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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures

and artworks
Outline
1. Introduction
2. Causes of building damage
3. Concrete pathologies
4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
5. Symptoms and deterioration
6. Conclusion

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
 The degradation of reinforced concrete involves two successive phases:
 an incubation or latency phase (sometimes called priming) which corresponds to the slow
alteration of the concrete, without any visible effects yet occurring,
 a development phase (sometimes called growth) of material degradation.

 The incubation phase ends:

 either when the products formed by the internal reactions of the cement reach a “critical volume”
causing harmful swelling of the concrete (for example, by sulphate reaction),

 either when the concrete coating no longer protects the steel against corrosion (for example, if
the coating is carbonated).

 The development phase is when damage is visible. At this stage, repairs become heavy and costly.
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4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.1. Carbonation
⁂ Definition
 Carbonation is the transformation of calcium oxide (CaO) into calcium carbonate (CaCO3), under the
acid action of carbon dioxide in the air.
CO₂ by itself is not reactive
(CO2 in the air: from 0.03 to 0.10%).
Penetrates CO₂ from the air
But, In the presence of
into concrete
moisture, it changes into dilute
Reacts with calcium carbonic acid which attacks
and hydroxide the concrete and reduces the
alkalinity of concrete.
CO2+ Ca(OH)2 CaCO3+H₂O
Form calcium
carbonates
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

Higher the
4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC” concentration of CO₂,
4.1. Carbonation higher is the chance of
⁂ Definition carbonation. So, more
carbonation occurs in city than in
 The pH value of hardened concrete is between 12.5 to 13.5 which prevents
village. In tunnels,
the steel reinforcement from action of oxygen and water, against RUST.
carbonation is even more.

 This highly alkaline condition which prevents corroding is known as

“passivity”.

 Following the carbonation phenomenon, the pH drops to 9 and there will

be “depassivation" of the steels reinforcement.

 When the carbonation front reaches the reinforcements, they corrode

and lose a lot of strength.
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.1. Carbonation
⁂ Factors Affecting the Rate of Carbonation
 The speed of CO2 penetration through a concrete structure is closely linked to the quality of the concrete. It is
greater if:

 Level of pore water, i.e., relative humidity: high rate at 50-70% relative humidity.
 Permeability of concrete: Higher in more permeable concrete.
 Concrete Protection: Higher in unprotected concrete.
 Time: Increases with time.
 Very high W/C ratio: implies excessive porosity of the material in the surface area (porous concrete),
 Curing conditions: to study the curing effect of concrete under water. Their result on accelerated
carbonation tests indicates that concretes kept under water for 1, 3, 5, 7, and 28 days respectively have a
carbonation rate of 66, 53, 42, 39, and 17% compared to curing in air.
 Insufficient coating.
 The opening of cracks: they also accelerate the transport of CO2 (See the graph).
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.1. Carbonation
⁂ Factors Affecting the Rate of Carbonation

However, the rate of carbonation

decreases as the thickness of the
carbonated concrete increases (the
formation of the first carbonate slows down the
diffusion of CO2).

Effect of mean crack opening on CO2 diffusion for

different ratios

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.1. Carbonation
⁂ Consequences of Carbonation:

 Carbonation reduces alkalinity of concrete-

which in turn reduces the passivity of
concrete.

 The corroded volume occupies 6 times the

volume of the original volume.

 This trust on concrete results in spalling,

cracking or delamination of cover
concrete.

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.1. Carbonation
⁂ Carbonation Characterization:
 This test must be carried out on a structure scale, on a number of representative measurement points,
taking into account local exposure conditions and the possible heterogeneity of the material.

 This test allows a reliable and rapid measurement of the carbonation depth in the context of structure
diagnostics.
 The test is carried out on a fresh section of concrete.

 After dusting, a pH-sensitive dye, phenolphthalein, is sprayed.

 This turns purplish red on contact with materials with a pH higher

than 9.2 and remains colorless for low pH values, i.e. for
carbonated areas.
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

For concretes with compressive
4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC” strengths greater than or equal
to 50 MPa at 28 days, such
4.1. Carbonation
as HPC the carbonation
⁂ Carbonation Prevention: kinetics is very low.
 For given exposure conditions, the carbonation kinetics of a concrete is related to its porosity, and consequently to
its mechanical characteristics, since these two parameters are closely linked.

 European standard EN 206-1 sets formulation parameters (binder dosages, water/binder ratio) and defines four
exposure classes noted

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

Studies carried out
4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC” worldwide show that over
4.2. Corrosion of Steel 80% of buildings is
⁂ Definition caused by corrosion of
reinforcements
Destruction or Detoriation of steel in environment they are exposed
 Corrosion is the most frequent pathology that absorbs the largest part of the financial resources intended for
maintenance and renewal activities of civil engineering works.

 This is proof that this phenomenon must be taken seriously into consideration.

Identify the origin of the disorders encountered on the works

Determine the repair and rehabilitation techniques

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The essential
4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC” characteristic of these
compounds is a strong
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
increase in
⁂ Why does it take place? volume (swelling).

Reacts with oxygen and water to

stabilize

• Not Naturally Stable

• Achieve stability in
forms of oxides

 If the concrete is not waterproofed, if it is cracked or burst, there

will be contact of the steel bar with the water and the corrosion
phenomenon will occur.

 The presence of chlorine (in the salts) accelerates the kinetics of

Relative volume of iron oxidation products
corrosion. Chlorine attacks steel.
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Corrosion kinetics
 At present Tuutti’s model is widely accepted as the conceptual model
for the deterioration of structures.

 As a function of time, this model clearly distinguishes an initiation time

followed by a propagation time.

 The initiation time refers to the penetration of the aggressive agents into
the concrete cover, while the propagation time is related to the evolution
of different forms of deterioration after corrosion has been initiated.

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4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Corrosion kinetics
critical [chloride]

Chloride content

Dissolution of the passive layer

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Corrosion kinetics
In reinforced concrete, the rebar may have many separate areas at
different energy levels. 2 metals (or
2 locations on
a single metal)
at different
energy
levels
No corrosion takes place if
the concrete is dry or probably an
below relative humidity of electrolyte
60% because enough water is If concrete is fully submersed into
not there to promote water; corrosion does not take Environnemental
place because diffusion of oxygen exposure: O,
corrosion. a metallic
does not take place into the concrete. Moisture
connection and Cl
Probably the optimum relative ions
humidity for corrosion is 70 to 80%.
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Corrosion kinetics
EN 206-1 defines three environments for corrosion resulting from
chlorides from sea water:
 XS1: exposed to airborne salt but not in direct contact with sea water
 XS2:
 XS3: tidal, splash and spray zones.

Different exposure conditions under marine

environment
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Corrosion kinetics
In marine environment, when RC is exposed to XS1 or even
XS3, the effects of continuous wetting and drying cycles involve severe
conditions, such as a high concrete surface chloride content,
diffusion but also convection penetration during immersion cycle and
oxygen availability during drying periods.

In these zones, the penetration of chloride ions (initiation period) is

relatively slow, but as soon as they reach the reinforcing steel,
corrosion can develop with considerable intensity because there
is a sufficient amount of moisture and oxygen (propagation period).

Type of attack on concrete sea structure for different

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4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Corrosion kinetics

In contrast, when concrete is completely submerged in water, or

saturated, for example under the sea level (XS2), even if the
chloride content on the concrete surface is high, the presence of oxygen
near the reinforcing steel will be

Typical chloride profile for a concrete

structure in marine environment (available
data on Atlantic Ocean with high tides)
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Corrosion Mechanism
It is an Electrochemical process. Anode and
Cathode are formed at opposite ends of steel bar.
Pore water acts as an electrolyte.

Mechanism of Corrosion
Forms
• Fe++ • Ferric
• Iron ions • OH- • Hydroxide
• (e-+O+H2O)

Reacts with Fe2O3

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Corrosion Mechanism

Oxydation (e- Loss) Reduction (e- gain)

prsc O2

abs O2

Cathodic Reaction
Anodic Reaction

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC” The passive iron oxide layer is
4.2. Corrosion of Steel destroyed when pH falls
⁂ Corrosion Mechanism below 11 and carbonation
lowers the pH
to about 9.
 The strongly alkaline nature of Ca(OH)2 prevents the corrosion of steel reinforcement by the
formation of thin protective layer of

 However, chloride ions present in the cement paste surrounding the reinforcement reacts at
anodic sites to form hydrochloric acid which on the
steel. The surface of the steel then becomes activated locally to form the anode, while the
passive surface forming the cathode; thus ensuring corrosion in the form of

 The formation of rust results in an increase in volume of the steel reinforcement so that
swelling pressures will cause cracking and spalling of the concrete.
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Effects of Corrosion

Cracking
Spalling
Delamination

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Influencing factors of corrosion
Influence of humidity
Humidity levels below 80%, oxygen easily The thickness of the concrete coating determines
reaches the steels but the low conductivity of the time that the aggressive species will spend to
concrete limits the corrosion rate reach the reinforcement

Influence of cracking
The choice of concrete formulation and the nature of its The presence of cracks facilitates the rapid penetration of
main constituents constitutes an approach to increase aggressive agents through the concrete coating to the
the corrosion resistance of concrete. reinforcements, which are immediately depassivated.
* W/C ratio impacts the porosity of the concrete An advanced state of corrosion is recorded if the crack opening
* Mineral additions, in small quantities, such as fly ash and silica exceeds 0.2 - 0.5 mm, or self-sealing is difficult and the environment is
fumes: reduction in the permeability, diffusion coefficient and aggressive.
conductivity of the concrete

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Corrosion characterization
 The corrosion status of the structure can be determined by measuring the
corrosion potential of the reinforcement, a measurement carried out in
relation to the potential of a reference electrode according to the device.

 These corrosion potentials of the reinforcements can be linked to

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Corrosion Control
One of the factor to reduce the corrosion, is to have

Maximum
Workability

Maximum Corrosion
Resistance
Minimum
W/C Ratio

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel
⁂ Corrosion Control
Metallurgical Method Corrosion Inhibitors
Rapid quenching by water jets Using nitrites, phosphates,
benzoates, etc
Long water bath of hot steel
Using Calcium nitrite as an
admixture
Coatings to reinforcement (Fusion
bonded epoxy coating)
[chloride content] is less than
1% by wt% cement.
Galvanising of reinforcement
(dipping of steel in molten zinc)

Cathodic protection : This is

extensively used in advanced countries.
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel Chlorine ions attacks on the layer
⁂ Corrosion Control and the ferric oxide layers starts to
Cl- Cl- corrode
Working of Calcium nitrite as an
admixture:
Reinforcement steel starts to corrode
when chloride content reaches the
threshold of

Oxidation
• Ferrous oxide
• From ferric oxide layer
occurs • Ferric Oxide forms Use of 18lit calcium
• Nitrites • This process
• From Calcium nitrite recharges the layer nitrite per m3 concrete
Reacts with admixture Corrosion is recommended
resistance
improves
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4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.2. Corrosion of Steel Marine Concrete
⁂ Corrosion Control
The need to limit the amount of chloride entering reinforced-concrete structures
has led to the use of a number of methods to alleviate the problem. Two of these
techniques are used:
(a) the use of a surface coating (silane)
(b) the addition of a waterproofing admixture (Caltite) to the concrete mix.

 Silane

 Caltite, on the other hand, is an integral hydrophobic and pore-blocking

ingredient which is added to concrete at the time of mixing. It provides a
physical pore-blocking component when subjected to hydrostatic pressure
with the hydrophobic component, reducing water absorption by capillarity.
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.3. Chloride attack
⁂ Definition
 Chloride attack is one of the most important aspects while dealing with
durability of concrete.

 Chloride ions can attack concrete from the inside, during the mixing
process, or from the outside by penetrating through cracks or the porous
network of the concrete to corrode the steel.

 Degradation is manifested by the appearance of rust on the surface

of the concrete in the form of stains,

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4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.3. Chloride attack
Chloride ions
sources
Internal sources External sources

 Sea water;  Concrete exposed to sea spray or

 Certain aggregates that contain chlorides; continuous exposure to salt water;
 Additions that have a higher chloride 
content than that defined in the  Presence of chlorides in some
normative specification; soils.
 Mixing water with a higher chloride
content than that permitted by the
standards.
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

4. Pathologies of reinforced concrete “RC”
4.3. Chloride attack
⁂ Possibilities of Chloride attack

Cement, water, aggregate

and sometimes from The amount of chloride required
admixtures for initiating corrosion is partly
dependent on the pH value of
Chloride the pore water in concrete.

At a pH value less than 11.5

corrosion may occur without
the presence of chloride.

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5. Symptoms and degradation

Symptoms of pathologies

Efflorescence Delamination

Segregation Disintegration and Scaling

Localized burst

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

5. Symptoms and degradation
5.1. Cracks
⁂ Definition
 A crack is a

 Cracks are one kind of universal problems of concrete

construction as it affects the building artistic and it also
destroys the wall’s integrity, affects the structure safety
and even reduce its durability.

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5. Symptoms and degradation
5.1. Cracks
⁂ Classification of cracks
CRACKS

NON STRUCTURAL
STRUCTURAL CRACKS
CRACKS

Due to : Due to :

- Incorrect design - Internal stress in building

- Faulty construction materials
- Overloading

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

5. Symptoms and degradation
5.1. Cracks
⁂ Classification of cracks
After hardening

Physical
Before hardening
-Drying shrinkage
-crazing
Chemical
Plastic -Corrosion of reinforcement
-Alkali aggregate reactions
Thermal
Constructional -freeze/ thaws cycle
movement -Temperature variations
-Early thermal contraction
Structural
-Creep
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5. Symptoms and degradation
5.1. Cracks
⁂ Classification of cracks

Based on width 1. Straight

Type Width
2. Horizontal, vertical
Thin & Diagonal crack
Medium
Wide 3. Stepped

4. Random

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

5. Symptoms and degradation
5.1. Cracks
⁂ Permissible Crack Width (As per ACI)

Exposure conditions Maximum allowable crack width in mm

Dry air 0.41
Humidity, moist air
Wetting and drying
Water retaining structure 0.10

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

5. Symptoms and degradation
5.1. Cracks
⁂ Causes

 Elastic Deformation
 Thermal Movement
 Chemical Reaction
 Shrinkage
 Foundation Movement and Settlement
of Soil
 Earthquake
 Vegetation
 Poor Construction practices
Effect of variation in water content of concrete on drying shrinkage

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

5. Symptoms and degradation
5.1. Cracks
⁂ Causes

Relation between mix proportion and drying shrinkage of cement Roots of Fast Growing Tree Under
concrete mortar the Foundation of Compound Wall
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5. Symptoms and degradation
5.2. Efflorescence
 A white, dry, crystallized substance, known as efflorescence, may be
noted on concrete surfaces, near hairline or thin cracks.

 Efflorescence is typically not a structural problem. It can be easily

washed away, but may come back.

 Efflorescence is formed by the leaching of lime compounds can lead to

the formation of

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

5. Symptoms and degradation
Les épaufrures/ écaillage
5.3. Spalling
 Spalling is a phenomenon of disintegration of concrete surfaces
caused by their exposure to freeze/thaw in the presence of humidity or
deicing salts OR It is caused by sudden impact of something dropped
on the concrete.

 Generally, its appearance begins with small localized areas, which can In light spalling, the large
aggregates remain embedded
subsequently join, spread and affect large areas. in the paste.
Ligth

Spalling
Severe
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5. Symptoms and degradation
In the most
5.4. Delamination
 Delamination is
serious cases, this
pathology results in the
fall of concrete slabs and
the creation of holes in
 It is caused by the expansion due to the rust of the the bridge decks.
steel reinforcement and can lead to severe cracking
(Rust can occupy up to ten times the volume of the corroded
steel it replaces).

 The combined action of climatic stresses, anti-icing

salts and traffic passing directly on the concrete
constituting the bridge slabs cause "delamination" of
the concrete on a considerable number of engineering
structures.
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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

5. Symptoms and degradation
5.5. Segregation
 Variation in the distribution of concrete
elements, resulting in different
concentrations of the concrete components.

 Segregation in

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

5. Symptoms and degradation
5.6. Disintegration and Scaling Désintégration
Disintegration can be described as the deterioration of the concrete
into small fragments and individual aggregates.

Scaling is a milder form of disintegration where the surface mortar

flakes off. Large areas of crumbling (rotten) concrete, areas of
deterioration which are more than about 7 to 10 cm deep (depending
on the wall/slab thickness), and exposed rebar indicate serious
concrete deterioration.

Disintegration can be a result of many causes such as

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

5. Symptoms and degradation
5.7. Localized burst Eclatement localisé

 Are the result of taking

place in the concrete as conical fragments appearing on the
surface of the concrete leaving small holes.

 Losses of the particles will usually be found at the bottom of

the hole.
Localized burst

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

5. Symptoms and degradation
5.8. Bug Holes

Bug holes or
in the surface during
placement and consolidation.

By using Clean and well maintained formworks, we can

avoid this defects.

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

5. Symptoms and degradation
Major symptoms of concrete degradation

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

Conclusion
 We have seen in this Chapter that all the mechanisms of degradation of materials and loss of
performance or behavior are due to several factors that we cannot control all of them, so the
notion of the perfectly durable structure is an unrealizable notion.

 This vulnerability of the structures requires us to

 To this end, we need more of methods for detecting causes and pathologies as well as
procedures for developing the most accurate repair method possible.

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Chapter II: Pathologies of structures and artworks

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