GEO01 – Earth Science

S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | S1 Q2 CO4 Finals Examination

GEO01 – CO4 – Exogenic Processes of the Earth - Type of movement

Mass Wasting o Flow
Mass Wasting o Slide
- is the downhill movement of masses of o Fall
bedrock, rock debris, or soil driven by the
- pull of gravity Some Types of Mass Wasting
- with proper planning, it is perhaps the
most easily avoidable of all major
geologic hazards

Controlling Factors in Mass Wasting

Creep
- a.k.a. soil creep
- very slow downslope movement of soil
- major contributing factors include water in
soil and daily freeze – thaw cycles.
- can be costly to maintain homes, etc., on
Gravity creeping ground as foundations, walls,
- the driving force for mass wasting pipes and driveways crack and shift
o Normal Force downslope over time
o Shear Force
o Shear Resistance Flows: Earthflow and Solifluction
- Shear resistance < shear force = landslide - Flow
o descending mass moves downhill
Steep slopes as a viscous fluid
- shear forces maximized by gravity - Earthflow
o debris moves downslope, slowly or
Shear Strength rapidly, as a viscous fluid
- resistance to movement or deformation - Solifluction Permafrost
- saturated soil has reduced shear strength o flow of water-saturated soil over
due to increased pore pressure. impermeable material.
- However, a small amount of water in soil o common in colder climates
can prevent downslope movement (like
building a sandcastle) Flows: Debris Flow, Mudflow, Avalanche
- debris flow
Mass Wasting Triggers o flowing mixture of debris and
- Seismic activity (earthquake) water, usually down a channel
- Heavy Rainfall. - mudflow
- Construction. o mudflow is only soil and water.
- Lack of vegetation - debris avalanches
o no roots to hold rock/soil in place o are very rapid and turbulent.

Classification of Mass Wasting Falls

- Rate of movement - Falls
o < 1cm/year – >100 km/hour. o material free-falls or bounces down
- Type of material a cliff
o Solid bedrock or debris
(unconsolidated material at Earth’s
surface).

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 GEO01 – Earth Science
S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | S1 Q2 CO4 Finals Examination

- Rockfall Running Water

o a block of bedrock breaks free - Stream
and falls or bounces down a cliff o a body of running water, confined
o commonly an apron of fallen rock to a channel, that runs downhill
fragments (talus) accumulates at under the influence of gravity
cliff base. - Headwaters
o upper part of stream near its
Slides source in the mountains
- descending mass remains relatively intact, - Mouth
and descends along well-defined surfaces o place where a stream enters sea,
o Translational slide lake or larger stream
▪ movement along plane - Channel
parallel to motion. o a long, narrow depression eroded
o Rotational slide (slump) by a stream into rock or sediment
▪ movement along a curved - Stream banks
surface. o sides of channel
- Rockslide and Rock Avalanche - Streambed
o the rapid sliding of a mass of o bottom of the channel
bedrock along an inclined surface - Floodplain
of weakness o flat valley floor composed of
- Underwater Landslides sediment deposited by the stream
o Turbidity Currents.
o Can create a tsunami Drainage Basins
- the total area drained by a stream and its
Preventing Landslides tributaries
- Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on o Tributary
Highways ▪ a small stream flowing into
o remove loose material. a larger one.
o stitch slopes together. - Divide
- Preventing Mass Wasting of Soil o ridge or high ground that divides
o construct retaining wall with drains. one drainage basin from another
o don’t oversteepen slopes during o Continental Divide separates the
construction. streams that flow into the Pacific
o remove all rock that is prone to from those that flow into the
sliding. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico
o add vegetative cover.
o cover roads. Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition
- Velocity
Streams and Floods o Maximum velocity near center of
Hydrologic Cycle channel.
- the movement and interchange of water o Higher stream velocities promote
between the sea, air, and land erosion and transport of coarser
o Evaporation sediments.
▪ solar radiation provides o Floods involve increased velocity
energy and erosion.
o Precipitation - Gradient
▪ rain or snow o slope
o Transpiration - Channel Shape and Roughness
▪ evaporation from plants - Discharge
o Runoff o volume of water passing a
▪ water flowing over land particular point in a stream over
surface time
o Infiltration
▪ water soaking into the
ground

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 GEO01 – Earth Science
S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | S1 Q2 CO4 Finals Examination

Stream Erosion Meandering Streams

- Streams cut their own valleys, deepening - rivers that develop pronounced, sinuous
and widening them over time and curves called meanders
carrying away the sediment - water flows faster along the outside of
o Hydraulic action bends causing erosion and created cut
▪ ability to pick up and move banks.
rock and sediment. - flows slower along the inside, depositing
- Solution point bars on the insides of the meanders.
o dissolving of rocks.
- Abrasion Meandering Cutoffs
o grinding away of stream channel - may form when a new, shorter channel is
by the friction and impact of the cut through the narrow neck of a
sediment load. meander (as during a flood)
- Potholes
o are eroded into streambed by the Floodplains
abrasive action of the sediment - are broad strips of land built up by
load in the stream. sedimentation on either side of a stream
channel
Stream Transportation of Sediment - Floodplain sediments
- Bed load o are left behind as flood waters slow
o large or heavy particles that travel and recede at the end of flood
on the streambed events.
- Traction load o main channel has slightly raised
o large particles that travel along the banks with respect to the
streambed by rolling, sliding or floodplain known as natural levees
dragging.
- Saltation load Delta
o medium particles that travel by - body of sediment deposited at the mouth
bouncing along. of a river when flow velocity decreases
- Suspended load - surface marked by shifting distributary
o small/light sediment that remains channels.
above the stream bottom by - Shape of a delta depends on whether its:
turbulent flow for an indefinite o wave-dominated
period of time o tide -dominated
- Dissolved load o stream –dominated
o dissolved ions produced by
chemical weathering of soluble Alluvial Fans
minerals upstream - large, fan – or cone-shaped pile of
sediment that forms where stream velocity
Stream Deposition decreases as it emerges from a narrow
- Bars mountain canyon onto a flat plain
o sediments temporarily deposited - Well – developed in desert regions, such as
along stream course the southwestern U.S.
- Placer Deposits - Larger fans show grading from large
o concentrated heavy sediment sediments nearest the mountains to finer
sediments farther away.
Braided Streams
- contain sediment deposited as numerous Stream Valley Development: Downcutting
bars around which water flows in highly - valleys are the most common landform on
interconnected rivulets Earth
- resembles braids of hair or rope. - formed by stream erosion.
- common for streams carrying a lot of - different valley morphologies depend on
sediment. the erosional processes that created them

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 GEO01 – Earth Science
S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | S1 Q2 CO4 Finals Examination

- Downcutting - can cause great damage in heavily

o process of deepening a valley by populated areas.
erosion of the streambed - high velocity and large volume of water
- V causes flood erosion.
o shaped valleys typically form from - slowing of waters as flood ends causes
downcutting combined with mass flood deposits to be deposited in the
wasting and sheet erosion floodplain.
o streams cannot erode below their
base level. Flooding and Urbanization
- Urbanization creates many impermeable
Stream Valley Development: Grading, Later surfaces which increases runoff flooding
Erosion, Headward Erosion - Water is delivered to streams faster which
- Graded streams increases peak discharge and hastens
o have concave-up longitudinal occurrence of flood.
profile, lack rapids and waterfalls,
represent a balance between Flash Flooding
available sediment load and - are local, sudden floods of large volume
transport capacity and short duration
- Lateral erosion - typically triggered by heavy
o widens stream valleys by thunderstorms.
undercutting of stream banks and
valley walls as stream swings from Reducing Flood Risk
side to side across the valley floor - Dams
- Headward erosion o designed to trap flood waters in
o the slow uphill growth of a valley reservoirs upstream and release it
above its original source by gradually over time
gullying, mass wasting, and sheet - Artificial levees
erosion o designed to increase capacity of
river channel and works well until
Stream Valley Development: Terraces stream overtops levees, leading to
- Stream Terraces extremely rapid flooding and
o step – like landforms found above erosion
a stream and its floodplain - Wise land-use planning
o occurs when river rapidly cuts o including prevention of building
downward into its own floodplain. within 100-year floodplains, is most
o represents relatively sudden effective
change from deposition to erosion.
o can be caused by rapid uplift, Impact of Dams
drops in base level, or climate - Societal Benefits
changes. o Electricity production.
o Flooding control.
Stream Valley Development: Incised Meanders o Reservoir for drinking water.
- Incised meanders - Environmental Concerns
o Retain sinuous pattern as they cut o Trapping of sediment and nutrients
vertically downward. behind the dam.
o May be produced by profound o Habitat destruction.
base level changes, as when rapid o Destabilizing the river valley when
tectonic uplift occurs. the reservoir fills.
o Can lead to landslides.
Flooding
- when water levels rise and overtop the
banks of a river, flooding occurs
- natural process on all rivers.
- described by recurrence intervals.

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 GEO01 – Earth Science
S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | S1 Q2 CO4 Finals Examination

Groundwater Porosity
The Importance of Groundwater - the percentage of rock or sediment that
- Groundwater lies beneath the ground consists of voids or openings
surface, filling pores in sediments and - measurement of a rock’s ability to hold
sedimentary rocks and fractures in other water
rock types - loose sand has approximately 30-50%
- represents 1.7% of the hydrosphere (100x porosity.
the fresh water in all lakes and rivers - compacted sandstone may have only 10-
combined) 20% porosity.
o resupplied by slow infiltration of
precipitation. Permeability
o generally cleaner than surface - the capacity of a rock to transmit fluid
water. through pores and fractures
o accessed by wells. - interconnectedness of pore spaces
- tremendously important resource. - most sandstones and conglomerates are
o growing population has a large porous and permeable.
impact on groundwater resources. - granites, schists, unfractured limestones
o being removed at ever increasing are impermeable
rates.
o pollution impacts are increasing Aquifers
- body of saturated rock or sediment
Water Table through which water can move easily
- Saturated zone - Unconfined
o subsurface zone in which all rock o has a water table and is only partly
openings are filled with water filled
- Water table - Confined
o top of the saturated zone o completely filled with water under
o Water level at surface of most pressure.
lakes and rivers corresponds to
local water table. Aquitard
- Unsaturated zone - rock/sediment that retards ground water
o unsaturated region above the flow due to low porosity and/or
water table permeability
- Perched water table - shale, clay, unfractured crystalline rocks.
o above and separated from main
water table by an unsaturated The Movement of Groundwater
zone - movement of ground water through pores
o commonly produced by thin lenses and fractures is relatively slow (cm to
of impermeable rock within meters/day) compared to flow of water in
permeable ones. surface streams
- flow velocities in cavernous limestones can
be much higher (km/day).
- flow velocity depends upon:
o slope of the water table.
o permeability of the rock or
sediment

Wells
- a deep hole dug or drilled into the ground
to obtain water from an aquifer
- for wells in unconfined aquifers, water level
before pumping is the water table.
- water enters well from pore spaces within
the surrounding aquifer.

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 GEO01 – Earth Science
S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | S1 Q2 CO4 Finals Examination

- water table can be lowered by pumping, Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge

a process known as drawdown. - if ground water is withdrawn more rapidly
- water may rise to a level above the top of than it is recharged, the water table will
a confined aquifer, producing an artesian drop
well. - dropping water table can lead to ground
subsidence.
Springs & Streams - subsidence can crack foundations, roads
- Spring and pipelines.
o a place where water flows - areas of extremely high ground water
naturally from rock or sediment pumping (such as for crop irrigation in dry
onto the ground surface regions) have subsided 7-9 meters.
o stream beds lie above the water
table. Geologic Effects of Groundwater
o maximum infiltration occurs - Groundwater can easily dissolve soluble
through streambed, producing bedrock, such as limestone
permanent “mound” in the water - This creates cave systems, sinkholes, karst
table beneath dry channel. topography, and other effects
- Gaining streams
o receive water from the saturated Caves
zone - naturally-formed underground chambers
o gaining stream surface is local - acidic ground water dissolves limestone
water table. along joints and bedding planes
- Losing streams - Stalagmites
o lose water to the saturated zone o dripstone that forms on cave floors
- Stalactites
Contamination of Groundwater o dripstone formations that hang
- Infiltrating water may bring contaminants from cave ceilings
down to the water table, including:
o pesticides/herbicides. Cave Formation
o fertilizers.
o landfill pollutants.
o heavy metals.
o bacteria, viruses and parasites from
sewage.
o industrial chemicals (p c bs, t c e).
o acid mine drainage.
o radioactive waste.
o oil and gasoline.
- Contaminated ground water can be
extremely difficult and expensive to clean
up

Pollution Caused by Pumping Wells

Karst Topography
- area with rolling hills, disappearing
streams, and sinkholes

Sinkholes
- caves near the surface that have
collapsed

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 GEO01 – Earth Science
S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | S1 Q2 CO4 Finals Examination

Other Effects of Groundwater Types of Glaciers

- Preservation of Fossils - develop as snow is compacted and
- Petrified Wood. - recrystallized, first into firn and then glacial
- Concretions. ice
- Geodes - can only form where more snow
accumulates during the winter than melts
Hot Water Underground away during the spring and summer
- Hot springs o alpine glaciation occurs in
o springs in which the water is mountainous regions as valley
warmer than human body glaciers.
temperature o continental glaciation covers large
o Ground water heated by nearby land masses in earth’s polar regions
magma bodies or circulation to in the form of ice sheets.
unusually deep (and warm) levels o glaciation occurs in areas cold
within the crust. enough to allow accumulated
o Hot water is less dense than cool snow to persist from year to year.
water and thus rises back to the
surface on its own. Distribution of Glaciers
- Geysers - most extensive in polar climates but can
o hot springs that periodically erupt occur anywhere where more snow falls
hot water and steam than melts during the year.
o Minerals often precipitate around - approximately 10% of earth’s surface is
geysers as hot water cools rapidly covered by glaciers.
in the air. - approximately 85% of all glacial ice is in
antarctica.
Geothermal Energy - if all the ice on antarctica were to melt
- produced using natural steam or sea level would rice approximately 65
superheated water meter (213 feet) flooding the worlds
- No CO2 or acid rain are produced (clean coastal cities.
energy source)
- Some toxic gases given off (for example, Formation and Growth of Glaciers
sulfur compounds) 1. Snowfall
- Can be used directly to heat buildings 2. Compaction of the snow removes air.
- Superheated water can be very corrosive 3. Snowflakes recrystallize into granules.
to pipes and equipment 4. Firn – transitional between granular snow
and glacial ice.
Glaciers & Glaciation 5. Glacial Ice – formed once the firn is further
Glacier compacted and more air removed and
- a large, long-lasting mass of ice, formed has a crystallize texture similar to the
on land, that moves downhill under its own metamorphic rock quartzite.
weight 6. Gravity causes the glacier to move
- approximately 70% of the world’s supply of downslope.
fresh water is locked up in glacial ice 7. Ablation – loss of the glacier due to
- Glaciated Terranes melting, evaporation, or calving of
o Alpine icebergs
▪ found in mountainous
regions. Glacial Erosion
o Continental - glaciers erode underlying rock by plucking
▪ large parts of continents of rock fragments and abrasion as they
covered by glacial ice are dragged along
- basal abrasion polishes and striates the
underlying rock surface and produces
abundant fine rock powder known as rock
flour.

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 GEO01 – Earth Science
S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | S1 Q2 CO4 Finals Examination

Landscapes Associated with Continental loose sediments - a result of rare but highly
Glaciation erosive flash flood events.
- rounded topography is more common - Internal drainage
- thick enough to bury mountains rounding o streams flow to land locked basins.
off ridges and summits - Flash Floods
o common in arid regions due to
- weight and thickness of continental ice short-lived high volume rain storms.
sheets produce more pronounced effects
o rounded knobs Wind
o grooved or striated rock (several - large daily temperature and pressure
meters deep and kilometers long) differences lead to strong wind.
- dust storms may occur if fine-grained
More Indirect Effects sediments are readily available.
- Lowering and Rising of Sea level - dust can be transported 1000s of km by
o Fiords atmospheric winds.
▪ coastal inlets formed by - Dust Bowl
drowning of glacially o continuing dust storms in the prairie
carved valleys by rising sea states during the droughts of the
level. 1930s.
- Crustal Rebound - Saharan Desert sediments have carried
o Great Lakes region continues to across the Atlantic Oceana.
rebound as crust adjust to removal - Volcanic Ash.
of the last ice sheet.
Wind Erosion and Transportation
Deserts and Wind Action - Wind can keep dust in suspension, but
Deserts larger sand grains move by saltation.
- any arid region that receives less than 25 - Sand grains moving in high-speed winds
cm of precipitation per year. can effectively sand-blast rocks into
- Running water is the predominant force ventifacts.
shaping most desert landscapes. - Deflation of fine sediments:
- Rare and often violent flash flood events o Blowouts
produce most desert erosion. o Desert pavement

Where and How Deserts Form Wind Deposition: Sand Dunes

- Deserts can be found anywhere that the - mounds of loose sand piled up by the
atmosphere (air) is usually dry. wind.
- Most deserts are associated with areas - most likely to develop in areas with large
where air is descending. sand supply and winds that generally blow
- Most common near 30° north or south in the same direction.
latitude. - small patches of dunes are common in
southwestern U.S., but huge sand seas exist
Rain Shadow Deserts in the Sahara and Arabian deserts.
- form downwind of where moist air rises - dunes may also form just inland of
over high mountain ranges. beaches along the coasts of seas and
large lakes.
Some Characteristics of Deserts
- Intermittent stream flow Shaping Dunes
- Streambeds are dry most of the year Lack - depend on:
through-flowing streams. o Wind velocity and direction(s)
- Exceptions include the Colorado and Nile o Amount of available sand
Rivers. o Distribution of vegetation cover
- Desert washes or arroyos are commonly
steep-sided, with flat floors covered by

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