UNIT 2: THE DRYLANDS

Drylands cover 41.3% of the earth’s land surface, including 15% of Latin America, 66% of Africa,
40% of Asia and 24% of Europe. Worldwide there is a significantly greater proportion of drylands
in developing countries (72%). The drylands are the areas of undependable rainfall in which the
average precipitation is deficient in relation to water requirements of crops. According to United
Nations Environment Program (UNEP), drylands are defined as those lands that have a
precipitation (P) over potential evapotranspiration (PET) ratio of less than 0.65 (this ratio is
referred to as aridity index).
Categories of drylands of the world
Drylands are classified based on the aridity index; semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas (0.50 to
0.65).
i. The hyper arid zones (ratio less than 0.05) has low annual rainfall of less than 100 mm. it
has sparse annual and perennial vegetation and scattered shrubs where true nomadic
pastoralism is practiced.
ii. In the arid zones (0.05 to 0.20), pastoralism and little farming is practiced, except where
irrigation is possible. Vegetation typically is sparse, comprised of annual and perennial
grasses, other herbaceous plants, shrubs, and small trees. Rainfall variability is high; with
annual amounts ranging between 100 and 300mm.
iii. Semiarid zones (0.20 to 0.50) often can support rainfed and sustained levels of agricultural
production. Sedentary livestock production occurs. Annual rainfall varies from 300 to 800
mm, depending upon the relative occurrences of summer and winter rains.
iv. Dry sub-humid areas have wetter conditions; crops are grown and have higher population
densities.

Although the drylands of a great number of countries are vast empty areas and its contribution to
food production is minimal, it has the potential to make substantial contributions to the economies
of the countries involved when modern technology is wisely and prudently applied. In recent years,
the dangers inherent in the accelerating degradation of drylands, pollution of the environment and
the impending food shortage as population continues to increase explosively, has directed the

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attention of international and other agricultural bodies to the dire need for preserving and
developing more effectively the agricultural potential of the drylands.
2. Categories of dryland agriculture
Depending on the amount of rainfall received Dry land agriculture can be classified into three
categories:
- Dry Farming: amount of rainfall received is less than 750 mm. These are arid regions with
growing period of 75 days.
- Dryland farming: amount of rainfall received is more than 750 mm per annum. These are
semi-arid tract with growing period of 75 to120 days. Crop failure is relatively less.
- Rainfed farming: Amount of rainfall is more than 1150 mm. These are humid regions and
growing period is more than 120 days.

Crop production constraints in dryland areas

Climatic constraints
Climate change is expected to have a negative impact on crop production, which affects the
livelihoods of most of the poor in the drylands.
- Amount of rainfall is low and highly variable in both time and space
- High temperature (heat stress) and low relative humidity, leading to high
evapotranspiration rates and moisture stress
- Therefore there are long dry spells that are becoming more frequent and severe

Edaphic constraints
- Soils are thin and subject to erosion
- Soils have low water holding capacity of soils because of low rainfall, shallow depth and
low organic matter
- Most Soils are of low organic matter (less than 1%)- caused by high temperature that
encourages decomposition and low external organic inputs
- Low soil fertility is common particularly N and P and micronutrients such as Zn. Attributed
to soil erosion, low organic matter
- Hard surface soil layers in red soils- affect crop emergence and overall plant population

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Poor agronomic practices
- Field operations (e.g. ploughing, harrowing, owing, weeding by cultivation) often done
along the slope which encourage run off
- Broadcasting which leads to uneven emergence and therefore uneven crop stand. It is also
not a good strategy for dealing with moisture stress
- Little use of organic fertilizers e.g. manure
- Ineffective weeding
- Poor storage and postharvest pest management
- Poor choice of varieties
- Poor management of insects and Diseases
- Heavy weed infestation which grow faster than crop plants and have higher water
requirements. The weeds therefore cause severe water stress to crop plants.
Socio-economic constraints:
- Farmers economically weak
- Poor access to inputs and markets
- Lack of credit due to the risk caused
- Poor agricultural extension service

Managing moisture stress

1. Crops adapted to water stress conditions
- Crops that are adapted to water stress by escaping or by being drought resistant.
Drought escaping crops mature before the soil dries. Varieties of crops that mature
within within 60 days after planting would be suitable for drylands e.g. Short duration
pulses like cowpea, beans, green grams, sorghum and maize
 Food crops/varieties adapted to drought may have the following characteristics:
- Capacity to remobilize carbohydrates stored in the stem/shoot to the grain under water
stress
- Deep rooted (can ensure water uptake under drought stress)
- Capacity for stomatal adjustments to reduce transpiration
- Early flowering to avoid late season stress
- Short anthesis to silking interval e.g. in maize to avoid sterility

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 - Adoption of deep rooted perennial tree crops

2. Plant Population
- Wider spacing (low plant population) is recommended in dryland areas
- Rectangular type of planting recommended (broadcasting is discouraged)
- Can skip one or two rows of plants e.g. maize
3. Mid-season strategic interventions
- In case of prolonged dry spells thinning (removing some plant rows) to reduce competition
for moisture stress
- Nurture ratoon crop if the rains resume e.g. sorghum, pigeonpea, cotton

4. Mulching
- Mulching is a practice of spreading any covering material on soil surface to reduce soil
evaporation losses. It prolongs moisture availability in the soil and save the crop during
drought conditions.
- There are many types of mulches e.g. straw and stubble mulch, soil or dust mulch,
plastic, live mulch and vertical mulch
5. Weed management
- Weeds have higher requirement for water than crops hence can increase moisture stress to
crops. Recommended to control weeds early in the crop’s phonological development
6. Water harvesting:
- Run-off water collected during peak periods of rainfall and stored in pans, dams, furrows,
etc. and used in irrigation during dry periods
- Pit planting

Soil constraints:
Tillage
1. Tillage depth: depends on soil type, crop and time of tillage
- Deep tillage (25-30 cm) recommended for deep heavy clay soils to improve permeability
and to seal cracks formed while drying. In soils with hard pans, use rippers and sub-soilers

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 deep to break and ensure proper rooting and moisture storage. Good for deep rooted crops
like cotton. Deep tillage is not good for shallow, gravelly, light textured soils.
- Medium deep tillage (15-20 cm) depth is good for most soils and crops. Suitable for
medium deep soils, shallow rooted crops, soils with pan free horizon and for stubble
incorporation.
- Shallow tillage: up to 10 cm is followed in light textured soils, and shallow soils and in
soils highly susceptible to erosion. In soils prone for surface crusting, shallow surface
stirring or shallow harrowing is useful
- As depth of tillage increases, soil moisture storage from rainfall also increases from about
7-8 % with shallow tillage to 9-10% with medium deep tillage and 11-12% with deep
tillage.
2. Time of tillage
- Early tillage to enable sowing immediately after rainfall and before the soil dries up. Till
after harvest when there is residual soil moisture which can be retained in the lower layers.
This will reduce weed growth, better tilth, adequate soil moisture, and timely sowing.
3. Direction of tillage
- Plough across the slope or along the contour to conserve moisture. Furrows will reduce
run off, promote infiltration and improve moisture conservation
4. Intensity of tillage
- Shallow light textured soil: reduce frequency of tillage to prevent pulverizing the soil into
fine dust and causing soil erosion
- Heavy soils: leave land in rough and cloddy stage to allow for water storage
- Minimum tillage (confine tillage to seeding zone only)
- set line cultivation (fix seed row space and seeding done only in the seeding strip)
Forms of minimum tillage
- Row zone tillage: After the primary tillage with plough, the harrowing is done only in crop
row zone
- Plough plant tillage: After primary tillage special planter is used for pulverising the soil,
sowing the seed and covering the seed
- Wheel track planting: After primary tillage the tractors are used by their wheels, for
pulverisation, sowing and covering of seed.

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Soil erosion
Soil erosion leads loss of fertile top soil, rain water, nutrients, silting up of reservoirs, damage to
forests, reduction in soil depth, floods, adverse effect on public health, and loss of fertile land and
economic losses
Types of erosion:
a. Natural or normal erosion-geological erosion: is said to be in equilibrium with soil
forming process. It takes place under natural vegetative cover completely undisturbed
by biotic factors. This is very slow process.
b. Accelerated erosion : is due to disturbance in natural equilibrium by the activities of
man and animals through land mismanagement, destructing of forests over grazing
etc.,
- Water erosion occurs in stages identified as sheet erosion, rills, gullies, ravines, landslides
and stream bank erosion.
Soil conservation measures
Agronomic measures of soil conservation
Control of water erosion:
Aims to: maintain soil infiltration capacity, protect soil from rainfall, control surface runoff and
safely dispose surface runoff. The following practices are recommended:
- Deep ploughing or chiseling has been found effective in reducing erosion. Rough cloddy
surface is also effective in reducing erosion.
- Contour cultivation (Contour farming): Cultivation practices along the contour or across
the slope to block runoff and provide more time for water infiltration
- Cover crops e.g. cowpea, groundnut, sweet potato, and green gram reduce impact of rain
drop and prevent runoff.
- Strip cropping:
- Intercropping and crop rotation
- Mulching: Protects soil against direct impact of raindrop and reduce runoff.
- Use of Organic manures improve soil physical condition and increase crop canopy cover
- Increased soil aggregate stability using chemicals such as poly vinyl alcohol @ 480 kg/ha
(rate will depend on the type of soil) and bitumen which can increase water stable
aggregates and infiltration capacity of the soil.

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Physical Measures:
- In situ soil moisture conservation practices using e.g. ridges, furrows; tied ridging, bench
terracing - Vegetative barriers
Forestry Measures: Agroforestry
Agropastrological measures: Grass-legume pastures

Seeding practices
1. Establishment of optimum population
- Seed treatment to protection against pests and diseases, inoculation of bio-fertilizers and
inducing drought tolerance.
 Seed hardening :
Done to induce drought tolerance in emerging seedlings. It is the process soaking seeds
in chemical solution and drying to induce tolerance to drought. Soil moisture stress
immediately after sowing affects germination and establishment. Seed hardening
enables seedlings to survive this early moisture stress. During seed hardening, seeds
are subjected to partial hydration followed by dehydration before sowing. Seeds are
soaked for specified time in chemical solutions of prescribed concentration. Soaked
seeds are then dried in shade back to original moisture content. During soaking, seeds
imbibe water and germination process is started but not completed. The hardened seeds
are thus in a ready state for germination. When sown in moist soils, seeds germinate
immediately. Such early germination helps in seedling emergence before surface soil
dries up.
2. Sowing at optimum soil moisture
- An effective rainfall of 20-25 mm which can wet a depth of 10-15 cm is needed for sowing.
Moisture stress at or immediately after sowing adversely affects germination and
establishment of seedlings. To ensure adequate soil moisture at owing, sowing has to be
done as early as possible after soaking rainfall is received. Sowing methods and
implements play a crucial role in this regard.

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3. Time of sowing
Optimum time of sowing is indicated by adequate rainfall to wet seeding depth and
continuity of rainfall after sowing. The probable sowing time in a rainfed area is the week
which has a rainfall of not less than 20 mm with coefficient of variability less than 100%
and the probability of a wet week following wet week. Timely sowing ensures optimal
yield besides it may also help pest avoidance. In some regions, where heavy clay soils
dominate, sowing after rains is impossible due to high stickiness of soil. Here sowing is
done in dry soil, 2-3 weeks before the onset of the rains. Seeds will remain in soil and
germinate only on receipt of optimum rainfall.
4. Soil crusts hinder the emergence of seedlings. Recommended to adopt shallow and dense
sowing, mulching, harrow lightly after rain and plant on shallow furrows and on sides of ridges