Introduction to

CIVIL
ENGINEERING
Syllabus – Module4
 Course Outcome

• CO4
• Understand different building components and
building materials (K2)
Conventional Construction
Materials
 Bricks
 Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of
uniform size and then by drying and burning these blocks
 As bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly arranged & as
they are light in weight, no lifting appliance is required
 Bricks do not require dressing & the art of laying is so simple that
brickwork can be carried out even with the help of unskilled
labourers
 (i)Traditional bricks are those which have not been standardized in
size & the dimensions of traditional bricks vary from place to place
 (ii)Modular bricks confirm to the size laid down by Bureau of
Indian Standards – 19 x 9 x 9 cm
 With mortar thickness, known as nominal size of the modular
bricks - 20 x 10 x 10 cm
 Average weight of a brick is about 3 to 3.5kg
 Bricks contd

Constituents of good bricks

i. Alumina - 20-30%
• Absorbs water & imparts plasticity(quality of being easily shaped or
moulded) to the clay
• If excess, raw bricks will shrink during drying
ii. Silica - 50-60%
• Prevents from shrinkage, cracking & warping
• If excess, more brittle
iii. Lime <5%
• Enables the sand particles to melt during burning
iv. Oxide of Iron – 5-6%
• Help in the burning process & imparts red colour to bricks
v. Magnesia <2%
• Imparts yellow colour to bricks
 Bricks contd
Properties/Qualities of good bricks
 Bricks should be well-burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks &
with sharp & square edges
 Should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size
 Should give clear ringing sound when struck with each other
 When broken should show homogeneous & compact structure
 Should not absorb water more than 20% by weight for first class bricks and
22% for second class bricks, when soaked in cold water for 24 hours
 Should be hard, ie, when scratched with finger nail, no impression should
be there on bricks
 Should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about
1m
 Should have low thermal conductivity & should be sound proof
 Should not show any white or grey deposits of salts when immersed in
water and dried – efflorescence
 Should not have crushing strength below 5.5N/mm2
 Colour should be uniform & bright
 Bricks contd
• Uses of bricks
 Used for construction of walls, foundations of structures, etc
 Used in construction of bridges & dams
 Used in paving and road works
 Firebricks are used for furnaces, chimneys, etc
 Used for ornamental works
• Classification of bricks
1. Unburnt or sundried bricks
2. Burnt bricks
a. First class bricks
b. Second class bricks
c. Third class bricks
d. Fourth class bricks (overburnt bricks)
 Bricks contd
 Unburnt bricks are dried under sunlight & used for temporary and
cheap constructions

 First class bricks

• Machine moulded or table moulded & well burnt in kilns
• Rectangular shape with sharp edges & uniform size
• Free from cracks & crushing strength not less than 10.5N/mm2
• Water absorption not greater than 20%
• Used for superior quality works such as outer walls, facing works
 Second class bricks
• Ground moulded & burnt in kilns
• Rectangular shape with sharp edges but slight irregularities in the size
• Free from cracks & crushing strength not less than 7N/mm2
• Water absorption not greater than 22%
• Used for internal walls & should be plastered
 Bricks contd
 Third class bricks
• Ground moulded & may not have regular shape and size
• Slightly overburnt or underburnt
• produce dull sound when struck with each other
• Water absorption not greater than 24%
• Minimum crushing strength 3.5N/mm2
• Used for unimportant and temporary works
 Fourth class bricks
• Ground moulded & overburnt
• Irregular shape and size
• Dark and brittle
• Not used in normal construction works
• Used as aggregate in concrete & for flooring
 Bricks contd
Special type of bricks
i. Face bricks – having uniform colour, texture, size – used for face works,
sometimes contain some face design – garden walls, steps, exposed works
ii. Fire bricks – used for lining furnaces, fire places, etc where high temperature
is there and ordinary bricks get decomposed
iii. Glazed & coloured bricks – one surface glazed in colour – exterior surfaces
of walls in hospitals, dairies, where cleanliness is important
iv. Imitation bricks – made of cement & sand – construction of compound wall
v. Channel bricks – moulded to the shape of a gutter or a channel & are glazed
to prevent sediment deposition – used to function as drains
vi. Coping bricks – made to suit the thickness of walls on which coping is to be
provided
vii. Hollow bricks – or cavity bricks – light in weight – reduce the transmission
of heat
viii. Paving bricks – made from clay containing high % of iron – such bricks
resist the abrasive action of traffic – used for foot paths or garden walks
ix. Perforated bricks – contain cylindrical holes - light in weight – thermally
insulated
 Bricks contd
Special type of bricks contd
x. Cow nose bricks – used in the construction of brick pillars when smooth
corners are required
xi. Bull nose bricks – used where sharp corners of the wall are not required
xii. Hollow block bricks – made with 6mm coarse aggregates, cement and sand –
hollow spaces inside – compound wall construction
xiii. Solid block bricks– made with 6mm coarse aggregates, cement & sand –
construction of multi storied structures

Coping brick
Channel brick
 Bricks contd
Test on bricks
i. Absorption test
• To find out the amount of water absorbed by the brick
• Brick is taken and weighed
• Dipped in water for 16 hours, then it is taken out & weighed
• The increase in weight is expressed as percentage of water absorption
• Permissible value is 20%
ii. Crushing strength(Compressive strength) test
• Brick is placed in the compression testing machine(CTM)
• The load is applied till it breaks & maximum load is noted
• Compressive strength is obtained by dividing the load by area of the face of the
brick
• Minimum compressive strength is 5.5 N/mm2 ; For superior ones, 7 – 14
N/mm2
iii. Hardness test
• A scratch is made by finger nail – no impression should be there
 Bricks contd
iv. Presence of soluble salts
• Brick is immersed in water for 24 hours
• It is taken out and dry in shade
• If white deposits, then it shows the presence of soluble salts
v. Soundness test
• Two bricks knocked with each other, should not break and a clear ringing sound
should be produced
vi. Toughness test
• A brick is dropped flat from 1m height on a firm ground, should not break
vii. Shape and size
• Bricks should be of standard size & truly rectangular shape
• 20 bricks are randomly selected & stacked
• Length should be 3680 – 3920mm; Width – 1740 – 1860mm; Height - 1740 –
1860mm
viii. Structure
• If broken, it should be homogeneous, compact and free from holes and lumps
 Stones
 One of the popular building materials from the olden days, due to
their availability in abundance from the natural rocks
 The stones which are suitable for the construction of the structures
such as retaining walls, abutments, dams, roads, etc are known as
building stones
 Building stones should possess enough strength and durability
 Igneous rocks – Granite, Basalt
 Sedimentary rocks – Sand stone, Lime stone, Laterite
 Metamorphic rocks – Slate, Marble, Quartzite
 Stones contd

The main uses of stone as a building material are:

Used..
 As a principal material for foundation of civil engineering works,
and for the construction of walls, arches, abutments and dams
 In stone masonry; in places where it is naturally available
 As coarse aggregate in cement concrete (crushed form of rock)
 Sandstone which is beautifully patterned, but not so hard-wearing,
is used for garden walls and paths in landscaping
 Crushed rocks are used for road base paving
 To build wells
 Roof tile in the form of slates
 Limestone used for the manufacture of Portland Cement
 Marble is used in construction industry, for aesthetic purposes,
beautification & strength
 Stones contd
Qualities/Properties of good building stone:
 Should have minimum crushing strength of 100N/mm2
 Should preserve the colour uniformly for a long time
 Should be durable
 Should possess good fire resistance property
 Should not contain any soluble matter
 Should possess good facility for carving
 Should have compact structure free from cavity and cracks
 Should be well seasoned before use (6-12 months)
 Should possess good appearance
 Hardness should be greater than 17
 Percentage wear should be less than 3%
 Specific gravity should be greater than 2.7
 Toughness index should be greater than 19
 Water absorption should be less than 0.6
 Should possess better weathering qualities
 Stones contd
Types of building stones:
 Granite – hard & durable; high strength, good weathering qualities;
available in different colours; used for facing work, walls, piers, etc
 Laterite – enriched in iron & aluminium causes the red-brown colour;
used for masonry works
 Limestone – not suitable as building stone, but used as road aggregates &
also for the manufacture of cement
 Sandstone – available in many colours, light coloured is more durable;
used for steps, facing work, columns, etc
 Marble - available in many colours; ornamental stone; for flooring
 Basalt – heavier & darker than granite, but may contain cavities and pores
within them; used for rubble masonry, foundation works, etc
 Slate – smooth; used as roofing material, paving stone, insulating material
 Gneiss – looks like granite, but may rich in mica & useless as a building
stone; used for street paving rough stone masonry work
 Kankar – impure limestone; used as road metal
 Quartzite – dense & strong stone; used in rubble masonry & as aggregates
for concrete
 Stones contd

Tests to assess the quality:

 Acid test
• A sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is placed in a solution
of hydrochloric acid having strength of 1% and kept for 7 days
• The solution is agitated at intervals
• A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and keeps its surface
free from powder at the end of this period
 Attrition test
• Sample of stones of about 60 mm size, weighing 5 kg, are put in the
cylinders of Deval's attrition test machine, rotated for 5 hours at the
rate of 30 rpm
• The contents are taken out and sieved through a 1.50 mm IS sieve and
material which is retained on the sieve is weighed (eg: W)
loss in weight
• Percentage wear = x 100, ie, [(5-W)100/5]%
initial weight
 Stones contd
Tests to assess the quality: contd
 Crushing test
• The sample of stone is cut into cubes of size 40 mmx 40 mm x 40 mm;
placed in water for about 72 hours prior to test
• Load is applied axially on the cube in a compression testing machine
• The crushing strength is the maximum load at which the sample crushes
or fails divided by the area of the bearing face of the specimen
 Freezing and thawing test
• The specimen of stone is kept immersed in water for 24 hours
• It is then placed in a freezing mixture at -12°C for 24 hours
• It is then thawed or warmed at atmospheric temperature - should be done
in shade to prevent any effect due to wind, sun rays, rain, etc
• Such a procedure is repeated several times and behaviour of stone is
carefully observed
 Stones contd
Tests to assess the quality: contd
 Smith's test
• Few chips of stones are taken and placed in a glass tube; this tube is then
filled with clear water
• After about an hour, the tube is vigorously stirred or shaken
• If water remains clear, the stone will be durable and free from any
soluble matter
• If the water becomes dirty, it indicates that the stone contains too much of
soluble earthy and mineral matters
 Water absorption test
• From the given sample of stone, a cube weighing about 50 gm is prepared
and its actual weight is recorded
• The cube is then immersed in distilled water for a period of 24 hours
• The cube is taken out of water and surface water is wiped off with a damp
cloth and weighed again
•
 Cement
 It is a product obtained by burning a well-proportioned mixture of
siliceous, argillaceous and calcareous materials and crushing the same
into a fine powder
 A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens,
and adheres to other materials to bind them together
 The most common type of artificial cement – Ordinary Portland
Cement(OPC)
 It has cohesive & adhesive properties; & it solidifies when mixed with
water
 Ingredients – Lime - 60-67% -strength & sound(soundness is the ability of a
hardened paste to retain its volume after setting)
Silica -17-25% - strength
Alumina - 3-8% - quick setting
CaSO4 - 0.1-0.5% - increase initial setting time(gypsum)
Iron Oxide – 0.5-6%- colour&hardness
Magnesia - 0.1-4%- colour&hardness
Sulphur Trioxide – 1-2.75%- sound
 Cement contd
Setting of cement
 It is the reaction of cement with water
 When reacts with water, various chemical compounds
formed:
 Tricalcium silicate ----within a week
 Dicalcium silicate ----long term strength
 Tricalcium aluminate ---- within 24hours
 Tricalcium aluminoferrate----within 24hours
 The complex compounds are called Bogue’s compounds
 Setting time – Initial setting time & final setting time
 Initial setting time – time when water added to the cement
to the time when it starts losing its plasticity
 Final setting time – time when water added to the cement
to the time when it completely loses its plasticity
 Cement contd
Uses
 Used in the preparation of cement mortar, cement concrete
and reinforced cement concrete(RCC)
 Cement mortar is a binding material in brick and stone
masonries
 Cement mortar is used to cover the surfaces of masonry and
other structural members
 Cement mortar is used for pointing of brick and stone masonries
 Cement mortar is used for various type of floors & floor finishes
 Decorative and aesthetic works which use cement mortar
 Cement is used in the manufacture of pipes and posts
 Cement is used for RCC structures such as slab, columns,
foundations, water tanks, bridge, dams, railway sleepers,
foundations, etc
 Cement is used in the manufacture of cement products like
asbestos cement sheets, hollow blocks & concrete blocks
 Constructing precast structures
 Cement contd
Types of cement
i. Ordinary Portland Cement - It has cohesive & adhesive
properties; & it solidifies when mixed with water; used for
normal construction works
ii. Rapid Hardening Cement – develops strength rapidly; used
in prefabricated constructions, road repair works, situations
where the formwork is required to be removed early, in cold
weather climate
iii. Coloured Cement – obtained by adding pigments with OPC
or white cement; used for floor finishing works, plastering of
walls, decorative works, manufacture of tiles
iv. Hydrophobic Cement – water repelling agents are added to
protect the cement from the effect of moisture during storage
and transportation; used where watertight conditions are
predominant; manufactured under the trade name Aqua-crete
 Cement contd
Types of cement contd
v. Expansive Cement – OPC shrinks during setting and drying;
while expansive cement suffers hardly any change in volume during
drying; used for concrete repair works, cement grouting in prestress
concrete ducts
vi. Acid Resisting Cement – resists the attack of acids; used for the
construction of acid resisting floors in factories
vii. Quick Setting Cement – sets quickly; % of gypsum is reduced to
decrease the initial setting time of cement; used for under water
construction
viii. Sulphate Resisting Cement – OPC is easily attacked by
sulphates, as a result, cracks are formed; used for marine structures,
sewage treatment structures
ix. High Alumina Cement – can withstand high temperature; making
refractory concrete and furnace lining
x. White Cement – free from colouring agents; used for white
washing and plasterwork, floor finishing and pointing works, road
and bridge markings
 Cement contd
Types of cement contd
xi. Air Entraining Cement – air entraining agents are added; cement
is more plastic & workable
xii. Oil Well Cement – in oil wells, cement slurry is used to seal off the
space between steel casing & sides of the well; slurry is to be pumped
to very high depths; ordinary cement sets before it reaches in position;
oil well cement is made by adding retarders & it is used to fill the gap
xiii. Super Sulphate Cement – it has high resistance against chemical
attack especially by sulphate attack
xiv. Low Heat Portland Cement – this offers a better resistance
against chemical deterioration; used for mass concrete works such as
dams, retaining walls, etc
xv. Portland Pozzolana Cement – can resist attack by sea water better
than OPC; marine structures, hydraulic structures
xvi. Portland Slag Cement – reduced heat of hydration, resistance to
chemical attack
 Cement contd
Properties of cement(OPC)
i. The colour of cement should be uniform
ii. The cement should be free from lumps
iii. It should be cool, when felt with hand
iv. If a small quantity of cement is thrown into a bucket of water, it
should sink
v. Average compressive strength of cement mortar cube of side 7.06cm
should not be less than 16N/mm2 at 3days and 22N/mm2 at 7days
vi. Average tensile strength of cement mortar should not be less than
2N/mm2 at 3days and 2.5N/mm2 at 7days
vii. Initial setting time of cement should be less than 30minutes and final
setting time should be around 10hours
viii. Fineness of cement should be less than 10% in sieve test (90micron)
ix. Soundness of cement (ability of a hardened paste to retain its volume)
should be less than 10mm
 Cement contd

Tests on cement

Field tests or Onsite tests

i. The colour of cement should be uniform
ii. The cement should be free from lumps; such lumps are
formed due to the absorption of moisture
iii. It should be cool, when felt with hand
iv. If a small quantity of cement is thrown into a bucket of water,
it should sink
v. Strength – a thick paste of cement with water is made on a
piece of thick glass and is kept under water for 24 hours and
it should set and not crack
Lab tests
i. Fineness test
 Carried out to check proper grinding of cement - sieve test
 The cement weighing 100gm is taken and it is continuously sieved
for 15 minutes in IS sieve no.9 (90micron)
 The residue is weighed and should be less than 10% of original
weight
ii. Compressive strength test
 The cubes of size 7.06cm using mortar of 1:3 proportion of cement
and sand with water is prepared
 The mortar is placed in moulds and vibrated for 2 minutes
 After 24 hours the specimens are submerged in water for curing
 At the end of 3 days and 7 days the specimens are tested for its
compressive strength
 Cement contd
Lab tests contd
iii. Consistency test
 Used to determine the % of water required for preparing cement
pastes
 Take 300gm of cement and add 30% of water by weight of it
 Mix it thoroughly and fill in the moulds of Vicat apparatus
 A plunger of 10mm diameter is attached at the end of movable rod
and is gently lowered on the sample
 If the settlement of the plunger is between 5 to 7mm from the
bottom of the mould, the water added is correct
 The process is repeated with varying % of water till the desired
value is obtained
Tests contd
Lab tests contd
iv. Setting time test - initial and final setting times
 Used to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage
 Take 300gm of cement and add the % of water determined in
consistency test
 Mix it thoroughly and fill in the moulds of Vicat apparatus
 A square needle of 1mm x 1mm is attached at the end of movable
rod and is quickly released on the sample, for initial setting time
 The process is repeated until the settlement of the needle is 5mm
from the bottom of the mould
 Less than 30 minutes for ordinary cement
 The needle with annular collar is attached at the end of movable
rod and is gently released on the sample, for final setting time
 The time at which the needle makes an impression and the collar
fails to do so is noted
 The time should be 10 hours for ordinary cement
Lab tests contd
v. Tensile strength test

 Cement mortar in the ratio 1:3 is prepared and filled in 12 briquette

moulds
 Briquettes are removed from moulds after 24 hours and submerged
in water for curing
 6 briquettes each are tested in testing machine at the end of 3 days
and 7 days by loading at the rate of 35
 Failure load is noted and tensile strength is calculated by dividing
failure load by least cross sectional area (6.45 )
 Cement contd

Grades of cement-OPC

 Based on the compressive strength, OPC is available in three

grades: C33, C43 & C53
 33 means it has 28 day compressive strength equivalent to or more
than 33N/mm2
 compressive strength is obtained by testing a cube of side 7.06cm,
of cement mortar in the ratio 1:3, after 28 days of casting
 Aggregates
 The granular materials chemically inert such as natural
sand, gravel or crushed stones are called aggregates
 Used as filler materials in concrete & give more strength
to concrete
 Classified into two: fine aggregates & coarse aggregates
 As per IS 383:1963, fine aggregates are aggregates
which passes through 4.75mm IS sieve, ie, size less than
4.75mm & coarse aggregates are aggregates which
retained on 4.75mm IS sieve, ie, size greater than
4.75mm
 Aggregates
 Fineness modulus of an aggregate is an index number
which is roughly proportional to the average size of the
particles in the aggregate
 Fineness modulus is determined by sieve analysis
 Aggregates contd

 Grading of aggregates means the proportions of specified size of

aggregates distributed in the sample of aggregates, so that it is easy
to pack together; the smaller particles can occupy the voids between
the larger particles
 Sieve Analysis – determining the proportions of the particles in an
aggregate by sieving on various IS sieves, like 80mm, 40mm,
20mm, 10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600micron, 300micron,
150micron, 75micron
 In sieve analysis, a known weight of dry aggregates is sieved
through the set of IS sieves specified
 The sum of cumulative % of residue retained on each of IS
sieves(80mm to 150micron) divided by 100 is known as fineness
modulus
 Higher the fineness modulus, coarser the particle size
 The fineness modulus value for aggregates commonly ranges
• from 2.00 to 4.00 for fine aggregates
• from 6.50 to 8.00 for coarse aggregates
 Sand
 Sand – rounded to angular shaped; bulky; hard rock particle –
passing 4.75mm IS sieve but retained on 75micron IS sieve
 Three categories: coarse sand - 4.75mm to 2mm
medium sand - 2mm to 425micron
fine sand - 425micron to 75micron
 Sand is a fine aggregate which is used in mortars and in
concrete
 Two types: Natural sand & Crushed stone sand
 Natural sand – formed by natural disintegration of rocks &
deposited in the river bed
 Crushed stone sand – made by crushing of rocks
 Sand is available from the sources such as: River sand, Pit
sand & Sea sand
 Sand contd
Qualities of good sand
 It should be light grey in colour and free from silt
 It should be free from organic impurities
 It should not contain any harmful materials which may
affect the strength of concrete and steel reinforcement
 It should have coarse, angular, hard and sharp grains
 It should be free from hygroscopic salts
 It should be chemically inert
 It should be strong and durable
 Sand contd
Uses of sand
 Used in cement mortar and lime mortar for stone masonry
and brick masonry
 Sand acts as an adulterant, the bulk or volume of mortar or
concrete is increased which results in reduction of cost;
prevents excessive shrinkage of mortar; provides more
surface area for spreading and adhering of binding material
 Used in plain cement concrete, reinforced cement concrete,
precast concrete, pre-stressed concrete etc.
 Coarse sand used in masonry
 Fine sand used in plastering
 Sand serves as drainage material, hence used in filtration
plants, filling behind retaining walls, around foundation,
filling well foundation, filter to drain seepage water from
earthen dams
 Used below flooring material to provide level and hard
surface
 Sand contd
Tests on sand
 Presence of clay: Some quantity of sand is placed in a glass
of water and it is vigorously shaken and allowed to settle; if
clay is present, its distinct layer is formed at the top of sand
 The presence of organic impurities: The solution of sodium
hydroxide or caustic soda is added to sand and it is stirred; if
colour of solution changes to brown, it indicates the
presence of organic matter
 Presence of salts: The sand is actually tasted and from its
taste, the presence of salts is known
 Presence of earthy matter: The sand is taken from a heap and
it is rubbed against the fingers; if fingers are stained, it
indicates that the sand contains earthy matter
 Sieve Analysis: to find out the gradation of sand(procedure)
 Timber
 Oldest construction material
 Timber is the wood which is suitable for building or carpentry or
other engineering purposes
 The timber was used in the raw form in ancient days; but now it is
treated, preserved & used
 Timber is obtained from trees & trees are classified into two:
Exogenous trees & Endogenous trees
 Exogenous trees – grow outwards & increase in bulk by forming
concentric rings – used for engineering constructions –Teak, Sal, Pine
 Endogenous trees – grow inwards by depositing each fresh layer of
fibrous mass in longitudinal direction - Bamboo, Cane
 Conifers yield soft wood, light in weight
and weak – not used for construction
Deciduous trees yield hard wood, strong,
heavy, dark colour, durable – used for
construction
 Timber contd
 Seasoning of timber – when a tree is newly felled, it
contains about 50% or more of its own dry weight as
water, which is in the form of sap and moisture
 The water is to be removed before the timber can be
used for any engineering purpose
 The process of drying of timber is known as
seasoning of timber
 The moisture should be removed at a uniform rate
from all parts of the timber
 If the drying is irregular, the shrinkage of timber will
be irregular and due to this, the timber warps
 Timber contd
 Market forms of timber – available in the market as
• Batten – timber piece whose breadth & thickness not to exceed
50mm
• Baulk – roughly squared timber
• Board – thickness less than 50mm with parallel sides
• Deal - thickness varies from 50 - 100mm with parallel sides
• End – short piece of Batten
• Log – trunk of tree obtained after removing branches
• Plank – thickness less than 50mm & width exceeds 50mm with
parallel sides
• Pole – long log of wood
• Quartering – square piece of timber
• Scantling – pieces of miscellaneous sizes of timber sawn out of
a log
 Timber contd
 Industrial timber – scientifically prepared in a factory; possess
desired shape, appearance, strength, etc
• Veneers – thin sheets of wood, superior quality; thickness from 0.4 to
6mm
• Plywoods – boards prepared from veneers; 3 or more odd number of
veneers placed one above the other using adhesives
• Fibreboards – rigid boards; known as pressed wood; used as
partitions, flooring material, formwork for concrete
• Impreg timbers – timbers fully or partly covered with resin; not
affected by moisture; used for furniture, decorative articles
• Compreg timbers - same as impreg timbers, but strong & durable
 Timber contd

Indian Timber Trees

 Aini or Anjili - yellowish brown; close grained & strong; takes
polish; building construction, furniture
 Arjun - colour is dark brown, heavy and strong; takes polish; beams,
door frames, carts
 Babul – strong, hard, durable; takes good polish; bodies and wheels
of bullock carts, agricultural instruments
 Bakul – reddish brown; strong, hard, durable; building construction
 Bamboo – flexible, strong, durable; scaffolding, thatched roofs
 Deodar - yellowish brown; soft wood; cheap furniture, packing boxes
 Jack – colour yellow & it darkens with age; plain furniture, boat
construction, musical instruments
 Mahogany – shining reddish brown; takes good polish; furniture,
cabinet work, ornamental work
 Timber contd

Indian Timber Trees contd

 Palms – dark brown; fibrous; strong, durable; furniture, roof
covering
 Rosewood or Blackwood – dark; strong, handsome, takes good
polish; furniture of superior quality, ornamental work
 Satin wood - yellow; hard & durable; furniture and other
ornamental works
 Sandal – white or red; pleasant smell; agricultural instruments,
fancy goods, boxes
 Teak – deep yellow to dark brown; durable & fire resistant; takes
good polish; one of the most valuable timber trees; house
construction, ship building, furniture, use is limited to superior
quality work
 Timber contd

Qualities of a good Timber

 A freshly cut surface should exhibit hard and shining
appearance
 Colour should preferably be dark, the light colour indicates
timber with low strength
 Should be free from serious defects such as knots, shakes, etc
 Should be durable, capable of resisting the actions of fungi,
chemicals, insects, etc
 Elasticity is an essential property when timber is used for bows,
sport goods, etc
 Should have straight fibres
 Should have better fire resistance
 Should be hard
 Should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear
 Timber contd

Qualities of a good Timber contd

 A good timber should retain its shape during conversion or
seasoning
 A good timber should give out a clear ringing sound when struck
 A good timber should be strong for working as a structural
member
 The structure should be uniform
 A good timber should be tough enough to withstand shocks due to
vibrations
 A good timber should have low water permeability
 A good timber should be able to withstand the weathering effects
 The timber with heavy weight is considered to be strong
 The timber should be easily workable
 Timber contd

Uses of Timber

 Used for door and window frames, shutters of doors and

windows, roofing materials, etc
 Used for framework of cement concrete, centering, shuttering,
scaffolding, etc
 Used for making furniture, agricultural instruments, sport
goods, musical instruments, etc
 Used for making railway coach wagons
 Used for making toys, matches, etc
 Used for railway sleepers, packing cases, etc
 Used for temporary bridges and boat construction
 Timber contd
Tests on Timber
i. Moisture content test
• Take the timber specimen of size 5cm x 5cm x 2.4cm and weigh it
( )
• Oven-dry the specimen at a temperature of 103°C
• Take out the specimen when becomes dry and weigh again ( )
• Calculate percentage moisture content as x100
ii. Compressive strength test
• Take a specimen with a size of 5cm x 5cm x 20cm and place in the
compression testing machine
• Apply load parallel to the grains; gradually increase the load
• Note down the load at which the timber breaks
• Calculate the compressive strength of the specimen
• Compressive strength = Load at which the specimen breaks/ Total
area of the specimen
 Timber contd
Tests on Timber contd
iii. Tensile strength test
• Take a specimen with 5cm x 5cm cross sectional area and 20cm
length
• Place the specimen on the base plate of the instrument
• Apply load either parallel or perpendicular to the grains
• Mark the load at which the wood breaks
• Finally, calculate the tensile strength
• Tensile strength = Maximum load applied / Cross sectional area
 Cement concrete(CC)
 Mixture of cement, aggregates and water
Properties
 It has a high compressive strength
 It is free from corrosion
 It hardens with age and the process of hardening continues
for a long time
 It is more economical than steel
 It binds easily with steel so that steel reinforcement can be
placed in cement concrete at suitable places to form RCC
 It forms a hard surface
 The final strength & quality of CC depends upon the
ingredients used and local conditions
 It has a tendency to be porous; so proper grading and
water-cement ratio should be adopted
 Cement concrete contd
Grades of concrete
 As per IS 456: 2000 - M15, M20, M25, M30, M35, M40, M45
 Minimum grade for using as RCC is M20
 M stands for mix and the number specifies the
characteristic compressive strength of 15cm concrete
cube tested after 28 days in N/mm2
Uses
• Construction material; Mass concrete structures such as
dams, bridges, etc; Decorative work; Road work; Flooring;
Reinforced cement concrete; Pre cast concrete; Prestressed
concrete – Used in important engineering works where
strength and durability is of prime importance
 Cement concrete contd
Grade of Proportion
Concrete of Concrete Uses

M5 1:5:10 Mass concrete works for strong walls &

foundations
M7.5 1:4:8 Mass concrete works for strong walls &
foundations
M10 1:3:6 Retaining walls, flooring
M15 1:2:4 Plain Cement Concrete works
M20 1:1.5:3 General RCC works - beams, stairs, columns
M25 1:1:2 Water retaining structures, Piles, Precast work
M30 Design mix Heavily loaded RCC columns
M35 Design mix Pre stress concrete works
 Cement concrete contd
 Nominal mix – Mixes of fixed proportions like 1:2:4,
1:3:6, etc
 Design mix – Mixes can be designed to produce a desired
grade with desired strength
 Processes involved in concreting are:
Batching(measuring)
Mixing
Placing
Compacting
Curing
 Water-Cement Ratio– Amount of water/Amount of cement
 Water – causes setting & hardening process; makes it workable
 Minimum w/c ratio – 0.5 to 0.6 times the weight of cement
 Cement concrete contd

Properties of freshly prepared concrete

 Workability – The ease with which concrete can be
mixed, transported, placed & compacted; Workability
suitable for mass concrete work is not necessarily be
sufficient for thin sections
 Segregation – Separating out of the constituents of the
mix during transportation; If the mix is too wet, coarse
aggregates will settle at the bottom; Decreases density
& results in honeycombing & finally reduction in
strength
 Bleeding - Separation of water or mortar from freshly
prepared concrete; appearance of water along with
cement particles on the surface after compaction
 Cement concrete contd

Properties of hardened concrete

 Compressive strength
 Permeability - lesser the permeability, more the
durability
 Durability- extended service life
 Shrinkage - volume decrease of concrete
 Creep deformations - Deformation of a concrete
structure under sustained load
 Response to temperature variations
-thermal stresses will be developed
expansion joints
 Cement concrete contd

Test on freshly prepared concrete

 Workability by Slump test
 The test mould is a frustum of a cone, 20 cm diameter at bottom, 10
cm diameter at top and 30 cm in height
 The mould is open at top and bottom; It is placed on a flat, smooth
and non-porous plate
 The mould is filled up in four equal layers and each layer is
compacted twenty five times by 60 cm long and 16 mm diameter
bullet pointed steel rod
 Top surface is smoothened by trowel and the mould is vertically
lifted immediately without disturbing the concrete
 The concrete is allowed to settle slowly & When the settlement
ceases completely, the vertical settlement is measured in centimeters
 This is known as "slump” – the amount of subsidence
 Values of slump to be used for various works are:
(i) Plain concrete (Floor slab, etc.) - 25 mm to 40 mm
(ii) Reinforced concrete (Beam, slab etc.) - 50 mm to100 mm
(iii) Mass concrete - 25 mm to 50 mm
 Cement concrete contd

Slump test

 Limitations of slump test

• Not suitable for concrete containing aggregates larger than 40 mm
• Not suitable for concrete of dry mix
• Not suitable for very wet concrete
• Not reliable because slump may be of any shape
 Cement concrete contd
Test on hardened concrete
 Compressive strength test
 The ability of hardened concrete cube to resist the compression
loads applied on the surface - Compressive strength of concrete
 Procedure: Concrete is prepared, cubes are casted and cured for a
specific period, compressive strength is found out using CTM
 Prepare the concrete using adequate quantity of ingredients and a
proper water-cement ratio
 Pour concrete into mould (steel mould 150mm x 150mm x
150mm) by proper compaction with the help of a tamping rod;
Finish the top surface as smooth using a trowel
 Cover the mould with a gunny bag and place undisturbed for 24
hours at 27°C
 Remove the cube from the mould and immerse in water for 7 or
28 days based on the test
 Cement concrete contd
Compressive strength test contd
 Cube should be removed from water 30 minutes before the test
and it should be in dried condition
 Place the cube between the plates in the Compression Testing
Machine (CTM)
 Apply the load gradually till the specimen breaks and note down
the maximum load as the crushing value of cube
 Repeat the process on minimum three cubes and note the
average crushing value as the compression value of the selected
concrete batch
 Compression load divided by the surface area will give the
compressive strength of concrete
 Assume that the compression load is 375 kN; Cross sectional
area = 15cm x 15cm, then
 Compressive strength =
 Cement concrete contd
Compressive strength test

Compressive strength of different concrete grades is given below

Grade of cconcrete Mix Min. compressive strength (𝑁/𝑚𝑚 ) Characteristic compressive
proportion at 7 days strength (𝑁/𝑚𝑚 ) at 28 days

M15 1:2:4 10 15

M20 1:1.5:3 13.5 20

M25 1:1:2 17 25
 Cement concrete contd
Compressive strength test contd

The strength of concrete increases with age. The strength of

concrete at different ages in comparison with the strength at 28
days is shown below

Age Strength percent

1 day 16%

3 days 40%

7 days 65%

14 days 90%

28 days 99%
 Cement concrete contd
Types
i. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) :
• Concrete is weak in carrying tension & steel reinforcing bars are
incorporated in concrete to take up tension – called RCC
• Plain concrete is very strong in compression but very weak in
tension & steel is equally strong in compression & tension
• Concrete develops a very good bond with steel, so it transmits
the excessive stresses that it cannot resist itself to the steel
reinforcement
• Durable, fire resistant, impermeable to water & rigid
ii. Light weight concrete : When dead weight of the
structure is to be reduced, light weight aggregates are used
to make concrete
iii. No fines concrete : Only coarse aggregates are used;
saving of fine aggregates; all the benefits of light weight
concrete
 Cement concrete contd
iv. Fibre reinforced concrete : Along with the normal ingredients,
also consists of fibres in various forms to increase the properties
v. Pre-stressed concrete : Pretensioned wires are used in place of
reinforcing bars which will induce compressive stresses in concrete;
cracks can be reduced
vi. Air entrained concrete : Air entraining agents are introduced to
increase the workability; Air-entraining admixtures facilitate the
development of a system of microscopic air bubbles within concrete
during mixing
vii. Coloured concrete : By adding colouring pigments; ornamental
works & for special works
viii. Vacuum concrete : Ingredients are same as ordinary concrete, but
extra water is removed by vacuum method after laying the concrete
ix. Reactive powder concrete : Highly refined silica fume is added
to normal concrete to get advanced mechanical properties; used in
chemically aggressive environments
x. Pre-cast concrete : Factory made products like pipes, posts
 Cement concrete contd
Pre-stressed concrete :
 Concrete in which reinforcement provided with initial
compressive stress
 Reinforcement is given in the form of wires or tendons
 The steel wires are stretched initially to produce the desired
strength
 After the tendons are cut off from the
anchor posts, the tensioned tendons try
to shorten, thus induce the stresses to
the concrete & it is prestressed
 Less steel is used
 Self weight or dead load is less
 Development of cracks can be limited under working load
 Cement concrete contd

Pre-cast concrete :
 Factory made product eg : pipes, sleepers, posts, piles
 The moulds are prepared & reinforcement if any, is
placed
 The concrete is mixed & placed and cured well
 The products are then despatched for use at site of work
 The concrete of superior quality can be produced
 The work can be completed in a short time
 The precast structures can be easily dismantled
 But, if not properly handled, the units may be damaged
during transport
 Steel
 Most popular building material
 Alloy of Iron & Carbon; C varies from 0.25 – 1.5%
 C upto 0.25% - Mild steel
 C 0.25 – 0.75% - Medium Carbon steel
 C 0.75 – 1.25% - High Carbon steel or Tor steel or
Hard steel or HYSD(High Yield Strength Deformed)
Bars
 C >1.25% - Extra Hard steel
 Steel contd
MILD STEEL
Uses
 As mild steel is corrosion resistant and equally strong in
tension and compression--used in construction works
such as rolled steel sections like angle, channel, I, T
sections
 M.S. round bars are used as steel reinforcement
 M.S. sheets are used as roof coverings
 Used in the construction of railway and automobile
structures
 Used in the manufacture of various tools, machine parts
and equipments
 Steel contd
MILD STEEL
Properties
 Its structure is fibrous with a dark bluish colour
 It is tough and elastic
 It is malleable and ductile
 Permanent magnetization is possible
 It can be easily welded, riveted and forged
 Its specific gravity is 7.8
 It is equally strong in tension, compression and in shear
 It is difficult to harden and temper
 Steel contd

Uses
 Medium carbon steel- shafts, axles, gears, couplings
 Tor steel have ribs or projections on the surface and
used for buildings, bridges, foundations, etc
 Used for making compression springs, farming &
gardening equipments, high-wear applications and high
strength wires

 Using steel for structural beams and columns –

durable & cost-effective
 Using steel as metal roofs – long lasting
 Steel contd

Structural steel sections or Market forms of steel

 Angle section
 Channel section
 I section
 T section
 Flat section
 Steel plates
 Corrugated sheets
 Round bars
 Square bars
Steel contd
 Steel contd

Types of steel reinforcement

 The steel bars used in reinforced cement concrete are called
reinforcing bars or rebars
 Two types: (i) Plain steel bars &
(ii) Tor steel or HYSD(High Yield Strength
Deformed) Bars
 Plain bars are round sections used in RCC – Grade Fe 250
 Tor steel is having small projections or ribs due to which
interlocking between concrete & steel is possible or better
bonding is possible
 Available in 2 forms: Fe 415 & Fe 500; 415, 500 denote the
Tensile or Yield strength in N/mm2
 Used for buildings, bridges, piles, foundations, etc
 Steel contd

Types of steel reinforcement contd

 TMT steel bars (special type)
 Thermo mechanically treated bar manufactured by rolling
steel wires and then passing them through water
 Corrosion resistant due to the tough external layer and
soft core inside
 During manufacturing process of HYSD bars, some flaws
may occur due to twisting
 TMT bars are ductile
 Good bendability and weldability properties
 Assignment No.2

Describe the various forms of structural steel

available in the market with neat diagram and write
the uses. (Any Eight)
 Soil
 The term 'soil' is defined as an unconsolidated material,
composed of solid particles, produced by the
disintegration of rocks
 It is the uppermost layer of Earth’s crust, formed by the
continuous weathering of mountains over thousands of
years
 The void space between the particles may contain air,
water or both
 The solid particles may contain organic matter
 Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to
mechanical disintegration or chemical decomposition
 When a rock surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an
appreciable time, it disintegrates or decomposes into
small particles and thus the soils are formed
 Soil
 Soil may be considered as an incidental material obtained
from the geologic cycle which goes on continuously in
nature
 The geologic cycle consists of erosion, transportation,
deposition and upheaval of soil
 Soil contd
Origin of soil
Process of soil formation
 Parent material: The mineral from which the soil is formed;
the parent material is chemically or physically weathered and
transported and deposited to form layers
 Carriers or weathering agents: glaciers, water, wind
 Weathering processes: freezing & melting, heating &
cooling, wetting & drying, grinding or rubbing, organisms

 Repeated processes result in the formation of cracks and crevices in

rocks & in presence of sun, the surface of rock expands and breaks
into loose soil particles
 Soil contd
Classification of soil
I. Geological classification
II. Classification by structure
III. Classification based on grain size
 Geological classification: based on the geological origin
Inorganic soil & Organic soil
 Geological classification: based on the agencies responsible for
its present state
Residual soil, Transported soil, Alluvial or sedimentary
soil, Glacial soil, etc
 Classification by structure
a. Soils of single grained structure
b. Soils of honey comb structure
c. Soils of flocculent structure
 Soil contd
Classification of soil contd

 Classification based on the average grain size or particle

size
Gravel, sand, silt and clay
Based on the gravel size, sand size, etc….
• IS classification
• PRA system of U. S.
• International classification
• MIT system of classification
 Unified soil classification system
• Coarse grained soils
• Fine grained soils
• Organic soils
 Weathering of rocks
 Weathering - a process of decay, disintegration and
decomposition of rocks under the influence of certain physical
and chemical agencies
 The weathered product remains lying over and above or near
to the parent rock unless it is removed from there by some
other agency of the nature
 Disintegration - the process of breaking up of rocks into
small pieces by the mechanical agencies of physical agents
 Decomposition - the process of breaking up of mineral
constituents to form new components by the chemical actions
of the physical agents
 Denudation – the surface of the earth is worn away by the
chemical and mechanical actions and the lower layers are
exposed
 Weathering contd
Types of weathering
 Three types of weathering:
 Physical or mechanical weathering
 Chemical weathering
 Biological weathering
 Physical weathering - the physical breakdown of rock
masses under the attack of certain atmospheric agents
 A single rock block is broken gradually into smaller
irregular fragments and then into particles of still smaller
dimensions
 It is the most active in cold, dry and higher areas of the
earth
 Surface temperature variations are responsible to a great
extent of physical weathering
 Weathering contd
Forms of Physical Weathering contd
 Abrasion: Water carrying suspended rock fragments has a
grinding action on surfaces
 Wetting and Drying: Water penetrates into rocks and
reacts with their constituent material
 Freezing and Thawing: When water is trapped into the
cracks in rocks repeatedly freezing and thawing occurs
results in forces of expansion and contraction
 Thermal Expansion and Contraction of Minerals: Rocks
are composed of different kinds of minerals; When heated
up by solar radiation each different mineral will expand
and contract with surface temperature fluctuations.
 Weathering contd
Forms of Physical Weathering contd
 Crystallization: In an arid environment, water evaporates at
the surface of rocks and as a result, crystals form from
dissolved minerals; Over time, the crystals expand their
volume and exert a force great enough to separate mineral
grains and break up rocks
 Action of Organisms: They aids in the physical disintegration
of rocks
 Thermal Effects: The effect of change of temperature on rocks
is of considerable importance in arid and semi-arid regions
where difference between daytime and nighttime temperature
is often very high; Such temperature fluctuations produce
physical disintegration in a normally expected manner
 Weathering contd
Types of Chemical Weathering
 Solution: Some rocks contain one or more minerals which are
soluble in water to some extent Eg. Rock Salt, Gypsum and Calcite
 Hydration: Minerals absorb water and chemically change the
composition of the material
 Hydrolysis: The process of exchange of ions are called hydrolysis
 Oxidation and Reduction: The iron bearing minerals of rocks are
generally prone to chemical weathering through the process of
oxidation and reduction
 Oxidation: The process of addition of oxygen or removal of
hydrogen is called oxidation
 Reduction: The process of removal of oxygen or addition of
hydrogen is called reduction
 Carbonation: Carbonation is the process of weathering of rocks
under the combined action of atmospheric carbon dioxide
 Weathering contd
Biological Weathering or Organic weathering
 The weathering process related to the activities of micro
organisms such as bacteria as well as plants and animals
• Animals moving through cracks can break rocks
• Roots of plants