Military Institute of Science and Technology

Course Name : Ship Construction & Welding Technology

Course Code : NAME 215
Credit Hour : 3

Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

 Welding Processes used in Shipbuilding

Initially welding was used in ships as a means of repairing various metal parts. During the First
World War various authorities connected with shipbuilding, including Lloyd’s Register,
undertook research into welding and in some cases prototype welded structures were built.

However, riveting remained the predominant method employed for joining ship plates and
sections until the time of the Second World War. During and after this war the use and
development of welding for shipbuilding purposes was widespread, and welding totally
replaced riveting in the latter part of the 20th century.
 Welding Processes used in Shipbuilding

There are many advantages to be gained from employing welding in ships as opposed
to having a riveted construction. These may be considered as advantages in both
building and in operating the ship.

For the shipbuilder the advantages are:

(a) Welding lends itself to the adoption of prefabrication techniques.

(b) It is easier to obtain water-tightness and oil-tightness with welded joints.
(c) Joints are produced more quickly.
(d) Less skilled labour is required.
 Welding Processes used in Shipbuilding

For the ship-owner the advantages are:

(a) Reduced hull steel weight; therefore more deadweight.

(b) Less maintenance, from slack rivets, etc.
(c) The smoother hull with the elimination of laps leads to a reduced skin friction
resistance which can reduce fuel costs.

The welding processes employed in shipbuilding are of the fusion welding type.
Fusion welding is achieved by means of a heat source which is intense enough to melt
the edges of the material to be joined as it is traversed along the joint. Gas welding, arc
welding, and resistance welding all provide heat sources of sufficient intensity to
achieve fusion welds.
Type of Welding
• A number of totally new welding principles emerged at the end of 19th century;
sufficient electrical current could then be generated for resistance welding and
arc welding.

• Arc welding was initially carried out using carbon electrodes, developed by
Bemados, and was shortly followed by the use of steel rods.

• The Swede Oskar Kjellberg made an important advance when he developed and
patented the coated electrode. The welding result was amazing and formed the
foundation of the ESAB welding company.
• Another early method of welding which was also developed at that time was
gas welding. The use of acetylene and oxygen made it possible to produce a
comparatively high flame temperature, 3100°C, which is higher than that of
other hydrocarbon based gas.

• Later, in the 1930s, new methods were developed. Up until then, all metal-
arc welding had been carried out manually. Attempts were made to
automate the process using a continuous wire. The most successful process
was submerged arc welding (SAW) where the arc is "submerged" in a
blanket of granular fusible flux.
• Welding procedure specification (WPS). A document specifying the details of the
required variables for a specific application in order to assure repeatability

• Heat Affected Zone (HAZ). The heat affected zone, (Figure 1.6), is that area of the
base metal not melted during the welding operation but whose physical properties are
altered by the heat induced from the weld joint.
Throat thickness. Fillet welds are calculated by reference to the throat size. The
size required is specified on drawings in terms of throat thickness, t, or the leg
length, l, see Figure 1.7.
Gas welding
Gas welding is one of the oldest methods of welding and, for many
years, was the most widely used method of metal-melting; however, its
use is a lot less common today. Nevertheless, it is a versatile method,
using simple and relatively cheap equipment.
Equipment
• A set of equipment (Figure 2.1) consists essentially of gas bottles, pressure
regulators, gas hoses, flashback arresters and welding torches.
Welding gases and their storage
• Gas bottles for combustible gases must be stored outdoors or in a well-
ventilated area. Special warning signs must be displayed on the outside of
the storage area. Acetylene and oxygen bottles must be kept well apart.
• Pressure regulators
The purpose of the pressure regulator is to reduce the high and variable pressure in the bottle to a
suitable working pressure. It keeps the gas flow rate constant throughout the life of the bottle
charge, despite any variations in back pressure caused by the heating of the welding torch.
• Gas hoses
Gas hoses are colour-coded: red for acetylene and blue for oxygen. In addition, in order to protect
against mistakes, the acetylene connection has a left-hand thread, while the oxygen connection
has a right-hand thread.
• Flashback arrester
A flashback means that the flame burns backwards into the torch with a popping sound. It occurs
if the combustion speed of the flame exceeds the speed at which the gas is being supplied, so that
the flame front moves backwards.
A flashback arrester fitted at the regulator prevents a flashback from going any further back.
The reason for a flashback occurring is that a mixture of oxygen and acetylene has occurred in the
hoses, e.g. by oxygen having entered the acetylene hose and formed an explosive mixture. The
flashback arrester prevents the flame from reaching the acetylene bottle and triggering an
explosive decomposition.
• Welding torches
• One can distinguish between two types of welding torches: injector torches for
low pressure acetylene and high pressure torches.
• In high pressure torches, the acetylene and oxygen flows are self-powered by
the pressure in their storage bottles, and mix in the mixing chamber section of
the torch.
• In low-pressure torches, the oxygen flows into the torch through a central jet,
producing an injection effect that draws in acetylene from the surrounding
peripheral connection. From here, the gases continue to the mixing section
prior to combustion.
• Gas flames
• The basic requirement for a good weld is that the size and type of the flame
should be suited to the type of work.
• The size of the flame depends on the size of the torch nozzle and on the
pressure of the gases flowing through it. This pressure should be maintained
within certain limits.
• Normal flame
• The normal flame is that which is used most. It (Figure 2.3) is easily recognised by
the three clearly distinguished combustion zones. The innermost zone, the cone, is
a mixing zone and glows white. Acetylene is burning here, to form carbon
monoxide and
• hydrogen which produce a colourless tongue around the cone. This second zone is
chemically reducing, and so it reduces any metal oxides and keeps the melt pool
clean. The outer, blue zone of the flame is where carbon monoxide and hydrogen
are burning with oxygen from the air, forming the final combustion products of
carbon dioxide and water vapour. It prevents oxygen in the air from coming into
contact with the molten metal, and so acts as a shielding gas.
• The carburising flame If the proportion of acetylene in a neutral flame is increased,
there is insufficient oxygen to burn the surplus acetylene in the core zone. The
acetylene therefore continues to the second zone, where it appears as a highly
luminous yellow-white flame. To some extent, the length of second zone indicates the
amount of excess acetylene. Figure 2.5
The oxidising flame
If the quantity of oxygen in the weakly reducing flame is further increased, the
flame changes to an oxidising flame. The core length is reduced, and the flame
takes on a violet-tinge with low luminosity.
• Forehand and backhand welding
• Two different methods of welding are used when gas welding: forehand and
backhand. The flame in forehand welding is directed away from the finished
weld, while in backhand welding it is directed towards it (Figure 2.6). Thin
sheet metal (less than 3 mm) is normally carried out using forehand welding.
This method is generally used for non-ferrous metals, although thicker
materials can also be backhand welded.
• Steel over 3 mm thick should be backhand welded, as the size of the melt pool
is so large, when welding thick materials, that the gases and slag cannot escape
from the pool without assistance. Backhand welding is faster than forehand
welding, and so the work piece is subjected to high temperature for a shorter
time. As a result, backhand welding thick materials have a finer crystalline
structure and retain their toughness better than would have been the case if they
had been forehand welded.
 The benefits of gas welding
a. The ability to even out the temperature in the weld at low temperatures. Slow
heating and cooling can avoid the risk of hardening.
b. Metal thicknesses up to about 6 mm can be welded with an I-joint.
c. Speed, as only one pass is needed. Filler wires can be changed without having to
pause for grinding.
d. Good control of melting, as the welder can see at all times that he has the desired
pear-shaped opening in the bottom of the melt pool.
e. Root defects are avoided by taking care to ensure good burn-through.
f. The equipment is easy to transport and requires no electricity supply.
g. It is possible to use the light from the flame to locate the joint before welding starts.
h. The size of the HAZ can be reduced by surrounding the weld area with damp
(fireproof!) material.
TIG welding
• TIG welding (also called Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, GTAW) involves
striking an arc between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work
piece. The weld pool and the electrode are protected by an inert gas, usually
argon, supplied through a gas cup at the end of the welding gun, in which
the electrode is centrally positioned.
• Characteristics of the method include:
• the stable arc excellent control of the welding result.
• The main application for TIG welding is welding of stainless steel, welding
of light metals, such as aluminium and magnesium alloys, and the welding
of copper.
• It is also suitable for welding all weldable materials, apart from lead and
zinc, with all types of joints and in all welding positions.
Equipment
• The following equipment is required for TIG welding:
• welding gun
• HF (= high-frequency) generator for ignition of the arc
• a power source
• shielding gas
• control equipment
The welding gun
• The basic requirement applicable to the welding gun is that it must be
easy to handle and well insulated.
• These requirements apply for manual welding, but are less important
for mechanical welding. There are two main types of welding guns:
water-cooled and air-cooled.
• Present-day welding guns of these two types can carry welding
currents of:
Control equipment
• The necessary control equipment depends on to what extent the welding
process is mechanised. However, it is usual for the pre-flow and post-
flow of the shielding gas, and the HF generator, to be automatically
controlled. Crater filling by slope-down of the current, and the ability to
pulse the current, are also often employed. Gas pre-flow and post-flow
protect the electrode and the weld pool against oxidation.
The electrode
The electrode material should provide a combination of the following characteristics:
• Low electrical resistance
• High melting point
• Good emission of electrons
• Good thermal conductivity.

• Pure tungsten electrodes are used when welding light metals with AC: for other
welding applications, the electrodes often incorporate an admixture of 2 % thorium
oxide, which improves the stability of the arc and makes it easier to strike. Thorium is
radioactive, but is not so dangerous that special precautions are required, apart from
taking care when grinding to avoid inhaling the grinding dust. Alternative non-
radioactive oxide additives that can be used are those of zirconium, cerium or
lanthanum, as shown in Table 3.1.
The electrode diameter is an important variable. The best arc stability is obtained with a high
current load, which means that the diameter should be chosen so that the electrode tip is
neither too hot nor too cold: see Figure 3.6.
MlG/MAG welding
• Until the 1970s. manual metal arc was the most dominant method of
welding. Today MIG/MAG is the obvious leading contender in most
industrial countries.
• Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) can also be referred to as MIG (metal inert
gas) if the shielding gas is inert as for example argon or MAG (metal active
gas) if the gas has a content of an active gas such as C02.
Equipment
• Figure 5.1 shows the principle of MIG/MAG welding.The arc (1) is struck between the
workpiece and a metal wire electrode (2) that is continually fed forward into the arc.
• The wire is supplied on a reel (3), and is fed to the welding gun by the drive rollers (4), which
push the wire through a flexible conduit (5) in the hose package (6) to the gun (7). Electrical
energy for the arc is passed to the electrode through the contact tube (9) in the welding gun.
This contact tube is normally connected to the positive pole of the power source, and the
workpiece to the negative pole. Striking the arc completes the circuit.
• The gas nozzle (1 1) that surrounds the contact tube (9) supplies shielding gas (10) for
protection of the arc and the weld pool (12).
 Manual Metal Arc welding (MMAW)
Description of the method
• Manual Metal Arc welding (MMA) is often referred to as Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW) or stick electrode welding. It was the predominant form of fusion welding
until the beginning of the 1980s. Electrode rods consist of a wire core with an external
coating. They are made in a range of core diameters, with each diameter being
intended for a particular current range. Welding involves striking an arc between the
electrode and the workpiece, with the heat of the arc melting the electrode (i.e. the
filler material), and with the coating melting to form a protective slag.
The equipment required is simple, as shown in Figure 6.1, which means that the
method is straightforward to use. It is particularly suitable for jobs such as the
erection of structures. It can also be used outdoors, as opposed to other methods
requiring shielding gas, which are unsuitable in wind. However, its arc time factor is
relatively low, due to the time required for chipping away slag after welding and
changing the electrodes.
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Description
• Submerged arc welding, SAW, (Figure 7.1) is a high-productivity method of
welding, generally carried out using mechanical welding methods and
suitable for use with 1-3 continuous wire electrodes.
• The arc or arcs are struck and bum beneath a layer of flux, which is supplied to the
welding head whilst the welding is in progress. The flux closest to the arc melts
and forms slag on the surface of the weld, thus protecting the molten metal from
reacting with the oxygen and nitrogen in the air. Residual powder is sucked up,
returned to the flux hopper and re-used.
• Welding can be carried out with DC or AC.
• If the welding parameters are properly set, the appearance of the weld is often very
uniform and bright, merging smoothly into the workpiece material. The slag also
usually comes away by itself.
• The flux masks the light from the arc and there is no smoke or spatter from the
weld.
• This improves working conditions as compared to that of gas metal-arc welding.
On the other hand. there is still the need to handle the flux: although its supply to
the weld and subsequent recovery are mechanised, it is still a complicating factor.
The advantages of the submerged arc welding method are
a. A high deposition rate
b. Deep penetration, which allows the quantity of filler material to be
reduced
c. The ability to achieve a high arc time factor (i.e. effective welding time)
d. High weld quality
e. Improved working environment compared to other arc welding methods.
Electro slag welding
Description
• Electro slag welding is a mechanised method of making vertical and near-
vertical welds, with a maximum slope of 15" from the vertical. It is
intended for welding very thick materials (40 mm and up), although it can
also be used for thinner materials.
• The process is started by striking an arc between the electrode and the
workpiece.
• Flux is fed into the joint, and melts to form a bath of slag that increases in depth
as more flux is added. When the temperature of the slag, and thus also its
electrical conductivity, has increased sufficiently, the arc is short-circuited and
the current is carried by the molten slag, maintaining its temperature by
resistive heating.
• The molten metal is prevented from escaping fiom the joint by water-cooled
copper shoes, which may be fixed or arranged to travel with the welding head.
• The weld is formed between them and the surfaces of the joint. The welding
head moves up the joint as welding progresses.
• One or more filler wires may be used, depending on the thickness of the plate.
If the material is very thick, the welding head may weave.
The benefits of the method include:
a. High productivity
b. Low cost for joint preparation
c. Single pass, regardless of the plate thickness
d. No angular deformation when making butt joints
e. Little transverse shrinkage
f. Little risk of hydrogen embrittlement.
Introduction to the welding of aluminium
Characteristics of aluminium
• The difference in melting points of the two metals and their oxides. The
oxides of iron all melt close to or below the melting point of the metal;
aluminium oxide melts at 2060°C, some 1400°C above the melting point of
aluminium.
• The oxide film on aluminium is durable, highly tenacious and self healing.
This gives the aluminium alloys excellent corrosion resistance, enabling
them to be used in exposed applications without additional protection. This
corrosion resistance can be improved further by anodising – the formation
of an oxide film of a controlled thickness.
• The coefficient of thermal expansion of aluminium is approximately twice
that of steel which can mean unacceptable buckling and distortion during
welding.
• The coefficient of thermal conductivity of aluminium is six times that of
steel. The result of this is that the heat source for welding aluminium needs
to be far more intense and concentrated than that for steel. This is
particularly so for thick sections, where the fusion welding processes can
produce lack of fusion defects if heat is lost too rapidly.
• The specific heat of aluminium – the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a substance – is twice that of steel.
• Aluminium has high electrical conductivity, only three-quarters that of copper but
six times that of steel. This is a disadvantage when resistance spot welding where
the heat for welding must be produced by electrical resistance.
• Aluminium does not change colour as its temperature rises, unlike steel. This can
make it difficult for the welder to judge when melting is about to occur, making it
imperative that adequate retraining of the welder takes place when converting
from steel to aluminium welding.
• Aluminium is non-magnetic which means that arc blow is eliminated as a welding
problem.
• Aluminium has a modulus of elasticity three times that of steel which means that
it deflects three times as much as steel under load but can absorb more energy on
impact loading.