink Weighted Moving Average block.

Example 1.20
The price of a particular security (stock) over a 5−day period is as follows:
77 80 82 85 90
where the last value is the most recent. We will create single−input / single−output (SISO) model
with a Weighted Moving Average block to simulate the weighted moving average over this 5−day
period.
For this example, we will represent the SISO output as follows:
y1 ( k ) = a1 u ( k ) + b1 u ( k – 1 ) + c1 u ( k – 2 ) + d1 u ( k – 3 ) + e1 u ( k – 4 ) (1.42)
where
u ( k ) = 5 ⁄ 15 u ( k – 1 ) = 4 ⁄ 15 u ( k – 2 ) = 3 ⁄ 15 u ( k – 3 ) = 2 ⁄ 15 u ( k – 4 ) = 1 ⁄ 15 (1.43)
The model is shown in Figure 1.1 where in the Function Block Parameters dialog box for the
Weighted Moving Average block we have entered:
Weights:
[5 ⁄ 15 4 ⁄ 15 3 ⁄ 15 2 ⁄ 15 1 ⁄ 15 ]
Initial conditions:
[ 85 82 80 77 ]

Constant block − Output scaling value: [ 1.25 3 ]

–4
Weighted Moving Average block − Parameter data types: sfix ( 16 ) , Parameter scaling: 2
–6
Signal data types: sfix ( 16 ) , Parameter scaling: 2

Figure 1.1. Model for Example 1.20

* This example can be skipped without loss of continuity. For an introduction to Simulink, please refer to Intro-
duction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, ISBN 0-9744239-7-1.

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

1.8 Interpolation and Extrapolation

Let us consider the points P 1 ( x 1, y 1 ) and P 2 ( x 2, y 2 ) shown on Figure 1.2 where, in general, the
designation P n ( x n, y n ) is used to indicate the intersection of the lines parallel to the x – axis and
y – axis .
y
y2 P 2 ( x 2, y 2 )

y1 P 1 ( x 1, y 1 )

x1 x2 x
Figure 1.2. Graph to define interpolation and extrapolation

Let us assume that the values x 1 , y 1 , x 2 , and y 2 are known. Next, let us suppose that a known
value x i lies between x 1 and x 2 and we want to find the value y i that corresponds to the known
value of x i . We must now make a decision whether the unknown value y i lies on the straight line
segment that connects the points P 1 ( x 1, y 1 ) and P 2 ( x 2, y 2 ) or not. In other words, we must decide
whether the new point P i ( x i, y i ) lies on the line segment P 1 P 2 , above it, or below it. Linear inter-
polation implies that the point P i ( x i, y i ) lies on the segment P 1 P 2 between points P 1 ( x 1, y 1 ) and
P 2 ( x 2, y 2 ) , and linear extrapolation implies that the point P i ( x i, y i ) lies to the left of point
P 1 ( x 1, y 1 ) or to the right of P 2 ( x 2, y 2 ) but on the same line segment which may be extended
either to the left or to the right. Interpolation and extrapolation methods other than linear are dis-
cussed in numerical analysis* textbooks where polynomials are used very commonly as functional
forms. Our remaining discussion and examples will be restricted to linear interpolation.
Linear interpolation and extrapolation can be simplified if the first calculate the slope of the
straight line segment. The slope, usually denoted as m, is the rise in the vertical (y−axis) direction
over the run in the abscissa (x−axis) direction. Stated mathematically, the slope is defined as

rise y2 – y1
slope = m = --------- = ---------------- (1.44)
run x2 – x1

Example 1.21
Compute the slope of the straight line segment that connects the points P 1 ( 3, 2 ) and P 2 ( 7, 4 )

* Refer, for example, to Numerical Analysis Using MATLAB and Spreadsheets, ISBN 0-9709511-1-6.

1−20 Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition

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 Interpolation and Extrapolation

shown in Figure 1.3.

y
4 P 2 ( 7, 4 )

2
P 1 ( 3, 2 )

3 7 x
Figure 1.3. Graph for example 1.21

Solution:
rise 4–2 2
slope = m = --------- = ------------ = --- = 0.5
run 7–3 4

In the graph of Figure 1.3, if we know the value x i and we want to find the value y i , we use the
formula
yi – y1
--------------- = slope (1.45)
xi – x1
or
y i = slope × ( x i – x 1 ) + y 1 = m ( x i – x 1 ) + y 1 (1.46)

and if we know the value of y i and we want to find the value x i , we solve (1.46) for x i and we
obtain
1 1
x i = -------------- × ( y i – y 1 ) + x 1 = ---- × ( y i – y 1 ) + x 1 (1.47)
slope m

We observe that, if in (1.47) we let x 1 = 0 , x i = x , y i = y , and y 1 = b , we obtain the equation

of any straight line
y = mx + b (1.48)
which will be introduced on Chapter 2.

Example 1.22
Given the graph of Figure 1.4, perform linear interpolation to compute the value of y that corre-
sponds to the value x = 7.5

Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition 1−21

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

16 P 2 ( 11, 16 )

8
P 1 ( 5, 8 )

5 11 x
Figure 1.4. Graph for example 1.22
Solution:
Using (1.47) we get
16 – 8 8
y = slope × ( x i – x 1 ) + y 1 = --------------- × ( 7.5 – 5 ) + 8 = --- × 2.5 + 8 = 10
------ + 8 = 11.33
x = 7.5 11 – 5 6 3

Note 2.4
The smaller the interval, the better the approximation will be obtained by linear interpolation.
Note 2.5
It is highly recommended that the data points are plotted so that we can assess how reasonable our
approximation will be.
Note 2.6
We must exercise good judgement when we use linear interpolation since we may obtain unrealis-
tic values. As as example, let us consider the following table where x represents the indicated
2
numbers and y represents the square of x, that is, y = x .
x y
1 1
....... ........
6 36

If we use linear interpolation to find the square of 5 with the data of the above table we will find
that
36 – 1 35
y x = 5 = slope × ( x i – x 1 ) + y 1 = --------------- × ( 5 – 1 ) + 1 = ------ × 4 + 1 = 29
6–1 5

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 Infinite Sequences and Series

and obviously this is gross error since the square of 5 is 25 , not 29 .

1.9 Infinite Sequences and Series

An infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers. For example, when
x is successively assigned the values 1 , 2 , 3 ,..., the function defined as

1 -
f ( x ) = -----------
1+x
yields the infinite sequence 1 ⁄ 2 , 1 ⁄ 3 , 1 ⁄ 4 ,.... and so on. This sequence is referred to as infinite
sequence to indicate that there is no last term. We can create a sequence { s n } by addition of
numbers. Let us suppose that the numbers to be added are
u 1, u 2, u 3, …, u n, …
We let
s1 = u1
s2 = u1 + u2
… (1.49)
n
sn = u1 + u2 + u3 + … + un = ∑ uk
k=1

An expression such as (1.49) is referred to as an infinite series. There are many forms of infinite
series with practical applications. In this text, we will discuss only the arithmetic series, geometric
series, and harmonic series.

1.10 Arithmetic Series

An arithmetic series (or arithmetic progression) is a sequence of numbers such that each number dif-
fers from the previous number by a constant amount, called the common difference.
If a 1 is the first term, a n is the nth term, d is the common difference, n is the number of terms, and
s n is the sum of n terms, then

a n = a 1 + ( n – 1 )d (1.50)

n
s n = --- ( a 1 + a n ) (1.51)
2

n
s n = --- [ 2a 1 + ( n – 1 )d ] (1.52)
2
The expression

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Chapter 1 Elementary Algebra

n
1
∑k = --- n ( n + 1 )
2
(1.53)
k=1

is known as the sum identity.

Example 1.23
Compute the sum of the integers from 1 to 100
Solution:
Using the sum identity, we get
100
1
∑k = --- 100 ( 100 + 1 ) = 50 × 101 = 5050
2
k=1

1.11 Geometric Series

A geometric series (or geometric progression) is a sequence of numbers such that each number bears
a constant ratio, called the common ratio, to the previous number.
If a 1 is the first term, a n is the nth term, r is the common ratio, n is the number of terms, and s n
is the sum of n terms, then
n–1
an = a1 r (1.54)
and for r ≠ 1 ,
n
1–r
s n = a 1 -------------
1–r
a 1 – ra n
= -----------------
- (1.55)
1–r
ra n – a 1
= -----------------
-
r–1
The first sum equation in (1.55) is derived as follows:
The general form of a geometric series is
2 3 n–1
a1 + a1 r + a1 r + a1 r + … + a1 r +… (1.56)

The sum of the first n terms of (1.56) is

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 Geometric Series

2 3 n–1
sn = a1 + a1 r + a1 r + a1 r + … + a1 r (1.57)

Multiplying both sides of (1.57) by r we obtain

2 3 n–1 n
rs n = a 1 r + a 1 r + a 1 r + … + a 1 r + a1 r (1.58)

If we subtract (1.58) from (1.57) we will find that all terms on the right side cancel except the first
and the last leaving
n
( 1 – r )s n = a 1 ( 1 – r ) (1.59)

Provided that r ≠ 1 , division of (1.59) by 1 – r yields

n
1–r
sn = a 1 ----------- (1.60)
1–r

It is shown in advanced mathematics textbooks that if r < 1 , the geometric series

2 3 n–1
a1 + a1 r + a1 r + a1 r + … + a1 r +…

converges (approaches a limit) to the sum

a1
s n = ----------
- (1.61)
1–r

Example 1.24
A ball is dropped from x feet above a flat surface. Each time the ball hits the ground after falling a
distance h, it rebounds a distance rh where r < 1 . Compute the total distance the ball travels.
Solution:
The path and the distance the ball travels is shown on the sketch of Figure 1.5. The total distance
s is computed by the geometric series
2 3
s = a 1 + 2a 1 r + 2a 1 r + 2a 1 r + … (1.62)

By analogy to equation of (1.61), the second and subsequent terms in (1.62) can be expressed as
the sum of
2a 1 r
----------
- (1.63)
1–r

Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, Third Edition 1−25

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Random documents with unrelated
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 SECTION X.

CHAP. I.

It now remains, in the last place, that we should speak concerning

felicity, about which you make various inquiries, first of all proposing
objections, afterwards doubting, and then interrogating. Adducing,
therefore, all that is said by you, we shall answer it appropriately.
You inquire, then, “whether there is not some other latent way to
felicity.” But how, in that path which recedes from the Gods, is it
probable there can be an ascent to felicity? For if the essence and
perfection of all good are comprehended in the Gods, and the first
and ancient power of them is with us priests, and if by those who
similarly adhere to more excellent natures, and genuinely obtain a
union with them, the beginning and end of all good is earnestly
pursued; if this be the case, here the contemplation of truth, and the
possession of intellectual science are to be found.[148] And a
knowledge of the Gods is accompanied with a conversion to, and the
knowledge of, ourselves.
 CHAP. II.

Hence you in vain doubt, “that it is not proper to look to human

opinions.” For what leisure can he have whose intellect is directed to
the Gods to look downward to the praises of men? Nor do you rightly
doubt in what follows, viz. “that the soul devises great things from
casual circumstances.” For what principle of fictions can there be in
truly existing beings? Is it not the phantastic power in us which is the
maker of images? But the phantasy is never excited when the
intellectual life energizes perfectly. And is not truth essentially
coexistent with the Gods? Is it not, likewise, concordantly established
in intelligibles? It is in vain, therefore, that things of this kind are
disseminated by you and others. But neither do those things for
which certain futile and arrogant men calumniate the worshipers of
the Gods, the like to which have been asserted by you, at all pertain
to true theology and theurgy. And if certain things of this kind
germinate in the sciences of divine concerns, as in other arts evil arts
blossom forth; these are doubtless more contrary to such sciences
than to any thing else. For evil is more hostile to good than to that
which is not good.
 CHAP. III.

I wish, in the next place, to reply to such assertions as calumniate

divine prediction. For you compare with it “certain other methods
which are conversant with the prediction of future events.” To me,
however, it does not appear to be any thing honourable if a certain
natural aptitude is ingenerated in us to the indication of the future,
just as in animals there is a foreknowledge of earthquakes, or winds,
or tempests. For an innate presage of this kind is the consequence of
acuteness of sensation, or sympathy, or some other conjoint motion
of the physical powers, and is not attended with any thing venerable
and supernatural. Nor if some one, by human reasoning, or artificial
observation, conjectures from signs those things of which the signs
are indicative (as physicians foreknow that a fever will take place
from the systole and torpor of the pulse), neither does he appear to
me to possess any thing honourable and good. For he conjectures
after a human manner, and concludes from our reasoning power
about things which are acknowledged to be effected naturally, and
forms a judgment not very remote from the corporeal-formed order.
Hence, if there is in us a certain natural presentiment of the future,
in the same manner as in all other animals, this power is clearly seen
to energize; this presentiment does not in reality possess any thing
which is most blessed. For what is there among the things which are
implanted in us by nature in the realms of generation that is a
genuine, perfect, and eternal good?
 CHAP. IV.

Divine divination, therefore, which is conjoined with the Gods,

alone truly imparts to us a divine life; since it participates of [divine]
foreknowledge, and divine intellections, and renders us in reality
divine. It likewise causes us to be genuine participants of the good,
because the most blessed intellectual perception of the Gods is filled
with all good. Hence those who possess this divination “do not,” as
you conjecture, “foresee future events, and are nevertheless
unhappy.” For all divine foreknowledge is boniform. Nor “do they
foresee, indeed, what is future, but do not know how to use this
knowledge properly.” For, together with the foreknowledge, they
receive the beautiful itself, and true and appropriate order: and
utility is also present with it. For the Gods, in conjunction with it,
deliver a transcendent power of defence against the inconveniences
which accede from nature. And when it is necessary to exercise
virtue, and the ignorance of future events contributes to this, then
the Gods conceal what will be for the sake of rendering the soul
better. But when the ignorance of what is future does not at all
contribute to this, and foreknowledge is advantageous to souls, for
the sake of their salvation and reascent [to divinity], then the Gods
insert the foreknowledge which pertains to divination in the
penetralia of the essences of souls.
 CHAP. V.

But why am I prolix about these particulars? For I have

abundantly shown, in what has been before said, the transcendency
of divine above human divination. It is better, therefore, in
compliance with your request, “to point out to you the way to
felicity, and show you in what the essence of it is placed.” For from
this the truth will be discovered, and at the same time all the doubts
may be easily dissolved. I say, therefore, that the more divine[149]
intelligible man, who was formerly united to the Gods by the vision
of them, afterwards entered into another soul, which is coadapted to
the human form, and through this became fettered with the bonds of
necessity and fate. Hence it is requisite to consider how he may be
liberated from these bonds. There is, therefore, no other dissolution
of them than the knowledge of the Gods. For to know scientifically
the good is the idea of felicity; just as the oblivion of good, and
deception about evil, happen to be the idea of evil. The former,
therefore, is present with divinity; but the latter, which is an inferior
destiny, is inseparable from the mortal nature. And the former,
indeed, measures the essences of intelligibles[150] by sacred ways; but
the latter, abandoning principles, gives itself up to the measurement
of the idea of body. The former is a knowledge of the father; but the
latter is a departure from him, and an oblivion of the God who is a
superessential father, and sufficient to himself. The former, likewise,
preserves the true life of the soul, and leads it back to its father; but
the latter draws down the generation-ruling[151] man, as far as to that
which is never permanent, but is always flowing. You must
understand, therefore, that this is the first path to felicity, affording
to souls an intellectual plenitude of divine union. But the sacerdotal
and theurgic gift of felicity is called, indeed, the gate to the
Demiurgus of wholes, or the seat, or palace, of the good. In the first
place, likewise, it possesses a power of purifying the soul, much more
perfect than the power which purifies the body; afterwards it causes
a coaptation of the reasoning power to the participation and vision of
the good, and a liberation from every thing of a contrary nature; and,
in the last place, produces a union with the Gods, who are the givers
of every good.
 CHAP. VI.

Moreover, after it has conjoined the soul to the several parts of the
universe, and to the total divine powers which pass through it; then
it leads the soul to, and deposits it in, the whole Demiurgus, and
causes it to be independent of all matter, and to be counited with the
eternal reason alone. But my meaning is, that it peculiarly connects
the soul with the self begotten and self-moved God, and with the all-
sustaining, intellectual, and all-adorning powers of the God, and
likewise with that power of him which elevates to truth, and with his
self-perfect, effective, and other demiurgic powers; so that the
theurgic soul becomes perfectly established in the energies and
demiurgic intellections of these powers. Then, also, it inserts the soul
in the whole demiurgic God. And this is the end with the Egyptians of
the sacerdotal elevation of the soul to divinity.
 CHAP. VII.

With respect to the good, likewise, they conceive that one kind is
divine, and this is the God who is prior to the intelligible; but that the
other is human, and is a union with the former. And these two kinds
of good Bitys has unfolded from the Hermaic books. This part,
therefore, is not, as you suspect, omitted by the Egyptians, but is
divinely delivered by them. Nor do “theurgists disturb the divine
intellect about trifling concerns;” but they consult it about things
which pertain to the purification, liberation, and salvation of the
soul. Neither do they studiously employ themselves in things which
are indeed difficult, yet useless to mankind; but, on the contrary,
they direct their attention to things which are of all others most
beneficial to the soul. Nor, in the last place, are “they deceived by a
certain fraudulent dæmon,” who, having vanquished a fallacious and
dæmoniacal nature, ascend to an intelligible and divine essence.
 CHAP. VIII.

And thus we have answered, to the utmost of our ability, your

inquiries concerning divination and theurgy. It remains, therefore, at
the end of this discussion, that I should beseech the Gods to afford
me an immutable guard of true conceptions, to insert in me truth
eternally, and to supply me abundantly with the participation of
more perfect conceptions of the Gods, in which the most blessed end
of our good is posited, and the confirmation of our concordant
friendship with each other.
 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

Page 9. Anebo. Porphyry in his Life of Plotinus, and also in the

second book of his Treatise on Abstinence from Animals, informs us
that he was familiar with a certain Egyptian priest, who, as Gale
conjectures, is probably the priest to whom Porphyry now writes.
The diction, indeed, as Gale observes, denotes that the person to
whom this Epistle is addressed was a very great prophet, who,
nevertheless, is afterwards said to be a priest. This, however, is not
any thing novel or incongruous. For by Apuleius in Metamorph. lib.
xi. the Egyptian Zaclas is said to be propheta primarius et sacerdos,
a chief prophet and priest.

Page 9. Hermes the God who presides over language. The

Egyptians celebrated two Hermes, the former of which is here
signified by Iamblichus. This deity is the source of invention, and
hence he is said to be the son of Maia; because search, which is
implied by Maia, leads invention into light. He bestows too mathesis
on souls, by unfolding the will of his father Jupiter; and this he
accomplishes as the angel or messenger of Jupiter. Proclus in MS.
Comment. in Alcibiad. observes, “that this deity is the inspective
guardian of gymnastic exercises; and hence hermæ, or carved
statues of Mercury, were placed in the Palæstræ; of music, and hence
he is honoured as the lyrist λυραιος among the celestial
constellations; and of disciplines, because the invention of geometry,
reasoning, and discourse is referred to this God. He presides,
therefore, over every species of erudition, leading us to an intelligible
essence from this mortal abode, governing the different herds of
souls, and dispersing the sleep and oblivion with which they are
oppressed. He is likewise the supplier of recollection, the end of
which is a genuine intellectual apprehension of divine natures.”
 P. 10. The ancient pillars of Hermes. These pillars, according to
Amm. Marcellinus, lib. xxii. were concealed prior to the deluge in
certain caverns, which were called συριγγες, syringes, not far from
the Egyptian Thebes. The second Hermes interpreted these pillars,
and his interpretation formed many volumes, as Iamblichus informs
us in Section viii. of this work. These pillars are mentioned by
Laertius in his Life of Democritus; by Dio Chrysostom in Orat. 49; by
Achilles Tatius on Aratus; and by others of the ancients.

P. 15. There is, therefore, the good itself which is beyond essence,
and there is that good which subsists according to essence. There
are three orders of good; viz. that which is imparticipable and
superessential; that which is imparticipable and essential; and that
which is essential and participable. Of these, the last is such as our
nature contains; the good which ranks among forms is essential; and
that which is beyond essence is superessential. Or we say that the
good which subsists in us may be considered as a habit, in
consequence of subsisting in a subject; the next to this ranks as
essence, and a part of essence, I mean the good which ranks among
forms; and the good which is beyond essence, is neither a habit, nor
a part. With respect to the good, also, which subsists according to
essence, it must be observed, that since forms are twofold, some
alone distinguishing the essences of the things fashioned by form,
but others their perfections, the genus of essence, same and
different, and the form of animal, horse, and man, and every thing of
this kind, give distinction to essence and subjects; but the form of the
good, the beautiful, and the just, and in like manner the form of
virtue, of health, strength, and every thing of a similar nature, are
perfective of the beings to which they belong: and of some, essence is
the leader, but of others the good. For, as Plato says, every thing
except the one, must necessarily participate of essence; and whatever
preserves, gives perfection to, or defends any being, must be good.
Hence, since these two are leaders, the one of forms which give
subsistence to things, and the other of such as are the sources of their
perfection; it is necessary that one of these should be subordinate to
the other; I mean that the good which is allotted a coordination
among forms that are the sources of perfection, should be
subordinate to essence, which ranks among causes, whence
subsistence originates, if the good is being, and a certain being. For it
is either the same with, or different from, essence, which the Elean
guest or stranger in the Sophista of Plato shows to be the genus of
being. And if the good is the same with essence, an absurdity must
ensue: for being and well-being are not the same. But if the good is
something different from essence, it must necessarily participate of
essence, in consequence of essence being the genus of all forms. But
if genera are more ancient than forms, the good which ranks among
forms, and is posterior to their genus, will not be the superessential
good which reigns over intelligibles; but this must be asserted of that
good, under which this and every form is arranged, which possesses
being, and which is the leader of the other genera of being.

P. 15. But the other medium, which is suspended from the Gods,
though it is far inferior to them, is that of dæmons. In addition to
what is said in this work by Iamblichus concerning dæmons, the
following information about them from Olympiodorus, in his MS.
Scholia on the Phædo of Plato, is well worthy the attention of the
philosophical reader:
“Since there are in the universe things which subsist differently at
different times, and since there are also natures which are conjoined
with the superessential unities, it is necessary that there should be a
certain middle genus, which is neither immediately suspended from
deity, nor subsists differently at different times, according to better
and worse, but which is always perfect, and does not depart from its
proper virtue; and is immutable indeed, but is not conjoined with the
superessential [which is the characteristic of deity]. The whole of this
genus is dæmoniacal. There are, also, different genera of dæmons:
for they are placed under the mundane Gods. The highest of these
subsists according to the one of the Gods, and is called an unific and
divine genus of dæmons. The next subsists according to the intellect
which is suspended from deity, and is called intellectual. The third
subsists according to soul, and is called rational. The fourth,
according to nature, and is denominated physical. The fifth
according to body, which is called corporeal-formed. And the sixth
according to matter, and this is denominated material.”
Olympiodorus adds, “or after another manner it may be said, that
some of these are celestial, others etherial, others aerial, others
aquatic, others terrestrial, and others subterranean. With respect to
this division also, it is evident that it is derived from the parts of the
universe. But irrational dæmons originate from the aerial governors,
whence, also, the Chaldean Oracle says,
Ηεριων ελατηρα κυνων χθονιων τε και υγρων.

i. e. being the charioteer of the aerial, terrestrial, and aquatic dogs.”

Our guardian dæmons, however, belong to that order of dæmons
which is arranged under the Gods that preside over the ascent and
descent of souls. For a more copious account of dæmons see the
notes on the First Alcibiades in vol. i. of my translation of Plato.

P. 22. One and the best solution will be obtained by surveying the
mode of divine allotment.
The manner in which divine allotments subsist is admirably
unfolded by Proclus in Tim. p. 43, as follows: “Since, according to a
division of the universe into two parts, we have distributed
allotments into the celestial and sublunary, there can be no doubt
what the former are, and whether they possess an invariable
sameness of subsistence. But the sublunary allotments are
deservedly a subject of admiration, whether they are said to be
perpetual or not. For since all things in generation are continually
changing and flowing, how can the allotments of the providential
rulers of them be said to be perpetual? For things in generation are
not perpetual. But if their allotments are not perpetual, how is it
possible to suppose that divine government can subsist differently at
different times? For an allotment is neither a certain separate energy
of the Gods, so that sublunary natures changing, we might say that it
is exempt, and remains immutable, nor is it that which is governed
alone, so that no absurdity would follow from admitting that an
allotment is in a flowing condition, and is conversant with all-various
mutations; but it is a providential inspection, and unrestrained
government of divinity over sublunary concerns. Such being the
doubts with which this subject is attended, the following appears to
be a solution of the difficulty.
“We must say, then, that it is not proper to consider all the natures
that are in generation, and generation itself, as alone consisting of
things mutable and flowing, but that there is also something
immutable in these, and which is naturally adapted to remain
perpetually the same. For the interval which receives and
comprehends in itself all the parts of the world, and which has an
arrangement through all bodies, is immoveable, lest, being moved, it
should require another place, and thus should proceed from one
receptacle to another, ad infinitum. The etherial vehicles, also, of
divine souls, with which they are circularly invested, and which
imitate the lives in the heavens, have a perpetual essence, and are
eternally suspended from these divine souls themselves, being full of
prolific powers, and performing a circular motion, according to a
certain secondary revolution of the celestial orbs. And, in the third
place, the wholeness (ολοτης) of the elements has a permanent
subsistence, though the parts are all-variously corrupted. For it is
necessary that every form in the universe should be never failing, in
order that the universe may be perfect, and that, being generated
from an immoveable cause, it may be immoveable in its essence. But
every wholeness is a form, or rather it is that which it is said to be
through the participation of one all perfect form.
“And here we may see the orderly progression of the nature of
bodies. For the interval of the universe is immoveable according to
every kind of motion. But the vehicles of divine souls alone receive a
mutation according to place; for such a motion as this is most remote
from essential mutation. And the wholeness of the elements admits
in its parts the other motions of bodies, but the whole remains
perfectly immutable. The celestial allotments also, which
proximately divide the interval of the universe, codistribute likewise
the heavens themselves. But those in the sublunary region are
primarily, indeed, allotted the parts which are in the interval of the
universe, but afterwards they make a distribution according to the
definite vehicles of souls. And, in the third place, they remain
perpetually the same, according to the total parts of generation. The
allotments of the Gods, therefore, do not change, nor do they subsist
differently at different times; for they have not their subsistence
proximately in that which may be changed.
“How, therefore, do the illuminations of the Gods accede to these?
How are the dissolutions of sacred rites effected? And how is the
same place at different times under the influence of different spirits?
May it not be said, that since the Gods have perpetual allotments,
and divide the earth according to divine numbers, similarly to the
sections of the heavens, the parts of the earth also are illuminated, so
far as they participate of aptitude. But the circulation of the heavenly
bodies, through the figures which they possess, produce this
aptitude; divine illumination at the same time imparting a power
more excellent than the nature which is present with these parts of
the earth. This aptitude is also effected by nature herself as a whole,
inserting divine impressions in each of the illuminated parts,
through which they spontaneously participate of the Gods. For as
these parts depend on the Gods, nature inserts in such of them as are
different, different images of the divinities. Times too cooperate in
producing this aptitude, according to which other things, also, are
governed; the proper temperature of the air likewise; and, in short,
every thing by which we are surrounded contributes to the increase
and diminution of this aptitude. When, therefore, conformably to a
concurrence of these many causes, an aptitude to the participation of
the Gods is ingenerated in some one of the natures which are
disposed to be changed, then a certain divinity is unfolded into light,
which, prior to this, was concealed through the inaptitude of the
recipients; possessing, indeed, his appropriate allotment eternally,
and always extending the participation of himself, similarly to
illuminations from the sun, but not being always participated by
sublunary natures, in consequence of their inaptitude to such
participation. For as with respect to partial souls such as ours, which
at different times embrace different lives, some of them, indeed,
choose lives accommodated to their appropriate Gods, but others
foreign lives, through oblivion of the divinities to whom they belong;
thus, also, with respect to sacred places, some are adapted to the
power which there receives its allotment, but others are suspended
from a different order. And on this account, as the Athenian guest in
Plato says, some places are more fortunate, but others more
unfortunate.
“The divine Iamblichus, however, doubts how the Gods are said to
be allotted certain places according to definite times, as, by Plato in
the Timæus, Minerva is said to have been first allotted the
guardianship of Athens, and afterwards of Saïs. For if their allotment
commenced from a certain time, it will also at a certain time cease.
For every thing which is measured by time is of this kind. And
farther still, was the place which at a certain time they are allotted,
without a presiding deity prior to this allotment, or was it under the
government of other Gods? For if it was without a presiding deity,
how is it to be admitted that a certain part of the universe was once
entirely destitute of divinity? How can any place remain without the
guardianship of superior beings? And if any place is sufficient to the
preservation of itself, how does it afterwards become the allotment of
some one of the Gods? But if it should be said, that it is afterwards
under the government of another God, of whom it becomes the
allotment, this also is absurd. For the second God does not divulse
the government and allotment of the former, nor do the Gods
alternately occupy the places of each other, nor dæmons change their
allotments. Such being the doubts on this subject, he solves them by
saying, that the allotments of the Gods remain perpetually
unchanged, but that the participants of them at one time, indeed,
enjoy the beneficent influence of the presiding powers, but at
another are deprived of it. He adds, that these are the mutations
measured by time, which sacred institutes frequently call the
birthday of the Gods.

P. 23. Which also the art of divine works perceiving, &c. This art
of divine works is called theurgy, in which Pythagoras was initiated
among the Syrians, as we are informed by Iamblichus in his Life of
that philosopher. (See p. 9 of my translation of that work.) Proclus
also was skilled in this art, as may be seen in the Life of him by
Marinus. Psellus, in his MS. treatise on Dæmons, says, as we have
before observed, “that magic formed the last part of the sacerdotal
science”; in which place by magic he doubtless means that kind of it
which is denominated theurgy. And that theurgy was employed by
the ancients in their mysteries, I have fully proved in my treatise on
the Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries.[152] This theurgy, too, is
doubtless the same as the magic of Zoroaster, which Plato in the First
Alcibiades says, consisted in the worship of the Gods; on which
passage the following account of theurgy by Proclus was, I have no
doubt, originally part of a commentary. For the MS. Commentary of
Proclus, which is extant on this dialogue, does not extend to more
than a third part of it; and this Dissertation on Theurgy, which is
only extant in Latin, was published by Ficinus the translator,
immediately after his Excerpta, from this Commentary. So that it
seems highly probable that the manuscript from which Ficinus
translated his Excerpta, was much more perfect than that which has
been preserved to us, in consequence of containing this account of
the theurgy of the ancients.
“In the same manner as lovers gradually advance from that beauty
which is apparent in sensible forms, to that which is divine; so the
ancient priests, when they considered that there is a certain alliance
and sympathy in natural things to each other, and of things manifest
to occult powers; and discovered that all things subsist in all, they
fabricated a sacred science from this mutual sympathy and
similarity. Thus they recognised things supreme in such as are
subordinate, and the subordinate in the supreme: in the celestial
regions, terrene properties subsisting in a causal and celestial
manner; and in earth celestial properties, but according to a terrene
condition. For how shall we account for those plants called
heliotropes, that is, attendants on the sun, moving in correspondence
with the revolution of its orb, but selenitropes, or attendants on the
moon, turning in exact conformity to her motion? It is because all
things pray, and hymn the leaders of their respective orders; but
some intellectually, and others rationally; some in a natural, and
others after a sensible, manner. Hence the sunflower, as far as it is
able, moves in a circular dance towards the sun; so that if any one
could hear the pulsation made by its circuit in the air, he would
perceive something composed by a sound of this kind, in honour of
its king, such as a plant is capable of framing. Hence, too, we may
behold the sun and moon in the earth, but according to a terrene
quality; but in the celestial regions, all plants, and stones, and
animals, possessing an intellectual life according to a celestial nature.
Now the ancients, having contemplated this mutual sympathy of
things, applied for occult purposes, both celestial and terrene
natures, by means of which, through a certain similitude, they
deduced divine virtues into this inferior abode. For, indeed,
similitude itself is a sufficient cause of binding things together in
union and consent. Thus, if a piece of paper is heated, and afterwards
placed near a lamp, though it does not touch the fire, the paper will
be suddenly inflamed, and the flame will descend from the superior
to the inferior parts. This heated paper we may compare to a certain
relation of inferiors to superiors; and its approximation to the lamp,
to the opportune use of things according to time, place, and matter.
But the procession of fire into the paper, aptly represents the
presence of divine light to that nature which is capable of its
reception. Lastly, the inflammation of the paper may be compared to
the deification of mortals, and to the illumination of material
natures, which are afterwards carried upwards, like the enkindled
paper, from a certain participation of divine seed.
“Again, the lotus, before the rising of the sun, folds its leaves into
itself, but gradually expands them on its rising: unfolding them in
proportion to the sun’s ascent to the zenith; but as gradually
contracting them as that luminary descends to the west. Hence this
plant, by the expansion and contraction of its leaves, appears no less
to honour the sun, than men by the gesture of their eyelids, and the
motion of their lips. But this imitation and certain participation of
supernal light is not only visible in plants, which possess nothing
more than a vestige of life, but likewise in particular stones. Thus the
sun-stone, by its golden rays, imitates those of the sun; but the stone
called the eye of heaven, or of the sun, has a figure similar to the
pupil of an eye, and a ray shines from the middle of the pupil. Thus,
too, the lunar stone, which has a figure similar to the moon when
horned, by a certain change of itself, follows the lunar motion. Lastly,
the stone called helioselenus, i. e. of the sun and moon, imitates,
after a manner, the congress of those luminaries, which it images by
its colour. So that all things are full of divine natures; terrestrial
natures receiving the plenitude of such as are celestial, but celestial
of supercelestial essences;[153] while every order of things proceeds
gradually, in a beautiful descent, from the highest to the lowest. For
whatever particulars are collected into one above the order of things,
are afterwards dilated in descending, various souls being distributed
under their various ruling divinities.
“In the next place, there are many solar animals, such as lions and
cocks, which participate, according to their nature, of a certain solar
divinity; whence it is wonderful how much inferiors yield to
superiors in the same order, though they do not yield in magnitude
and power. Hence it is said, that a cock is very much feared, and, as it
were, reverenced, by a lion; the reason of which we cannot assign
from matter or sense, but from the contemplation alone of a supernal
order. For thus we shall find that the presence of the solar virtue
accords more with a cock than with a lion. This will be evident from
considering that the cock, as it were, with certain hymns, applauds
and calls to the rising sun, when he bends his course to us from the
antipodes; and that solar angels sometimes appear in forms of this
kind, who, though they are without shape, yet present themselves to
us, who are connected with shape, in some sensible form.
Sometimes, too, there are dæmons with a leonine front, who when a
cock is placed before them, unless they are of a solar order, suddenly
disappear; and this because those natures which have an inferior
rank in the same order always reverence their superiors; just as
many, on beholding the images of divine men, are accustomed, from
the very view, to be fearful of perpetrating any thing base.
“In fine, some things turn round correspondent to the revolutions
of the sun, as the plants which we have mentioned, and others after a
manner imitate the solar rays, as the palm and the date; some the
fiery nature of the sun, as the laurel; and others a different property.
For, indeed, we may perceive that the properties which are collected
in the sun, are every where distributed to subsequent natures
constituted in a solar order, that is, to angels, dæmons, souls,
animals, plants, and stones. Hence the authors of the ancient
priesthood discovered from things apparent the worship of superior
powers, while they mingled some things and purified others. They
mingled many things indeed together, because they saw that some
simple substances possessed a divine property (though not taken
singly) sufficient to call down that particular power, of which they
were participants. Hence, by the mingling of many things together,
they attracted upon us a supernal influx; and by the composition of
one thing from many, they produced an assimilation to that one
which is above many; and composed statues from the mixture of
various substances conspiring in sympathy and consent. Besides this,
they collected composite odours, by a divine art, into one,
comprehending a multitude of powers, and symbolizing with the
unity of a divine essence; considering that division debilitates each of
these, but that mingling them together restores them to the idea of
their exemplar.
“But sometimes one herb, or one stone, is sufficient to a divine
operation. Thus a thistle is sufficient to procure the sudden
appearance of some superior power; but a laurel, raccinum (or a
thorny kind of sprig), the land and sea onion, the coral, the diamond,
and the jasper, operate as a safeguard. The heart of a mole is
subservient to divination, but sulphur and marine water to
purification. Hence the ancient priests, by the mutual relation and
sympathy of things to each other, collected their virtues into one, but
expelled them by repugnancy and antipathy; purifying when it was
requisite with sulphur and bitumen, and sprinkling with marine
water. For sulphur purifies, from the sharpness of its odour; but
marine water on account of its fiery portion. Besides this, in the
worship of the Gods, they offered animals, and other substances
congruous to their nature; and received, in the first place, the powers
of dæmons, as proximate to natural substances and operations; and
by these natural substances they convoked into their presence those
powers to which they approached. Afterwards they proceeded from
dæmons to the powers and energies of the Gods; partly, indeed, from
dæmoniacal instruction, but partly by their own industry,
interpreting appropriate symbols, and ascending to a proper
intelligence of the Gods. And lastly, laying aside natural substances
and their operations, they received themselves into the communion
and fellowship of the Gods.”
The Emperor Julian alludes to this theurgical art, in the following
extract from his Arguments against the Christians, preserved by
Cyril. Το γαρ εκ θεων εις ανθρωπους αφικνουμενον πνευμα,
σπανιακις μεν και εν ολιγοις γινεται, και ουτε παντα ανδρα τουτου
μετασχειν ρᾳδιον, ουτε εν παντι καιρῳ. ταυτῃ το και το παρ’
Εβραιοις επελιπεν, ουκουν ουδε παρ’ Αιγυπτιοις εις τουτο σωζεται.
Φαινεται δε και τα αυτοφυη χρηστηρια ταις των χρονων εικοντα
περιοδοις. ὃ δε φιλανθρωπος ημων δεσποτης και πατηρ Ζευς
εννοησας, ως αν μη πανταπασι της προς τους θεους αποστερηθωμεν
κοινωνιας δεδωκεν ημιν δια των ιερων τεχνων επισκεψιν, υφ’ ης
προς τας χρειας εξομεν την αποχρωσαν βοηθειαν. i. e. “For the
inspiration which arrives to men from the Gods is rare, and exists
but in a few. Nor is it easy for every man to partake of this, nor at
every time. This has ceased among the Hebrews, nor is it preserved
to the present time among the Egyptians. Spontaneous oracles, also,
are seen to yield to temporal periods. This, however, our
philanthropic lord and father Jupiter understanding, that we might
not be entirely deprived of communion with the Gods, has given us
observation through sacred arts, by which we have at hand sufficient
assistance.” For the cause why, at stated times, sacred arts, oracles,
and inspiration fail, see the additional notes to my translation of
Iamblichus’s Life of Pythagoras.

P. 24. The participant of the rational soul becomes the cause of

suffering to the composite. See my translation of Plotinus on the
Impassivity of Incorporeal Natures, in which this is beautifully and
profoundly demonstrated. Proclus, also, in Tim. lib. v. p. 340,
admirably observes, that the motion of the nutritive power, and the
percussions of sense, are the causes of the perturbation of the soul;
but that we must not fancy that the soul suffers any thing through
these. “For as if,” says he, “some one standing on the margin of a
river should behold the image and form of himself in the floating
stream, he indeed will preserve his face unchanged; but the stream,
being all-variously moved, will change the image, so that at different
times it will appear to him different, oblique and erect, and perhaps
divulsed and continuous. Let us suppose too, that such a one,
through being unaccustomed to the spectacle, should think that it
was himself that suffered this distortion, in consequence of surveying
his shadow in the water, and thus thinking, should be afflicted and
disturbed, astonished and impeded. After the same manner, the soul
beholding the image of herself in body, borne along in the river of
generation, and variously disposed at different times, through
inward passions and external impulses, is indeed herself impassive,
but thinks that she suffers; and being ignorant of, and mistaking her
image for, herself, is disturbed, astonished, and perplexed.”

P. 35. Since, however, the order of all the Gods is profoundly

united.——For the very existence in them, whatever it may be, is the
one of their nature.
The Gods are self-perfect superessential unities, so far as they are
Gods. For the principal subsistence of every thing is according to the
summit of its essence, and this in the Gods is the one, through which
they are profoundly united to each other and to the one itself, or the
ineffable principle of things, from which they are ineffably unfolded
into light. Concerning this union of them with each other, Proclus
admirably observes as follows, in his MS. Commentary on the
Parmenides of Plato. “All these unities are in, and are profoundly
united to, each other, and their union is far greater than the
communion and sameness which subsist in beings. For in the latter
there is indeed mutual mixture of forms, similitude, and friendship,
and a participation of each other; but the union of the Gods, as being
a union of unities, is much more uniform, ineffable, and
transcendent: for here all are in all, which does not take place in
forms or ideas;[154] and their unmingled purity, and the characteristic
of each, in a manner far surpassing the diversity in ideas, preserves
their natures unconfused, and distinguishes their peculiar powers.
Hence, some of them are more universal, and others more particular;
some of them are characterised by permanency, others by
progression, and others by conversion, or regression. Some, again,
are generative, others anagogic, or of an elevating nature, and others
demiurgic; and universally, there are different characteristics of
different Gods, viz. the connective, perfective, demiurgic,
assimilative, and such others as are celebrated posterior to these; so
that all are in all, and yet each is at the same time separate and
distinct.
“Indeed we obtain this knowledge of their union and
characteristics from the natures by which they are participated. For,
with respect to the visible Gods, we say that there is one soul of the
sun, and another of the earth, directing our attention to the visible
bodies of these divinities, which possess much variety in their
essence, powers, and dignity among wholes. As, therefore, we
apprehend the difference of incorporeal essences from sensible
inspection, in like manner from the variety of incorporeal essences,
we are enabled to know something of the unmingled distinction of
the first and superessential unities, and of the characteristics of each.
For each unity has a multitude suspended from its nature, which is
either intelligible alone; or intelligible, and at the same time
intellectual; or intellectual alone; and this last is either participated,
or not participated; and this again, is either supermundane, or
mundane. And thus far does the progression of the unities extend.”
Shortly after he adds, “As trees by their extremities are rooted in the
earth, and through this are earthly in every part, in the same manner
divine natures are rooted by their summits in the one, and each is a
unity and one, through its unconfused union with the one itself.” See
more on this most important of all subjects in the notes to my
translation of the Parmenides.

P. 50. For as in all other things, such as are principal, primarily

begin from themselves, &c.
Hence every God begins his own energy from himself, which
Proclus thus demonstrates in Prop. 131 of his Elements of Theology.
“For every God first exhibits the peculiarity of his presence with
secondary natures in himself; because he imparts himself to other
things also according to his own exuberant plenitude. For neither is
deficiency adapted to the Gods, nor fulness alone. For every thing
deficient is imperfect, and not being itself perfect, it is impossible it
should make another thing to be perfect. But that which is full is
alone sufficient to itself, and is not yet prepared to communicate. It
is necessary, therefore, that the nature which fills other things, and
which extends to other things the communications of itself, should
be superplenary, or exuberantly full. Hence, if a divine nature fills all
things from itself with the good which it contains in itself, it is
exuberantly full. And if this be the case, establishing first in itself the
peculiarity which it imparts to others, it will extend to them the
communications of superplenary goodness.

P. 59. It is requisite also to know what enthusiasm is, and how it

is produced.
The following account of enthusiasm, and of the different kinds of
mania mentioned by Plato in the Phædrus, from the Scholia of
Hermeas on that dialogue, is extracted from the additional notes to
my translation of Proclus on the Timæus, and is given in this place
for the sake of the Platonic English reader, who may not have that
translation in his possession, as a valuable addition to what is here
said by Iamblichus on this subject.
“Since Plato here delivers four kinds of mania, by which I mean
enthusiasm, and possession or inspiration from the Gods, viz. the
musical, the telestic, the prophetic, and the amatory, previous to the
discussion of each, we must first speak about enthusiasm, and show
to what part of the soul the enthusiastic energy pertains; whether
each part of it possesses this energy; if all enthusiasm is from the
Gods; and in what part of the soul it is ingenerated; or whether it
subsists in something else more excellent than soul. Where, then,
does that which is properly and primarily called enthusiasm subsist,
and what is it? Of the rational soul there are two parts, one of which
is dianoia, but the other opinion. Again, however, of dianoia, one
part is said to be the lowest, and is properly dianoia, but another part
of it is the highest, which is said to be the intellect of it, according to
which the soul especially becomes intellectual, and which some call
intellect in capacity. There is also another thing above this, which is
the summit of the whole soul, and most allied to the one, which
likewise wishes well to all things, and always gives itself up to the
Gods, and is readily disposed to do whatever they please. This, too, is
said to be the one of the soul, bears the image of the superessential
one, and unites the whole soul. But that these things necessarily thus
subsist, we may learn as follows: The rational soul derives its
existence from all the causes prior to itself, i. e. from intellect and the
Gods. But it subsists also from itself: for it perfects itself. So far,
therefore, as it subsists from the Gods, it possesses the one, which
unites all its powers, and all the multitude of itself, and conjoins
them to the one itself, and is the first recipient of the goods imparted
by the Gods. It likewise makes all the essence of the soul to be
boniform, according to which it is connected with the Gods, and
united to them. But so far as it subsists from intellect it possesses an
intellectual nature, according to which it apprehends forms, by
simple projections, or intuitions, and not discursively; and is
conjoined to the intellect which is above itself. And so far as it
constitutes itself, it possesses the dianoetic power, according to
which it generates sciences and certain theorems, energizes
discursively, and collects conclusions from propositions. For that it
constitutes or gives subsistence to itself, is evident from its imparting
perfection to itself; since that which leads itself to perfection, and
imparts to itself well-being, will much more impart to itself
existence. For well-being is a greater thing than being. If, therefore,
the soul imparts that which is greater to itself, it will much more
impart that which is less. Hence that which is primarily, properly,
and truly enthusiasm from the Gods, is effected according to this one
of the soul, which is above dianoia, and above the intellect of the
soul; which one is at another time in a relaxed and dormant state.
This one, likewise, becoming illuminated [by the Gods], all the life of
the soul is illuminated, and also intellect, dianoia, and the irrational
part, and the resemblance of enthusiasm is transmitted as far as to
the body itself.
“Other enthusiasms, therefore, are produced about other parts of
the soul,[155] certain dæmons exciting them,[156] or the Gods also,
though not without the intervention of dæmons. For dianoia is said
to energize enthusiastically, when it discovers sciences and theorems
in a very short space of time, and in a greater degree than other men.
Opinion, likewise, and the phantasy, are said thus to energize when
they discover arts, and accomplish admirable works, such, for
instance, as Phidias effected in the formation of statues, and another
in another art, as also Homer says[157] of him who made the belt of
Hercules, ‘that he neither did nor would artificially produce such
another.’ Anger, likewise, is said to energize enthusiastically, when in
battle it energizes supernaturally.
Like Mars, when brandishing his spear, he raged.[158]

But if some one, yielding to desire, should eat of that which reason
forbids, and through this should unexpectedly become well, you may
say that desire also, in this instance, energized enthusiastically,
though obscurely; so that enthusiasm is likewise produced about the
other parts of the soul. Enthusiasm, however, properly so called, is
when this one of the soul, which is above intellect, is excited to the
Gods, and is from thence inspired. But at different times it is
possessed about the aptitudes of itself, by different Gods; and is
more or less possessed when intellect or dianoia is that which is
moved. As, therefore, when we inquire what philosophy is, we do not
always accurately define it, but frequently, from an improper use of
the word, call mathematics or physics philosophy and science; we do
the like also with respect to enthusiasm. For though it should be the
phantasy which is excited, we are accustomed to call the excitation
enthusiasm. Moreover, those who ascribe enthusiasm to the
temperatures of bodies, or the excellent temperament of the air, or
the ascendency of exhalations, or the aptitudes of times and places,
or the agency of the bodies that revolve in the heavens, speak rather
of the cooperating and material causes of the thing than of the causes
of it properly so called. You have, therefore, for the producing cause
of enthusiasm, the Gods; for the material cause, the enthusiastically
energizing soul itself, or the external symbols; for the formal cause,
the inspiration of the Gods about the one of the soul; and for the final
cause, good.
“If, however, the Gods always wish the soul what is good, why does
not the soul always energize enthusiastically? May we not say, that
the Gods indeed always wish the soul what is good, but they are also
willing that the order of the universe should prevail, and that the
soul, through many causes, is not always adapted to enthusiasm, on
which account it does not always enthusiastically energize? But some
say that the telestic art extends as far as to the sublunary region. If,
therefore, they mean that no one of the superlunary and celestial
natures energizes in the sublunary region, they evidently assert what
is absurd. But if they mean that the Telestæ, or mystic operators, are
not able to energize above the lunar sphere, we say, that if all the
allotments of souls are sublunary, their assertion will be true; but if
there are also allotments of souls above the moon, as there are (for
some are the attendants of the sun, others of the moon, and others of
Saturn, since the Demiurgus disseminated some of them into the
earth, others into the moon, and others elsewhere), this being the
case, it will be possible for the soul to energize above the moon. For
what the whole order of things impacts to the soul for a very
extended period of time, this the soul is also able to impart to itself
for a short space of time, when assisted by the Gods through the
telestic art. For the soul can never energize above its own allotment,
but can energize to the extent of it. Thus, for instance, if the
allotment of the soul was as far as to philosophy, the soul would be
able, though it should not choose a philosophic but some other life,
to energize in that life somewhat philosophically. There are also said
to be certain supermundane souls. And thus we have shown how the
soul energizes enthusiastically.
But how are statues said to have an enthusiastic energy? May we
not say, that a statue being inanimate, does not itself energize about
divinity, but the telestic art, purifying the matter of which the statue
consists, and placing round it certain characters and symbols, in the
first place renders it, through these means, animated, and causes it
to receive a certain life from the world; and, in the next place, after
this, it prepares the statue to be illuminated by a divine nature,
through which it always delivers oracles, as long as it is properly
adapted. For the statue, when it has been rendered perfect by the
telestic art, remains afterwards [endued with a prophetic power] till
it becomes entirely unadapted to divine illumination; but he who
receives the inspiring influence of the Gods receives it only at certain
times, and not always. But the cause of this is, that the soul, when
filled with deity, energizes about it. Hence, in consequence of
energizing above its own power, it becomes weary. For it would be a
God, and similar to the souls of the stars, if it did not become weary.
But the statue, conformably to its participations, remains
illuminated. Hence the inaptitude of it entirely proceeds into
privation, unless it is again, de novo, perfected and animated by the
mystic operator. We have sufficiently shown, therefore, that
enthusiasm, properly so called, is effected about the one of the soul,
and that it is an illumination of divinity.
“In the next place, let us discuss the order and the use of the four
manias, and show why the philosopher makes mention of these
alone. Is it because there are no other than these, or because these
were sufficient for his purpose? That there are, therefore, many other
divine inspirations and manias Plato himself indicates as he
proceeds, and prior to this, he makes mention of the inspiration from
the Nymphs. But there are also inspirations from Pan, from the
mother of the Gods, and from the Corybantes, which are elsewhere
mentioned by Plato. Here, however, he alone delivers these four
manias; in the first place, because these alone are sufficient to the
soul, in the attainment of its proper apocatastasis, as we shall
afterwards show; and in the next place, because he delivers the
proximate steps of ascent to the soul. For the gifts of the Gods to all
beings are many and incomprehensible. But now he delivers to us the
energies of the Gods which are extended to souls. He delivers,
however, these four manias, not as if one of them was not sufficient,
and especially the amatory, to lead back the soul to its pristine
felicity; but at present the series and regular gradation of them, and
the orderly perfection of the soul, are unfolded. As, therefore, it is
possible for the tyrannic life, when suddenly changed, to become
aristocratic, through employing strenuous promptitude and a divine
allotment, but the gradual ascent is from a tyrannic to a democratic,
and from this to an oligarchic life, afterwards to a timocratic, and at
last to an aristocratic life, but the descent and lapse are vice versa;
thus also here, the soul being about to ascend, and be restored to its
former felicity, is in the first place possessed with the musical mania,
afterwards with the telestic, then with the prophetic, and, in the last
place, with the amatory mania. These inspirations, however;
conspire with, and are in want of, each other; so abundant is their
communion. For the telestic requires the prophetic[159] mania; since
the latter[160] interprets many things pertaining to the former. And
again, the prophetic requires the telestic mania. For the telestic
mania perfects and establishes oracular predictions. Farther still, the
prophetic uses the poetic and musical mania. For prophets, as I may
say, always speak in verse. And again, the musical uses the prophetic
mania spontaneously, as Plato says. But what occasion is there to
speak about the amatory and musical manias? For nearly the same
persons exercise both these, as, for instance, Sappho, Anacreon, and
the like, in consequence of these not being able to subsist without
each other. But it is very evident that the amatory mania contributes
to all these, since it is subservient to enthusiasm of every kind: for no
enthusiasm can be effected without amatory inspiration. And you
may see how Orpheus appears to have applied himself to all these, as
being in want of, and adhering to, each other. For we learn that he
was most telestic, and most prophetic, and was excited by Apollo;
and besides this, that he was most poetic, on which account he is said
to have been the son of Calliope. He was likewise most amatory, as
he himself acknowledges to Musæus, extending to him divine goods,
and rendering him perfect. Hence he appears to have been possessed
with all the manias, and this by a necessary consequence. For there is
an abundant union, conspiration, and alliance with each other, of the
Gods who preside over these manias, viz. of the Muses, Bacchus,
Apollo, and Love.
“It remains, therefore, that we should unfold the nature of each of
the manias, previously observing that those which are internal, and
originate from the soul itself, and give perfection to it, are of one
kind; but the external energies of them, and which preserve the
outward man, and our nature, are of another. The four external,
however, are analogous to the four internal manias. Let us consider,
therefore, in the first place, the internal, and which alone originate
from the soul itself, and let us see what they effect in the soul. In
order, likewise, that this may become manifest, and also their
arrangement, let us survey from on high, the descent, as Plato says,
and defluxion of the wings of the soul. From the beginning,
therefore, and at first, the soul was united to the Gods, and its unity
to their one. But afterwards the soul departing from this divine union
descended into intellect, and no longer possessed real beings
unitedly, and in one, but apprehended and surveyed them by simple
projections, and, as it were, contacts of its intellect. In the next place,
departing from intellect, and descending into reasoning and dianoia,
it no longer apprehended real beings by simple intuitions, but
syllogistically and transitively, proceeding from one thing to another,
from propositions to conclusions. Afterwards, abandoning true
reasoning, and the dissolving peculiarity, it descended into
generation, and became filled with much irrationality and
perturbation. It is necessary, therefore, that it should recur to its
proper principles and again return to the place from whence it came.
To this ascent and apocatastasis, however, these four manias
contribute. And the musical mania, indeed, leads to symphony and
harmony, the agitated and disturbed nature of the parts of the soul,
which were hurried away to indefiniteness and inaptitude, and were
filled with abundant tumult. But the telestic mania causes the soul to
be perfect and entire, and prepares it to energize intellectually. For
the musical mania alone harmonizes and represses the parts of the
soul; but the telestic causes the whole of it to energize, and prepares
it to become entire, so that the intellectual part of it may energize.
For the soul, by descending into the realms of generation, resembles
a thing broken and relaxed. And the circle of the same, or the
intellectual part of it, is fettered; but the circle of the different, or the
doxastic part, sustains many fractures and turnings. Hence, the soul
energizes partially, and not according to the whole of itself. The
Dionysiacal inspiration, therefore, after the parts of the soul are
coharmonized, renders it perfect, and causes it to energize according
to the whole of itself, and to live intellectually. But the Apolloniacal
mania converts and coexcites all the multiplied powers, and the
whole of the soul, to the one of it. Hence Apollo is denominated as
elevating the soul from multitude to the one. And the remaining
mania, the amatory, receiving the soul united, conjoins this one of
the soul to the Gods, and to intelligible beauty. As the givers,
therefore, of these manias are transcendently united, and are in each
other, the gifts also on this account participate of, and communicate
with, each other, and the recipient, which is the soul, possesses an
adaptation to all the gifts. This, therefore, is the order, and these are
the energies and powers within the soul itself, of these four manias.
“But let us also consider their external energies on man, and what
they outwardly effect about us. The musical mania, therefore, causes
us to speak in verse, and to act and be moved rythmically, and to sing
in metre, the splendid deeds of divine men, and their virtues and
pursuits; and, through these, to discipline our life, in the same
manner as the inward manias coharmonize our soul. But the telestic
mania, expelling every thing foreign, contaminating, and noxious,
preserves our life perfect and innoxious, and banishing an insane
and diabolical phantasy, causes us to be sane, entire, and perfect, just
as the internal telestic mania makes the soul to be perfect and entire.
Again, the prophetic mania contracts into one the extension and
infinity of time, and sees, as in one present now, all things, the past,
the future, and the existing time. Hence it predicts what will be,
which it sees as present to itself. It causes us, therefore, to pass
through life in an irreprehensible manner; just as the internal
prophetic mania contracts and elevates all the multiplied and many
powers and lives of the soul to the one, in order that it may in a
greater degree be preserved and connected. But the amatory mania
converts young persons to us, and causes them to become our
friends, being instructive of youth, and leading them from sensible
beauty to our psychical beauty, and from this sending them to
intelligible beauty; in the same manner as the internal amatory
mania conjoins the one of the soul to the Gods.
“All the above mentioned manias, therefore, are superior to the
prudent and temperate energies of the soul. Nevertheless, there is a
mania which is coordinate with temperance, and which we say has in
a certain respect a prerogative above[161] it. For certain inspirations
are produced, according to the middle and also according to the
doxastic reasons of the soul, conformably to which artists effect
certain things, and discover theorems beyond expectation, as
Asclepius, for instance, in medicine, and Hercules in the practic[162]
life.”
Afterwards, in commenting on what Plato says of the mania from
the Muses, viz. “that it adorns the infinite deeds of the ancients,”
Hermeas observes, “that the inward energy in the soul of the poetic
mania, by applying itself to superior and intelligible natures, imparts
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