Unit-3

Geothermal Energy:

1. The enormous amount of energy available inside the earth in the form of heat is known
as geothermal energy. Geothermal energy is a form of renewable energy and independent
of sun, having the source of natural heat inside the earth.

2. Surface manifestation of this heat energy is indicated by hot water springs and geysers
discovered at several places.

3. Heat can be experienced from the temperature rise of the earth's crust with increasing
depth below the surface.

4. Radial temperature gradient increases proportionally to depth at a rate of about 30°C per
km. At a depth of 3-4 km, water bubbles up, while at a depth of 10-15 km the earth's
interior is as hot as 1000° to 1200°C.

5. The core of the earth consists s of o a a liquid rock known a temperature of about 4000°C.
as 'Magma' having

6. This geothermal heat is transferred to the underground reservoir of water which also
circulates under the earth's crust. Its heat dissipates into the atmosphere as warm water
and the steam vents up through the fissures in the ground as hot springs and geysers.

7. Limitless heat content in magma plus the heat generated by radioactive decay of unstable
elements such as K40, Th-232 and U235 which are abundant in earth's crust are forms of
geothermal energy and considered as a renewable energy resource.

Classification: Geothermal resources are of following types:

A. Hydrothermal Resources:

1. These are the deposits of hot water and steam at lesser depths and these can be
extracted by means of production well.
2. High temperature water and steam (300° F to 700° F) is used for the generation of
electricity, otherwise it is used for space heating.
3. It may be seen that only a part of the rock is permeable constituting the geo-fluid
reservoir, so the field is able to produce commercially a viable resource
4. Examples of Hydrothermal Resource sites:
a. Hot Water Fields:

1. At these locations hot water below 100 °C emit out as hot spring and the geothermal
aquifers being covered by confining layers to keep the hot water under pressure

2. Examples of hot water fields are Sahestra dhara near Dehradun, Sacred kund at Badrinath
in Uttarakhand, Manikaran in Kullu valley (Himachal Pradesh) and Internationally known
fields are Pannonian basin (Hungary), Po river valley (Italy) and Klamath Falls Oregon (USA).

b. Wet Steam Fields:

1. The pressurized water is at more than 100 °C and contains small quantities of steam and
vapour in the geothermal reservoir (at 370 °C)

2. Sites where the steam escapes through cracks in the surface are called fumaroles.

3. An impermeable cap-rock prevents the fluid from escaping into atmosphere and drilling is
carried out to bring the fluid to the surface.

4 The fluid is used to produce steam and boiling water in predominant phase

5. Examples of wet steam fields Los Azufre (Mexico), Puna (Hawaii, USA), Deing (Indonesia),
Azores (Portugal) and Latera (Italy)

B. Vapour-Dominated Resources:

1. Vapour dominated reservoirs produce dry saturated steam of pressure above

atmospheric pressure and at high temperature about 350 °C

2. Water and steam coexist, but steam is in dominant phase and regulates pressure in the
reservoir.

3. Steam obtained from such a geothermal field directly drives a turbine

4. Examples Malsukawa (Japan), The Geysers California (USA), Kamojang (Indonesia) etc.

C. Hot Dry Rock Resources:

1. This is a geological formation with high temperature rocks at 650 °C, heated by
conductive heat flow from magma but contains no water.

2. To trap its energy the impermeable rock is fractured and water is injected to create an
artificial reservoir.

3. Water circulates and hot fluids return to the surface through the other drilled well as
steam and hot water, which are used to generate electricity
D. Geopressured Resources:

1. These resources contains moderate temperature brines (160 °C) containing dissolved
methane and these are trapped under high pressure in a deep sedimentary formation
sealed between impermeable layers of shale and clay at depths.

2. When trapped by boring wells, three sources of energy are available

a Thermal,

b. Mechanical as pressure, and

C Chemical as methane

E. Magma:

1 Magma is a molten rock at temperature ranging from 900 °C to 1600 °C. This hot viscous
liquid comes out from active volcanic vents and solidifies

2. It may form reservoirs at some depth from the earth's surface and magma chambers
represent a huge energy source

3. The existing technology does not allow recovery of heat from these resources

 Dry steam, wet steam and hot water geothermal system

A. Hot Water Fields:

1. Hot water field, containing a water reservoir at temperature ranging 50-100 °C.

2. Such fields without much steam content can be useful for house heating and agricultural
purposes the temperature gradient in this field is less.

3. The reservoir contains water in the liquid phase below the boiling point of water under
pressure

4. On the surface, there are often thermal springs whose temperature is near the boiling
point of water. These fields occur at depth less than 2 km.

5. The geyser plant of USA is the largest plant in the world today.

B. Wet Steam Field:

1. The wet steam fields contain pressurized water in reservoir at temperature higher than
100 °C.
2. When hot water at high pressure is brought to the surface, its pressure is sufficiently
reduced and some water will get flashed into steam and remaining in the form of boiling
water.
3. The resulting mixture is a mixture of water and steam. Such fields are suitable for power
generation.
4. When the well is drilled at such locations, the pressurized water rises into well because of
less pressure above the well.
5. The vapour is used directly for producing power while the hot water gets separated in the
separator and is used for thermal applications.
6. The percentage of steam generated depends upon the available geothermal fields and
more than 90% of hydrothermal reservoirs exploited on industrial scales are this type.

C. Dry Steam Field:

1. These fields are similar to wet, steam fields but heat transfer from the depth is much
higher.
2. These reservoirs produce superheated steam at pressure above atmosphere.
3. The permeability of these fields is lower than wet fields.
4. When the well is drilled up to the reservoir and extraction of fluid starts, a depressed
zone is formed at the bottom of the well that enhances the boiling of water surrounding the
rocks.
5. The steam flows through the dry bottom area and starts expanding and gets cool. But the
heat added by surrounding rocks at high temperature keeps the steam at superheated
state. The degree of superheating may reach up to 100 °C.

 Difference between a geothermal power plant and thermal power plant.

  working principle of magneto hydrodynamic power generation

1. In MHD power generation conversion process depends upon Faraday's law of

electromagnetic induction, which states that when a conductor and a magnetic field move
relative to each other, a voltage is induced in the conductor. This induced voltage produces
an electric current.

2. The conductor may be solid, liquid or gas.

3. In MHD generator solid conductors are replaced by hot ionized gas.

4. The hot ionized gas (3000 °C) is passed through the MHD duct across which a strong
magnetic field is applied.

5. Since the gases are hot and ionized they form an electrically conducting medium moving
in a magnetic field, thus a voltage is generated.

6. The power generated by MHD generator is in the direct current form.

7. Now, if the electrodes are placed in a suitable position then generated current can be
extracted.

B. Classification of Hydrodynamic System:

a. Open Cycle MHD System:

1. The open cycle MHD generator uses coal as a fuel as it produces more conductive plasma.
This is because of more carbon atom as compared to hydrogen atom (as the presence of
hydrogen is undesirable in MHD),

2. Fig. 3.8.1 shows the schematic diagram of an open cycle MHD generator

3. The working temperature in the open cycle MHD generator lies approximately in the
range above 2300 °C.

4. This is a lower temperature limit and below this the effective electrical conductivity
becomes zero.

5. There may be no limit in the upper working temperatures; so far the materials can stand
with the high heat fluxes under high electric field.

b. Closed Cycle MHD System:

The very high thermal efficiency is achieved with low cycle cost in closed cycle plant and
provides more useful power at low temperature at 1600 °C. The duct of these units is small
because of high pressure.

3. Helium or argon is used as working fluid, heated in heat exchanger and gets ionised.

4. Less ionised substances such as alkali metal is mixed with inert gas to provide the
necessary conductivity in closed cycle plant, where recovery is possible

5. The closed cycle plant is further classified in seeded inert gas system and liquid metal
system

6. The working fluid (argon or helium) in closed cycle is seeded with cesium and circulates in
a close loop.

8. The gas burned in the combustor is supplied in the heat exchanger, where the heat is
transferred to the working fluid.

9. The ionised working fluid passes through the magnetic field to produce DC power.

10. The combustion products are discharged to the atmosphere after removal of heat in
heat exchanger.

i. Closed Cycle Liquid Metal MHD Generator:

1. Fig. 3.8.3 shows the schematic diagram of closed eycle liquid metal MHD generator.

2. The superheated metallic vapour is expanded through the supersonic nozzle and enters in
the generator in liquid form with velocity of 150 m/s.

3. The electrical conductivity of metallic vapour is poor. That brings the overall conversion
efficiency lower than that of gas as a working substance.

4. However it has the advantages to supply the AC current directly and there is no need of
inverter.
6. In nuclear fired MHD generator the high temperature nuclear reactor is used to utilize
solid fuel elements to meet the requirements.

7. The ceramic coated electrodes are film cooled by hydrogen to protect them from unusual
build up of uranium droplets.

8. The cyclonic separators are used to remove the uranium droplet from the hydrogen gas
and the hydrogen flows in the compressor expands through the turbine, then is cooled in
heat exchangers in multistage compression.

C. Function of Steam: The steam is used partly for driving a steam turbine operating the
compressor and partly expanded in a steam turbine driving a three phase alternator.

B. Practical Problems Associated with MHD:

1. The main problem in the design of long-life MHD generators is to find the materials that
can survive high operating temperatures of these generators. Both the insulator and
conducting materials should sustain temperature of 2500 °C for prolong duration.

2. Electrode materials are chemically eroded by combustion gases.

3. Seed material potassium attacks insulating materials and makes them conducting.

4. The major problem forced by this generator is the economics. Although the overall
thermal efficiency is 60%, against 40% for conventional thermal plant, additional investment
in the magnet, generator, duct, compressors, scrubbers, seed recovery plant and DC to AC
converters may increase the plant cost and it may be much higher than conventional plant.

A. Fuel cell:

1. A fuel cell is an electro-chemical device that converts chemical energy into electricity and
heat without combustion.

2. The conversion of chemical energy into electrical power in case of fuel cell is an
isothermal process.

3. Main components of a fuel cell are:

1. Anode (Fuel electrode), 2. Cathode (@xidant electrode),

3. Electrolyte, 4. Container,
5. Separators, 6. Sealings,
7. Fuel supply, and 8. Oxidant supply

B. Type of Fuel Cell:

1. Alkaline fuel cells (AFC),

2. Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC),
3. Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC),
4. Proton or polymer exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC),
5. Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)
6. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC),
7. Zinc air fuel cells (ZAFC), and
8. Regenerative fuel cells (RFC)

C. Working Principle of Hydrogen Oxygen Cell:

1. A basic hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell with phosphoric acid as electrolyte is shown in Fig
3.10.1

2. In fuel cells, platinum coated special graphite plates are used as the electrodes, separated
by an electrolyte.

3. The fuel is hydrogen gas which is supplied at the anode side where the hydrogen
molecules are effectively reduced to hydrogen ions which move to the electrolyte.
H2 (gas) 2H+ (ion)+2e-

4. Electrons liberated at the anode build up a negative potential and travel towards the
cathode through an externally connected circuit.

5. Oxygen gas is supplied at the cathode where it is reduced by hydrogen ions to produce
water.
4H+ + O2 + 4e- 2H2O
6. Electrochemical reactions coupled with movement of hydrogen ions through the
electrolyte generate an electric potential, which causes electric current to flow through the
load.
Fuel cell
2H2 + O2 2H2 O + Electric energy generated
+ Heat energy released
This reaction is exothermic, which results in heating up the cell
7. A stream of air is circulated on the cathode side of the cell which absorbs enough heat to
maintain outlet air and steam at 180 °C which is optimum for best performance of the cell.

C. Advantages of Fuel Cell:

1. Fuel cell has high efficiency.

2. Fuel cell is simple and safe.
3. Fuel cell does not have moving parts.
4. Fuel cells are compact and noiseless.
5. They are pollution free.
6. No cooling water needed.
7. The capacity can be increased as the demand grows.
8. Space requirement is much less.
9. It has long life.
10. It is odourless and quiet in application.

D. Limitations of Fuel Cell:

1. The reactivity and invariance are the two general requirements for all fuel cells. To satisfy
the reactivity requirement, it is necessary that we have proper stoichiometry and also
require high electrode activity, which results in large current densities.

2. The second requirement, invariance, means that a fuel cell should only be a converter of
energy and should remain unlike a conventional battery, invariant throughout its life. This
requirement implies no corrosion or side reactions, no change in the electrolyte and no
change in the electrodes.

3. If the fuel cell is operated near room temperature, then it would deliver little electricity.

 Difference between a fuel cell and battery. What are the uses and advantages of
fuel cells?
B. Advantages of Fuel Cells

1. Fuel cell has high efficiency.

2. Fuel cell is simple and safe.
3. Fuel cell does not have moving parts.
4. Fuel cells are compact and noiseless.
5. They are pollution free.
6. No cooling water needed.
7. The capacity can be increased as the demand grows.
8. Space requirement is much less.
9. It has long life.
10. It is odourless and quiet in application.

C. Applications of Fuel Cell:

1. It is used in automotive vehicles.

2. It is used in domestic power unit.
3. It is used in central power station.
4. It is used in military and aerospace.
5. For remote and inaccessible locations, fuel cell can be used unattended for a long period.

 Operational and Environmental Problems of Geothermal Energy Sources:

1. Geothermal energy is not completely pollution free energy.

2. The main adverse environmental effects are air pollution (waste steam is sometimes
vented directly to the atmosphere), thermal pollution (pumping more thermal energy to the
atmosphere), surface disturbance, physical effects (land subsidence) caused by fluid
withdrawal.
3. At geothermal site, the air pollution is the major problem because of emission of
poisonous gases such as hydrogen sulphide (H₂S), ammonia, methane, Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
etc.
4. The extraction of energy from hot dry rocks or molten magma, it is necessary to force
water down boreholes as a working fluid and return it to surface to use in turbine.
5. If the underground reservoir is highly permeable, there is no way to know how much
water will need to be injected before a useful amount of steam or hot water is returned to
the surface.
6. A large volume of flash steam escaping into the atmosphere could cause dense fog to
occur.
7. At geothermal site, some harmful substances may escape into the air.
8. These may contain radioactive materials also thus systematic monitoring is advisable.
9 Geothermal water contains dissolved solids.
10. The amount of dissolved solids is in the range of 300-1500 ppm of which silica amounts
to 25-50%.
11. The possible solution is reinjection or disposal into sea through ducts and channels and
also the use of evaporator ponds.