LECTURE THREE

FUNCTIONS

Lecture Outline

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Preliminary Concepts
3.4 Meaning of a Function
3.5 Types of functions and Sketches of their graphs
3.4.1 Constant Functions
3.4.2 Polynomial Functions
3.4.3 Linear Functions
3.4.4 Quadratic Functions
3.4.5 Cubic Functions
3.4.6 Multivariate Functions
3.4.7 Step Functions
3.6 Characteristics of Linear functions
3.7 Application of Linear Functions
3.8 Summary
3.9 References

3.1 Introduction

Welcome in this lecture three of Mathematics. In this lecture we are going to introduce
ourselves to preliminary concepts that are key in understanding functions. Functions are
important for they describe relationships using mathematical models. We shall also
familiarize ourselves with the common types of functions and their properties. Finally,
we will end the lecture by looking at some of the application of the linear function.
.

3.2 Objectives

By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

1. Describe key concepts necessary in understanding functions
2. Define a function
3. Describe various types of functions
4. Sketch a graph of a linear function
5. Fit a linear function to a given a set of data
6. Describe the characteristics of a linear function
7. Apply linear functions in solving real life situation problem
3.3 Preliminary Concepts

Before we embark on defining a function let us first introduce ourselves to certain

preliminary ideas that necessary to understand beforehand.

1. A Constant: this is a quantity that remains unchanged throughout a particular

analysis. e.g. the number of cows producing milk in a certain farm for a particular
period.
2. A Variable: this is a quantity that takes different values in a particular analysis in
a particular period. e.g. the quantity of milk produced by a fixed number of cows
in a particular period or the quantity of feed given to fixed number of cows in a
certain period.

3.3.1 Types of Variables

We shall see that in a model that describes a relationship there are two types of variables.
Independent variable: this is the variable that determines the quantity of another
variable, the dependent variable.
Dependent variable: this is the variable that is determined by the independent variable.
For a given number of cows the quantity of milk produced may depend on the amount of
feed given. In this scenario the quantity of milk is the dependent variable, the amount of
feed the independent variable.

3.4 Meaning of a Function

A function is a rule that associates each element of one set of numbers to a single
element of another set of numbers. For example, a function might describe the
relationship between
 The number of units of a product a firm sells and its profits.
 The size of a city’s population and the amount of pollution in its air.
 A society’s intake of cholesterol and its incidence of heart disease.
As these examples suggest, functions are often used to model practical situations. That is
why so we must be able to analyze them.
Functions are often denoted by the letters f , g , or h and specified by a defining
equation in functional notation. For example, the equation f ( x)  3 x  2 defines a
function f using functional notation. The letter x is the independent variable of f , and
the notation f (x) is read " f of x " . The numbers f (0), f (1) and f ( 2) are called the
functional values of f at 0, 1, and -2, respectively. Thus f (x) denotes the functional
value of f at x . Notice that a function f and functional value f (x) are not the same
thing, since f is a rule but f (x) is a number.

Example 3.1
Suppose it costs a firm C ( x)  x 2  5 x  100 shillings to produce x units of its product.
How much will it cost the firm to produce 20 units?
It will cost C (20)  20 2  5(20)  100 shillings.
 = 500 shillings

The set of values that the independent variable of a function is allowed to assume is
called the domain of the function.
The range o f a function is the set of all numbers produced by the function as its
independent variable takes on all values in its domain. Thus, if f is a function,
range of f  { y | y  f ( x) for some x in the domain of f }.
We will not always use functional notation to describe functions. Sometimes it is
convenient to define functions by equations involving the independent variable and a
dependent variable. For example, the equation y  3 x  2 specifies the dependent
variable y as a function of the dependent variable x .
1
x
Activity 3.1

Let g be the function defined by

1. what is the domain of g?
2. Find g(-3), g(-9), g(-1/2) and g(1/20)
3. Find g(c), g(c3 ), g(1/c) if c ≠ 0)
Consider the function defined by EXERCISE

x
Let g be the function defined by y 
x3
4. What is the domain of this function?
5. Find y when x = -3, x = 5, x = 4 and x = 0.
6. Find y when x = 3/2, x = -5/3.
7. Find x =1/b b ≠ 0, x = 3 x ≠ 3.
8. which of the following equations define y as a function of x?
x2 y 2
y = 2, 2x + y =6, x + 2y = 6, y =x2, y2 = x,   1, y  x ,
4 16
y x
9. The size of an animal population in year t is given by
210t  400
p (t )  .
t2
Here t = 0 represents the year 1988 and p(t) is the size of the
population in
thousands of individuals. Find the size of the population in the
given year.
(a) 1988 (t=0), (b) 1990 (c) 1994, (d) 2007.
10. the average score of a test on a mathematics course for first year
students taking agriculture over a ten year period is given by
m(t )  480  12t  t 2 , 0  t  10 .
Find the average score on the test at the stated time.
 (a) The beginning of the 10-year period.
(b) The middle f the period
(c) Two-thirds of the way through the period
(d) The end of the period

3.5 Types of Functions and Sketches of their Graphs

There are various types of function. We are only going to introduce ourselves to the
common function; the constant functions, the linear functions, the cubic functions, the
polynomial functions, the multivariate functions, exponential functions, logarithmic
functions and the step functions

3.5.1 Constant Functions

A constant function has the same value of the dependent variable irrespective of the
values of the independent variable. For example y  4  0 x is a constant function. In the
example of cows producing milk the number of cows can remain constant in a certain
period of time. A sketch of the constant function y  4  0 x is given in figure 1.

Fig. 3.1

3.5.2 Polynomial Functions

Any function of the form:

y  a  b1 x  b2 x 2  ...  bn x n ,
where
y = the dependent variable, x = the independent variable
a, b1 , b2 ,..., bn = the constants
is known as a polynomial function. n , which is the highest power of x , is known as the
degree of the polynomial.

3.5.3 Linear Function

A linear function is a polynomial function whose defining equation can be written in the
form
y  mx  b ,
where m and b are numbers.
When m  1 and b  2 for x taking values between 0 and 5 the sketch of the linear
function is as in figure 2.

Fig. 3.2

3.5.4 Quadratic Functions

A polynomial function whose defining equation is of the form y  ax 2  bx  c , where a,
b and c are numbers and a ≠ 0, is called a quadratic function. The graph of a quadratic
functions called a parabola; if a > 0 the parabola opens upward and if a < 0 it opens
downwards.
Figure 3 is a graph for the function y  2  x  2 x 2 , x taking values between 0 and 3.
 Fig. 3.3

3.5.5 Cubic Functions

A polynomial whose defined equation is of the form y  a  b1 x  b2 x 2  b3 x 3 is called a

cubic function. The graph of the cubic function y  1  2 x  0.5 x 2  0.1x 3 x taking values
between 0 and 3 is given in figure 4.

Figure 3.4

3.5.6 Multivariate Functions

These are functions with more than one independent variable. For example we may have
a function
y  a  bx  cz where a, b and c are constants and x and z are variables. Such a function
is called a bivariate function. We shall not attempt to graph such a function as is a three
dimension diagram which is not easy to figure out.
3.5.7 Continuous and Discrete Functions

A continuous function is one in which the values of the dependent variable are defined
for all the values of the independent variable in a certain domain in the real number line.
So far the functions we have illustrated above are continuous function.
For a discrete function the dependent variable is defined for values of the independent
variable that are not in the real number line. For example the function y  a  bx where
y the household expenditure pert month and x is the household size is a discrete
function. The household size can be 1, 2, 3, ….

Fig. 3.5 Graph of a Discrete Function

Note that the points are not joined by a line as there are no values in between the x values.

3.5.8 Step Functions

These are functions in which the dependent variable takes a constant value for certain
intervals in the domain of the independent variables. For example we may have the
following step function:

Production level (Units) Fixed cost (Ksh)

1-100 1000
101-1000 3000
1001-3000 4000
More than 3000 5000

A graph of the above step function is given in figure 6.

Fig. 3.6

Activity 3.2

Graph the following functions:

1. f(x) =3x 2. f(x) = 2x-6 3. f(x) = 10 4. f(x) = 2 + x2

5. f(x) = 1+2x3 6. f(x) = 1 + x – 2x2 + 0.2x3

1 x  2 x 0  x  2
7. f ( x)   8. f ( x)  
3 x  2 5 x2
9. The Physician’s Desk Reference gives the following dosage schedule
for an oral suspension of erythromycin:

Body Weight (kg) Dosage (mg/day)

(0, 10) 15
[10, 15) 200
[15, 25) 400
[25, 50) 800
[50, 100) 1200
[100, +∞) 1600

Let d(x) be the dosage for a patient whose weight is x kg.

(a) graph the function d.
(b) Can you find an equation (or a set of equations) that
explicitly defines d as a function?

10. A retailer can sell y shirts at p shillings each, where

 y = 2280 – 40p. What price must the retailer charge if the revenue
from the sale of the shirts is to be 31,280shillings?

3.6 The Characteristics of Linear functions

We have already introduced ourselves to the linear function

y  a  bx
where
a = is the y-intercept, the value that y takes when x = 0
and
b = the slope or gradient, the change in y per unit change in x.
Figure 7 gives the sketches of linear functions.

y y

b<0
the slope is b>0
negative the slope is
positive

x x

y
y
Slope
b=0 undefined
(infinite)

x x
Fig. 3.7
A linear function has three main properties/characteristics which are as follows:
1. It has only one solution (root) i.e. it can cross the x-axis only once. Let us
consider the general linear function
y  a  bx
when
a
y=0 x
b
2. It has no turning (stationary/critical) point.
3. It is completely specified/defined once
 Two points on the line are known or
 One point and the slope are given

3.7 Application of Linear Functions

Linear functions can be used to model many practical situations. For us to appreciate the
importance of linear functions we illustrate with practical examples of their use. We give
four examples: a revenue function, supply function, demand function and an example on
the application of the two functions that is the supply and demand functions. Let us look
at each of this application one by one.

3.7.1 Revenue Function

A linear revenue function has the dependent variable as the revenue and the independent
variable as the quantity of a product sold. In general it can be presented as
E = a +bQ
Let us look at an example to illustrate this.

Example 3. 2: The Revenue Function

Let us assume that the total daily earnings (shs) is linearly related to the quantity of ice
cream sold in a day. Let
E = total daily earnings
Q = Total quantity of ice cream sold in a day
And let the general linear equation be

E = a + bQ

Suppose we are given the two points (Q, E) =(10, 600) and (Q, E) = (20, 700)
This leads to two equations
1. 600  a  10b

2. 700  a  20b
We eliminate a by subtracting equation. 2 from equation 1 ending up with the equation
 100  10b .
Therefore
b  10
Substituting this value in equation 1 we have
 600  a  10(10)
600  a  100 .
Hence
a  500
Thus the required equation is

E  500  10Q

This equation is loaded with the following information:

1. fixed earning = sh. 500
2. earning per any one extra unit ice cream sold = sh. 10

3. if the salesman sells 30 units his earnings shall be

E  500  10(30)  800
4. if the salesman earns sh. 3500 the quantity of units of ice cream sold is
3500  500  10Q
3000  10Q
Thus
Q  300 units

Example 3.3: Supply Function

1. Let us have a general function P  a  bQ where P = price, Q = quantity. Suppose

you are given two equations
(1) 7500  a  1000b
(2) 4625  a  750b
Solving for the constants a and b you proceed as follows:
Combine equation 1 and 2 by subtracting
(1)-(2)
Leading to
2875  250b
with
b  11.5
Substituting this value in equation (1) you get
7500  a  1000(11 .5)
7500  a  11500
Therefore
a  4000
The desired general equation is
P  4000  11 .5Q
This is a supply function as the slope b is positive.

Example 3.4: Demand Function

Let us have equation

 P  a  bQ with two general equations
(1) 2525  a  100b
(2) 1525  a  200b
Combing the two equations
(1)-(2) you get
1000  100b .
Therefore
b  100
Substituting this value in equation (1)
2525  a  100(10)
2525  a  1000
Thus
a  3525
The general equation is
P  3525  10Q
This is a demand function as the slope b is negative.

Example 3.5: Market Equilibrium Point

The point at which the two functions P  4000  11 .5Q and P  3525  10Q meet or
intersect is known asDemand
the Market equilibrium. This is the point where demand equals
and supply for a commod supply
Pe  3525  10Q
Pe  3525  10(350)
Pe  3525  3500
Pe  Sh. 25
At the market equilibrium

Demand function = supply function

Thus
3525  10Q  4000  11 .5Q
7525  21.5Q
With
Qe  350 units
The price at equilibrium

The equilibrium point is

(Qe , Pe )  (350, 25)
Activity
Exercise 3

1. Let F be temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, and let C temperature

in degrees Celsius. When F = 32, C = 0; when F = 212, C = 100.
the relation between the two temperature scales is linear. Find an
equation that relates F to C.

2. If there were 20 million tons of ozone layer in 1987 and the

amount of ozone is decreasing at a rate of 1.25 million tons per
year, find a equation that describes the amount of ozone present
as a function of time.
(a) How much ozone will be present in 1996?
(b) How long will it take until 75% of the ozone is gone?

3. The concentration of chemical accidentally spilled into a river is

decreasing at a constant rate and was 600ppm one month after the
spill and 510ppm three months after the spill.
(a) Find a function that describes the concentration of the
chemical t months after the spill.
(b) What was the initial concentration of the chemical?
(c) How long will it take until all traces of the chemical are
gone

4. A pediatrician studying babies finds that, on average, newborns

are 53 cm tall and grow at a rate of 2.1 cm per month until the age
of 9 months. Find
(a) a function that describes the relationship between average
height and age in months
(b) the average height of babies at age 4.5 months
(c) the number of months required for the average height to
reach 6 cm

5. If 63.5% of the population of a developing nation was literate in

1980 and 65.8% was literate in 1985. If literacy has been
increasing in a linearly, find:
(a) an equation that describes literacy as a function of time
(b) the percentage of the population that will be literate in
1990
(c) when 90% of the population be literate
3.8 Summary

In this lecture we have seen that:

 functions are important as they are used to model the real
world.
 The concepts of the constant, the independent variable and the
dependent variable are key in describing functions.
 linear functions are polynomials of degree one.
 the linear functions have the following three properties (1)
they have only one solution, (2) they have no turning point (3)
they are completely specified one two points on the line are
known or one point and the slope are given
 they are, for example, applicable in solving problems of
supply and demand

3.8 References

BRIEF CALCULUS
for
Management and the Life and Social Science
Second Edition
Donald L. Stancl and Mildred L. Stancl