-t A.

COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART

EDITED HY

JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
A. D. F. HAMLIN
 COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART
EDITED BV

JOHN C. VAN
DYKE, L.H.D.
PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGEKS
COI.LKCE

HISTORY OF PAINTING
By JOHN VAN DYKE,
C. the Editor of the Series. With
Frontispiece and no Illustrations, Bibliographies, and
Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50.

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
By ALKRF.D D. A.M., Professor of the History
F. HAMI.IN,
of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. With
Frontispiece and 235 Illustrations and Diagrams, Biblio-
graphies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and a General
Index. Crown 8vo, $2 oo.

HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
By ALLAN MAKOUAND, Ph.D., LH.D., and ARTHUK L.
FKOTHIN<;HAM, Jr., Ph.D., Professors of Archaeology
and the History of Art in Princeton University. With
Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50.
K 3
S ii
 A TEXT-BOOK

OF THE

A. D. F. HAMLIN, A.M.
PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

EIGHTH EDITION

NEW YORK
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
LONDON, HOMHAV AND CALCUTTA
 COPYRIGHT, i8gs, HY

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

All rights reserved.

COPYRIGHT, U,CQ, HY

LONGMANS, GKEKN, AND CO.

All rights reserved.

FIRST EDITION, MARCH, 1*06.

REPRINTED AND REVISED, DECEMBER, i8g6 DECEMIIEK, ; iS<)S; ()i IDIII-K,

OCTOIIER, igo2 SEPT KM HER, 1004 Ji NE, 1906 NoVEMUEK,

; ; ; 1407 ; J ANT ARY, i

EK;HTH EDITION, SEPTEMHER, iyog

Press of J J. Little fi Ivt

4J5-43S H.'ist J4th Street, Nc
 Architecture
Urban Planning

Library

A/A
00

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

THE aim of this work has been to sketch the various periods

and styles of architecture with the broadest possible strokes, and

to mention, with such brief characterization as seemed permissi-
ble or necessary, the most important works of each period or

style. Extreme condensation in presenting the leading facts of

architectural history has been necessary, and much that would

rightly claim place in a larger work has been omitted here. The
danger was felt to be rather in the direction of too much detail

than of too little. While the book is intended primarily to meet

the special requirements of the college student, those of the gen-

eral reader have not been lost sight of. The majority of the
technical terms used are defined or explained in the context, and
the small remainder in a glossary at the end of the work. Ex-
tended criticism and minute description were out of the question,
and discussion of controverted points has been in consequence as

far as possible avoided.

The illustrations have been carefully prepared with a view to

elucidating the text, rather than for pictorial effect. With the

exception of some fifteen cuts reproduced from Lubke's Gc-

schichte dcr Architektur (by kind permission of Messrs. Seemann,

of Leipzig), the illustrations are almost all entirely new. A large

number. are from original drawings made by myself, or under my

direction, and the remainder are, with a few exceptions, half-tone
vi PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

reproductions prepared specially for this work from photographs

in my possession. Acknowledgments are due to Messrs. H. W.

Buemming, H. D. Bultman, and A. E. Weidinger for valued

assistance in preparing original drawings; and to Professor W. R.

Ware, to Professor W. H. Thomson, M.D., and to the Editor of

the Series for much helpful criticism and suggestion.
It is hoped that the lists of monuments appended to the history
of each period down to the present century may prove useful for
reference, both to the student and the general reader, as a supple-
ment to the body of the text.
A. D. F. HAMLIN.
COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK,
January 20, 1896.
 PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION.

THE architectural achievements of the past fourteen years, the

notable advances in the archaeology of the art and the growth

of its literature, have made imperative a careful revision of the

text of this little work. It has, however, seemed wise not to ex-

pand unduly the matter of the volume, but to confine the revision
to the correction of errors, and the addition of such new matter
as was necessary to bring the entire text up to date. Some of the

illustrations have been re-drawn and a few new ones added; the

bibliographies have been revised and the lists of monuments cor-

rected and in some cases considerably expanded. The form and

appearance of the book have not been changed, but it is believed
that it is now more reliable and accurate, and more nearly abreast
with the present-day conditions of and knowledge concerning

architecture than ever before. Having been printed from new

plates a little more closely than the earlier editions, it is but little

larger than they, although containing a considerable amount of

new matter. In the work of revision the author desires to ac-

knowledge gratefully his especial obligations to Professor J. T.

Shotwell of Columbia University for suggestions and corrections

regarding historical matters, and his appreciation of the aid rend-

ered by all who have sent their criticisms or called attention to

errors in the book.

A. D. F. HAMLIN.
THE SCHOOL
OF ARCHITECTI-RE,
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. NKW YORK,
June 24, 1
009.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION ....... PAGE

v

PREFACE TO EIGHTH EDITION vii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY xxi

INTRODUCTION .......... xxiii

CHAPTER I.

PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE I

CHAPTER II.

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE 6

CHAPTER III.

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE, Continued 16

CHAPTER IV.

CHALD.EAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE 28

CHAPTER V.

PERSIAN, LYCIAN, AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE . . .

-35
CHAPTER VI.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE . . . .
4.2

(ix)
X TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII. PAGE

GREEK ARCHITECTURE, Continued 61

CHAPTER VIII.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 75

CHAPTER IX.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE, Continued 88

CHAPTER X.

EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE no

CHAPTER XI.

BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 120

CHAPTER XII.

SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE ARABIAN,

MORESQUE, PERSIAN, INDIAN, AND TURKISH . . .
135

CHAPTER XIII.

EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY AND FRANCE . .

155

CHAPTER XIV.

EARLY MEDI/KVAL ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN,

AND SPAIN 174

CHAPTER XV.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 185

CHAPTER XVI.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE ..... 1Q9

 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI

CHAPTER XVII. PAGE

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN .... 222

CHAPTER XVIII.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND

SPAIN 242

CHAPTER XIX.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY 259

CHAPTER XX.
EARLY RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY . . .
.275

CHAPTER XXI.

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY THE ADVANCED

RENAISSANCE AND DECLINE 292

CHAPTER XXII.

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE 314

CHAPTER XXIII.

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE

NETHERLANDS ,?34

CHAPTER XXIV.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, SPAIN. AND POK-
TUGAI 346

CHAPTER XXV.
THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE . . .
363
xii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXVI. PAGE

RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 3?6

CHAPTER XXVII.
ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES 395

CHAPTER XXVIII.

ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN . .

416

GLOSSARY 433

INDEX OF ARCHITECTS 437

INDEX 445
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
THE authorship of the original drawings is indicated by the initials
affixed: A. := drawings by the author; B. =
H. W. Buemming Bn. ;

= H. D. Bultman Cli. ;
=Chateau, L' Architecture en France; G. =
drawings adapted from Gwilt's Encyclopaedia of Architecture; L. =
Ltibke's Gcschichte dcr Architcktur; S. Simpson's History of
Architectural Development ; W. =
A. E. Weidinger. All other illus-
trations are from photographs.
PAGE
FRONTISPIECE. The Parthenon Restored (from model in Met-
tropolitan Museum, New York)
1 Section of Great Pyramid (A.) 8
2 Section of King's Chamber (A.) 9
3 Plan of Sphinx Temple (A.)
4 Ruins of Sphinx Temple (A.)
5 Tomb at Abydos (A.)
.... .10
n
9

6 Tomb Beni-Hassan (A.)

at 11

7 Section and Half-plan of same (A.) 12

8 Plan of the Ramesseum (A.) 14
9 Temple of Edfou. Plan (B.) 17
10 Temple of Edfou. Section (B.) . . . . .
17
11 Temple of Karnak. Plan (L.) uS
Karnak (from model
12 Central Portion of Hypostyle Hall at
in Metropolitan Museum, ....
.......
New York) 20
13 Great
14 Edfou.
15 Osirid Pier
Temple of Tpsamboul
Front of Hypostyle Hall
(Medinet Aboti) (A.)
.... 21

-3
24
16 Types of Column (A.) 25
17 Egyptian Floral Ornament-Forms (A.) . . . 26
18 Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad. Phm (L. ) . . .
30
10
20
21
Gate. Khorsabad (A.)
Assyrian Ornament (A.)
Column from Persi-jx.lis (]",.)
....... 32
34
37
22 Lion Gate at Mycen;c (A.) 44
(xiii)
XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PACK
23 Polygonal Masonry, Mycenae (A.)
24 Tholos of Atreus Plan and Section (A.)
; .... 45
46

26 Greek Doric Order (A.)

27 Doric Order of the Parthenon.
........
25 Tholos of Atreus, Doorway (after Phene Spiers) (A.)

(From cast in Metropolitan

.
46
49

Museum, New York) 50

28 Greek Ionic Order, Miletus (A.) 52
29 Side View of Ionic Capital (B.) 53
30 Greek Corinthian Order (A.) 54
31 Types of Greek Temple Plans (A.) 55
32 Carved Anthemion Ornament, Athens
33 Temple of Zeus, Agrigentum Plan (A.)
34 Ruins of the Parthenon
; .... 58
62
64
35 Plan of the Erechtheum (A.) 65
36 West End of the Erechtheum; Restored (A.) . . . 66
37 Propylaea at Athens. Plan (G.) 66
38 Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. (From model in Met-
ropolitan Museum, New York) 68
39 Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens. Plan (A.) ... 69
40 Plan of Greek Theatre (A.) 71
41 Mausoleum atHalicarnassus (A.) 73
'42 Roman Doric Order from Theatre of Marcellus. (Model
in Metropolitan Museum, New York) . . .
.78
43 Roman Ionic Order (A.) . . . . . .
-79
44 Roman Corinthian Order. (From model in Metropolitan
Museum, New York) . .80
45 Roman Arcade with Engaged Columns (A.) 81 . . .

46 Barrel Vault (A.) 82

47 Groined Vault (A.) .82
48 Roman Wall Masonry (B.) .84
49 Roman Carved Ornament. (Lateran Museum ) . .86
Roman Ceiling Panels (A.) .87
50
51 Temple of Fortuna Virilis. Plan .... .89
52 Circular Temple, Tivoli (A.)
53 Temple of Venus and Rome. ....
Plan (A.)
90
93
54 Plan of the Pantheon (B.) 94
55 Interior of the Pantheon 95
56 Exterior of the Pantheon.

57
seum,
Forum and
New York)
Basilica of
........
(Model

Trajan (A.)
in Metropolitan Mu-
96
97
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV

58 Basilica of Constantinc. Plan (G.) 98

59 Ruins of Basilica of Constantino 99
60 Central Block, Thermae of Caracalla. Plan (G.) . . 100
61 Roman Theatre, Herculanum 101
62 Colosseum at Rome. Half Plan (A.) 102
63 Arch of Constantine. (Model in Metropolitan Museum,
New York)
64 Palace of Diocletian, Spalato. Plan (G.)
65 Plan of House of Pansa, Pompeii (A.) .
.... . . .
103
105
106
66 Plan of Santa Costanza, Rome (A.) in
67 Plan of the Basilica of St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, Rome
(A.) 113
68 St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls. Interior 114
69 Church at Kalb Louzeh (A.) 116
70 Cathedral at Bozrah. Plan (A.) 117
71 Diagram of Pendentives (A.) 123
72 Spandril. Hagia Sophia 125
73 Capital with Impost Block, S. Vitale
74 Plan of St. Sergius, Constantinople (A.)
75 Plan of San Vitale, Ravenna (S.)
.... 126
127

76 Plan of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (A.)

77 Section of Hagia Sophia (A.)
.... 127
128
128
78 Interior of Hagia Sophia (full page) 129
79 Plan of St. Mark's, Venice (A.) 132
80 Interior of St. Mark's 133
81 Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo. Sanctuary . . .
137
82 Mosque of Kaid Bey, Cairo 139
83 Moorish Detail, Alhambra
84 Interior of Great Mosque, Cordova ... .
141
142
85 Plan of the Alhambra (A.) .144
86 Tomb of Mahmud, Bijapur. Section (A.) . . .
147
87 The Taj Mahal, Agra 149
88 Mosque of Mehmet II., Constantinople. Plan (L.) . .
151
89 Exterior of Ahmediyeh Mosque, Constantinople . . .
152
90 Interior of Suleimaniyeh Mosque, Constantinople .
153
91 Interior of San Ambrogio, Milan 157
92 Plan of San Michele, Pavia (A.) 158
93 West Front and Campanile, Cathedral of Piacenza . .
159

95 Interior of Pisa Cathedral .......

94 Baptistery, Cathedral, and Leaning Tower, Pisa . . . 160
161
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PACE

96 Plan of St. Front, Perigueux (G.) 166

97 Interior of St. Front (L.) 167

98 Plan of Notre Dame clu Port, Clermont (Ch.) . .
.167
99 Section of same (Ch.) 168
100 Plan of St. Sernin, Toulouse (A.) . . . . . 168
101 A Six-part Ribbed Vault (A.) 169
1 02 Plan of Minster at Worms (G.) 175
103 One Bay, Cathedral of Spires (L.)
104 East End, Church of the Apostles, Cologne .... 176
177
105 Plan of Durham Cathedral (Bn.) . . . . . .
179
106 One
Bay, Transept of Winchester Cathedral (G.) . . 180
107 Front of Iffley Church (A.) 181
108 Constructive System of Gothic Church (A.) . . . 186
109 Plan of Sainte Chapelle, Paris (Bn.) 187
1 10 Early Gothic Flying Buttress (Bn.) 188
111 Ribbed Vault, English Type (Bn. after Babcock) . .
189

113 Plate Tracery, Charlton-on-Oxmore

Bar Tracery, St. Michael's, Warfield (W.)
.....
112 Penetrations and Intersections of Vaults (Bn.)

....
. . . 100
191
114
115 Rose Window from St. Oucn, Rouen (G.)
116 Flamboyant Detail, Strasburg
....
......
192
193
194
117 Early Gothic Carving (A.) 195
118 Carving, Decorated Period, from Southwell Minster . .
196
119 Plan of Notre Dame. Paris (L.) 201
120 Interior of Notre Dame
I2F Interior of Le Mans Cathedral
122 Vaulting with Zigzag Ridge Joints (A.)
......
....
202
203
204
123 i")nc Bay, Abbey of St. Denis (G.) 206
124 The Sainte Chapelle, Paris. Exterior 207
125 Amiens Cathedral. Plan (G.) 208
126 Alby Cathedral. Plan (A. after Liibke) . . .
.209
127 West Front of Notre Dame, Paris 210
128 West Front of St. Maclou, Rouen 211
129 French Gothic Capitals (A.)
130
131
Openwork Gable, Rouen Cathedral
North Porch, Chartres Cathedral
..... 213
214
215
132 House of Jacques ("(eiir, Bourges (L.) . . . . 218
133 Han of Salisbury Cathedral (Bn.) 223
134 Ribbed Vaulting, Choir of Exeter Cathedral . . .
225
135 Lierne Vaulting, Tewkesbury Abbey . 226
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii

PACE
136 Vault of Chapter House, Wells
'37 Cloisters of Salisbury Cathedral
138 Perpendicular Tracery, St. George's,
. ....
Windsor . . .
227
229
230
139 West Front, Lichfield Cathedral 232
140 One Bay
of Choir, Lichtield Cathedral (A.) . . .
233
141 Fan Vaulting, Henry VII. 's Chapel 235
142 Eastern Part, Westminster Abbey. Plan (L.) . . .
236
143 Roof of Nave, St. Mary's, Westonzoyland (W.) . .
238
One Bay, Cathedral
144 of St. George,
145 Section of St. Elizabeth. Marburg (Bn.)
146 Cologne Cathedral. Plan (G.)
Limhurg (L.)
.... . .
244
245
247
147 Church of Our Lady, Treves (L.) 248
148 Plan of Ulm Cathedral (L.) 249
149 Town Hall, Louvain 252
150 Facade of Burgos Cathedral 253
151 Detail from S. Gregorio, Valladolid 255
152
153
154
Duomo
Duomo
One
at Florence.
at Florence. Nave .......
Plan (G.)

Bay, Cathedral of S. Martino, Lucca (L.) . . .

261
262
263
155 Interior of Sienna Cathedral
156 Faqade of Sienna Cathedral
157 Exterior of the Certosa, Pavia
....... 264
266
267
158 Plan of the Certosa, Pavia
159 Upper Part of Campanile, Florence .....
....
268
269

161 Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence

162 West Front of Doge's
.......
160 Upper Part of Palazzo Vecchio, Florence

Palace, Venice
270
271
272
163 Capital, Palazzo Zorzi, Venice 280
16.} Section of Dome, Duomo of Florence (Bn.)

lf>5 Exterior of Dome, Duomo ....

......
of Florence
. . . 281
282
if)6Interior of S. Spirito, Florence
167 Court of Riccardi Palace, Florence ..... 283
284
i6S Facade of Strozzi Palace, Florence
}(,<)

17.0
Tomb of Pietro di Noceto. Lucca
Vendramini Palace, Venice
.....
.......
285
287
280
171 Facade of Giraud Palace. Rome (L.) 295
172 Plan of Farnese Palace, Rome ( L.
173 Court of Fanu-se Palace, Rome
174 Bramantc's Plan for St. 'tier's, Rome (L)
I
......
)

. . .
_'<X>

-'97
J<)<)

175 Plan of St. Peter's. Rome, as now standing ( Bn. after G.) 300
XV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

176 Interior of St. Peter's (full page) 301

177 Library of St. Mark, Venice
178 Interior of San Severo, Naples ......
179 Church of Santa Maria della Salute, Naples . . .
306
307
308
180 Court Facade, East Wing of Blois 317
181 StaircaseTower, Blois 319
182 Plan of Chateau of Chambord (A.)
183 Upper Part of Chateau of Chambord .....
184 Detail of Court of Louvre, southwest portion . .
320
320
322
185 The Luxemburg Palace, Paris 324
186 Colonnade of the Louvre 327
187 Dome of the Invalides, Paris 328
188 Fagade of St. Sulpice, Paris 329
189 Plan of Pantheon, Paris (G.) 330
190 Exterior of Pantheon, Paris 331
Burghley House
191
192 Whitehall Palace, the Banqueting Hall
193 Plan of St. Paul's Cathedral, London (G.)
....
....
336
337
338
194 Exterior of St. Paul's Cathedral 339
195 Plan of Blenheim (G.) 340
196 St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, London 341
197 Renaissance Houses, Brussels 343
198 Schloss Hamelschenburg 349
199 TheFriedrichsbau, Heidelberg Castle . . . .
351
200 Pavilion of Zwinger Palace, Dresden 353
201 Marienkirche, Dresden .
354
202 Portal of University, Salamanca 357
203 Court (Patio) of Casa de Zaporta
204 Palace of Charles V., Granada
205 Faqade of British Museum, London
...... 358
359
365
206 St. George's Hall, Liverpool 366
207 The Old Museum, Berlin 368
208 The Propylaea, Munich 369
209 Arch of Triumph of 1'Etoile, Paris 371
210 The Madeleine, Paris 372
211 Door of Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris 373
212 St. Isaac's Cathedral, St. Petersburg 374
213 Plan of Louvre and Tuileries (A.) 379
214 Pavilion Richelieu, Louvre 380
215 Grand Staircase, Paris Opera House 381
 LIST -OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xix

216 Fountain of Longchamps, Marseilles

217 Galliera Museum, Paris
..... 382
383
218 Royal Theatre, Dresden 384
219 Maria-Theresienhof, Vienna
220 Houses of Parliament, London
221 Assize Courts, Manchester
...... 385
387
388
222 Natural History Museum, South Kensington . . .
389
223 Christ Church, Philadelphia 398
224 Craigie House, Cambridge (Mass.) 399
225 National Capitol, Washington 401
226 Old Custom House,
227 Trinity Church, Boston ........
New York

228 Public Library, Woburn (Mass.)

(National City Bank) .
402
406
407
229 Times Building, New York 409
230 Country House at Nyack, N. Y 410
231 Country House in Colonial Style 412
232 Porch of Temple of Vimalah Sah, Mount Abu . .
.421
233 Tower of Victor}', Chittore 422
234 Double Temple at Hullabid Detail
:
425
235 Shrine of Soubramanya, Tan j ore 427
 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
(This includes the leading architectural works treating of more
than one period or style. The reader should consult also the special
references at the head of each chapter. Valuable material is also
contained in the leading architectural periodicals and in mono-
graphs too numerous to mention.)

DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS.

Agincourt, History 0} Art by its Monuments; London.

Architectural Publication Society, Dictionary oj Architecture;
London.
Bosc, Dictionnaire raisonne d' architecture; Paris.
Gwilt, Encyclopedia 0} Architecture; London and New York.
Longfellow and Frothingham, Cyclopedia. 0} Architecture in
Italy and the Lercani; New York.
Planat, Encyclopedic d?architecture; Paris.
Sturgis, Dictionary oj Architecture and Building; New York.

GENERAL HANDBOOKS AND HISTORIES.

Blomfield, The Mistress Art; London.

Biihlmann, Die Archilcktur dcs klassischcn Altcrthums und dcr
Renaissance; Stuttgart. (Also in English, published in New
York.)
1

Choisy, Histoire de I architecture; Paris.

Durand, Recucil el parallcle d'edifices de tous genres; Paris.
Durm and
others, Handlnich dcr Anhitektur; Stuttgart. (This
isan encyclopedic compendium of architectural knowledge in
many volumes; the series not yet complete. It is referred to as
ihclfdbuch.d. Arch.)
Fergusson, History oj Architecture in All Countries; London.
xxii GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Fletcher and Fletcher, A History 0} Architecture; London.

Gailhabaud, U Architecture du Vine, au XV II I me. siecle; Paris.
Monuments anclens et modernes; Paris.
Gosset, Les Cou poles d'orient et d Occident ;
1
Paris.

Isabelle, Les Edifices circulaires et les domes; Paris.

Kugler, Geschichte der Baukunst; Stuttgart.
Liibke, Geschichte der Architektur; Leipzig. History 0} Arf, tr.
and rev. by R. Sturgis; New York.
Michel, Histoire de I' Art.

Perry, Chronology 0} Medieval and Renaissance Architecture;

London.
Reynaud, Traite d''architecture; Paris.

Roger-Peyre, Repertoire chronologique de Vlnstoire des Beaux-

Arts.

Rosengarten, Handbook of Architectural Styles; London and

New York.
Simpson, A History of Architectural Development, vols. i. and
ii.; London and New York.
Spiers, Architecture East and West; London.
Statham, Architecture /or General Readers; London.
Sturgis, European Architecture; New York, .1 History of

Architecture, vol. i.; New York.

Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects;
London.
Viollet-le-Uuc, Discourses on Architecture; Boston.

THEORY, THE ORDERS, ETC.

Chambers, A Treatise on Civil Architecture; London.

Ksquie, Traite elementaire d?architecture; Paris.
Guadet, Thcorie de I'archilccfnrc; Paris.
Jackson, Reason in Architecture; London.
Ruskin, The. Seven Lamps of Architecture; London.
Hoiv to Judge Architecture; New York.
Sturgis,
Ware, The American Vignola; Scranton.
 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

INTRODUCTION.
A HISTORY of architecture is a record of man's efforts to build

beautifully. The
erection of structures devoid of beauty is mere

building, a trade and not an art. Edifices in which strength and

stability alone are sought, and in designing which only utilitarian

considerations have been followed, are properly works of engi-

neering. Only when the idea of beauty is added to that of use

does a structure take place among works of architecture.

its We
may, then, define architecture as the art which seeks to harmon-
ize in a building the requirements of utility and of beauty. It is

the most useful of the fine arts and the noblest of the useful arts.
It touches the life of man at every point. It is concerned not
only in sheltering his person and ministering to his comfort, but

also in providing him with places for worship, amusement, and

business; with tombs, memorials, embellishments for his cities,
and other structures for the varied needs of a complex civilization.
It engages the services of a larger portion of the community and
involves greater outlays of money than any other occupation
except agriculture. Everyone at some point comes in contact
with the work of the architect, and from this universal contact
architecture derives its significance as an index of the civilization
of an age, a race, or a people.
It is the function of the historian of architecture to trace the

origin, growth, and dec line of the architectural styles which have
prevailed in different lands and ages, and to show how they have
xxiv INTRODUCTION.

reflected the great movements of civilization. The migrations,

the conquests, the commercial, social, and changes
religious
among different peoples have all manifested themselves in the
changes of their architecture, and it is the historian's function to
show this. function to explain the principles of the
It is also his

styles, their characteristic forms and decoration, and to describe

the great masterpieces of each style and period.
STYLE is a quality; the "historic styles" are phases of devel-
opment. Style is character expressive of definite conceptions, as
of grandeur, gaiety, or solemnity. An historic style is the particu
lar phase, the characteristic manner of design, which prevails at
a given time and place. It is not the result of mere accident or
caprice, but of intellectual, moral, social, religious, and even polit-
ical conditions. Gothic architecture could never have been in-

vented by the Greeks, nor could the Egyptian styles have grown
up in Italy. Each style is based upon some fundamental princi-
ple springing from its surrounding civilization, which undergoes
successive developments until either it reaches perfection or its

possibilities are exhausted, after which a period of decline usually

sets in. This is followed either by a reaction and the introduc-
tion of some radically new principle leading to the evolution of a
new or by the final decay and extinction of the civilization
style,
and replacement by some younger and more virile element.
its

Thus the history of architecture appears as a connected chain of

causes and effects succeeding each other without break, each

style growing out of that which preceded it, or springing out of

the fecundating contact of a higher with a lower civilization. To

study architectural styles is therefore to study a branch of the

history of civilization.
Technically, architectural styles are identified by the means
they employ to cover enclosed spaces, by the characteristic forms
of the supports and other members (piers, columns, arches, mould-

ings, traceries, etc.), and by their decoration. The plan should

receive special attention, since it shows the arrangement of the
 INTRODUCTION. XXV

points of support, and hence the nature of the structural design.

A comparison, for example, of the plans of the Hypostyle Hall at
Karnak (Fig. n, //) and of the Basilica of Constantine (Fig. 58)
shows at once a radical difference in constructive principle be-
tween the two edifices, and hence a difference of style.
STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES. All architecture is based on
one or more of four fundamental structural principles; that of
the lintel, of the arch or vault, of the truss, and of cohesive con-
struction. The principle of the lintel is that of resistance to
transverse strains, and appears in all construction in which a
single cross-piece or beam rests on two or more vertical supports.
The arch or vault makes use of several pieces to span an opening
between two supports. These pieces are in compression and
exert lateral pressures or thrusts which are transmitted to the

supports or abutments. The thrust must be resisted either by

the massiveness of the abutments or by the opposition to it of
counter-thrusts from other arches or vaults. Roman builders
used the first, Gothic builders the second of these means of re-

sistance. The truss is a framework so composed of several

pieces of wood or metal that each shall best resist the particular

strain,whether of tension or compression, to which it is subjected,

the whole forming a compound beam. It is especially applicable

to very wide spans, and is the most characteristic feature of mod-

ern construction.
The fourth principle, that of the cohesion of materials shaped
while plastic, and hardening or "setting" into a homogeneous
structural unit, although known to the Romans and employed by
them in a limited way, has within recent years undergone an ex-
traordinarily rapid development. It employs concrete, made of
cement and small stones or other like material, moulded while
plastic into the necessary structural forms and supplied with
bars, rcxls or wires of metal buried in the concrete to take up any
and all tensile strains in the beams or slabs subject to transverse

pressure, and which the concrete alone is ill-fitted to resist. The

XXVI INTRODUCTION.

applications of this system are known by various names grouped

under the generic term "reenforced concrete." While its most
rapid development has been in works of pure engineering, its
applications to architecture are being daily multiplied and it is
sure to exert a marked influence as the design of the coming
years. Howthe adoption of one or another of these principles
affected the forms and even the decoration of the various styles
will be shown in the succeeding chapters.
HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. Geographically and chron-
ologically, architecture appears to have originated in the Nile
valley. A second centre of development is found in the valley of
the Tigris and Euphrates, not uninfluenced by the older Egyptian
art. A third centre of artistic culture, later in date than the
two just mentioned, has been in recent years discovered to have
existed in Crete. Through various channels the Greeks inher-
ited from all three civilizations, the several influences being dis-

cernible even through the strongly original aspect of Greek

architecture. The Romans in turn, adopting the external details
of Greek architecture, transformed substance by substituting
its

the Etruscan arch for the Greek construction of columns and

lintels. a complete and original system of con-
They developed
struction and decoration and spread it over the civilized world,
which has never wholly outgrown or abandoned it.
With the fall of Rome and the rise of Constantinople these
forms underwent East another transformation, called the
in the

Byzantine, in the development of Christian domical church archi-

tecture. In the North and West, meanwhile, under the growing
institutions of the papacy and of the monastic orders and the
emergence of a feudal civilization out of the chaos of the Dark

Ages, the constant preoccupation of architecture was to evolve

from the basilica type of church a vaulted structure, and to adorn
itthroughout with an appropriate dress of constructive and
symbolic ornament. Gothic architecture was the outcome
of this preoccupation and it
prevailed throughout northern and
 INTRODUCTION. XXVll

western Europe until nearly or quite the close of (he fifteenth

century.
During this fifteenth century the Renaissance style matured in
Italy, where it speedily triumphed over Gothic fashions and pro-
duced a marvellous series of civic monuments, palaces, and
churches, adorned with forms borrowed or imitated from classic
Roman art. This influence spread through luirope in the six-
teenth century, and ran a course of two centuries, after which a

period of servile classicism was followed by a rapid decline in

taste. To this succeeded the eclecticism and confusion of the
nineteenth century, to which the rapid growth of new require-
ments and development of new resources have largely con-
tributed.
In Eastern lands three great schools of architecture have

grown up contemporaneously with the above phases of Western

art; one under the influence of Mohammedan civilization, another
in the Brahman and Buddhist architecture of India and the third
in China and Japan. The first of these is the richest and most
important. Primarily inspired in large measure from Byzantine
art, always stronger on the decorative than on the constructive

side, it has given to the world the mosques and palaces of North-
ern Africa, Moorish Spain, Persia, Turkey, and India. The
other two schools seem to be wholly unrelated to the first, and
have no affinity with the architecture of Western lands.
Of Mexican, Central American, and South American architec-
ture so known, and that little is so remote in history and
little is

spirit from the styles above enumerated, that it belongs rather to

archaeology than to architectural history, and will not be con-
sidered in this work.
 CHAPTER I.

PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Desor, Les constructions lacustres du

lac de Neu/chalel. Fergusson, Rude Stone Monuments. R. C.
Hoare, Ancient Wiltshire. Lyell, The Antiquity 0} Man. Lub-
bock, Times. Nadaillac, Prehistoric America.
Prehistoric
Rougemont, L'age du Bronze. Tylor, Primitive Culture. Waring,
Stone Monuments, Tumuli and Ornament oj Remote Ages.

EARLY BEGINNINGS. It is impossible to trace the early

stages of the process by which true architecture grew out of the
first rude attempts of man at
building. The oldest existing monu-
ments of architecture those of Chaldrcaand Egypt belong to an
advanced civilization. The rude and elementary structures
built by savage and barbarous peoples, like the Hottentots or the
tribes of Central Africa, are not in themselves works of architec-

ture,nor is any instance known of the evolution of a civilized art

from such beginnings. So far as the monuments testify, no sav-
age people ever raised itself to civilization, and no primitive
method of building was ever developed into genuine architecture,

except by contract with some existing civilization of which it ap-

propriated the spirit, the processes, and the forms. How the
earliest architecture came into existence is as yet an unsolved

problem.
PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE is therefore a subject for the
archaeologist rather than the historian of art, and needs here only
the briefest mention. If we may judge of the condition of the

primitive races of antiquity by that of the savage and barbarous

peoples of our own time, they required only the simplest kinds of
2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

buildings, though the purposes which they served were the same
as those of later times in civilized communities. A hut or house
for shelter, a shrine of some sort for worship, a stockade for de-

fence, a cairn or mound

over the grave of the chief or hero, were
provided out of the simplest materials, and these often of a perish-
able nature. Poles supplied the framework; wattles, skins or
mud the walls; thatching or stamped earth the roof. Only the
simplest tools were needed for such elementary construction.
There was ingenuity and patient labor in work of this kind; but
there was no planning, no fitting together into a complex organ-
ism of varied materials shaped with art and handled with science.
Above all, there was no progression toward higher ideals of fitness
and beauty. Rudimentary art displayed itself mainly in objects
of worship, or in the decorations of canoes and weapons, exe-
cuted as talismans to ward off misfortune or to charm the unseen

powers; but even this art was sterile and never grew of itself into
civilized and progressive art.
Yet there must have been at some point in the remote past an
exception to this rule. Somewhere and somehow the first civ-
ilized people, perhaps of Egypt, either in Egypt or in some earlier

ancestral home, must have developed from crude beginnings the

architectural knowledge and resource which meet us in the oldest

monuments, though every vestige of that early age has apparently

perished. But although nothing has come down to us of the
actual work of the builders who wrought in the primitive ages of

mankind, there exist throughout Europe and Asia almost count-

less monuments of a primitive character belonging to relatively
recent times, but executed before the advent of historic civiliza-
tion to the regions where they are found. A general resemblance
among them suggests a common heritage of traditions from the
hoariest antiquity, and throws light on the probable character of
the transition from barbaric to civilized architecture.
PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS. These monuments vary widely
in age as well as in excellence; some of them be-long to
 PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE. 3

Roman or even Christian times; others to a much remoter period.

They are divided into two principal classes, the megalitliic struc-
tures and lake dwellings. The latter class may be dismissed with
the briefest mention. It comprises a considerable number of

very primitive houses or huts built on wooden piles in the lakes of

Switzerland and several other countries in both hemispheres, and

forming in some cases villages of no mean size. Such villages,

water for protection from attack, are mentioned by
built over the

the writers of antiquity and portrayed on Assyrian reliefs. The

objects found in them reveal an incipient but almost stationary
civilization, extending back from three thousand to five thousand

years or more, and lasting through the ages of stone and bronze
down into historic times.
The megalithic remains of Europe and Asia are far more im-
portant. They are very widely distributed, and consist in most
cases of great blocks of stone arranged in rows, circles, or avenues,
sometimes with huge lintels resting upon them. Upright stones
without are called menhirs; standing in pairs with lintels
lintels

they are known as dolmens; the circles are called cromlechs.

Some of the stones are of gigantic size, some roughly hewn into
shape; others left as when quarried. Their age and purpose
have been much discussed without reaching positive results. It
is
probable that, like the lake dwellings, they cover a long range of
time, reaching from the dawn of recorded history some thousands
of years back into the unknown past, and that they were erected

by races which have disappeared before the migrations to which

Europe owes her present populations. That most of them were
in some way connected with the worship of these prehistoric peo-

ples generally admitted; but whether as temples, tombs, or

is

memorials of historical or mythical events cannot, in all cases, be

positively asserted. They were not dwellings or palaces, and

very few were even enclosed buildings. They are imposing by the
size and number of their immense stones, but show no sign of
advanced art, or of conscious striving after beauty of design.
4 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The small number of "carved stones," bearing singular orna-

mental patterns, symbolic or mystical rather than decorative in
intention, really tends to prove this statement rather than to con-
trovertit. It is not impossible that the dolmens were generally

intended to be covered by mounds of earth. This would group

them with the tumuli referred to below, and point to a sepulchral
purpose in their erection. Some antiquaries, Fergusson among
them, contend that many of the European circles and avenues
were intended as battle-monuments or trophies.
There are also walls of great antiquity in various parts of
Europe intended for fortification; the most important of these in
Greece and Italy will be referred to in later chapters. They be-

long to a more advanced art, some of them even deserving to be

classed among works of archaic architecture.
The tumuli, or burial mounds, which form so large a part of
the prehistoric remains of both continents, are interesting to the
architect only as revealing the prototypes of the pyramids of

Egypt and the subterranean tombs of Mycenae and other early

Greek centres. The piling of huge cairns or commemorative
heaps of stone is known from the Scriptures and other ancient
writings to have been a custom of the greatest antiquity. The
pyramids and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus are the most
imposing and elaborate outgrowths of this practice, of which the
prehistoric tumuli are the simpler manifestations.
These crude and elementary products of undeveloped civiliza-
tions have no place, however, in any list of genuine architectural

works. They belong rather to theof archaeology and

domain
ethnology, and have received this brief mention only as revealing
the beginnings of the builder's art, and the wide gap that sepa-
rates them from that genuine architecture which forms the sub-

ject of the following chapters.

MONUMENTS. Tin- most celebrated in England arc at Avehury,

an avenue, and small circle's, harrows, and the great tumuli
larj^e
of Bartlow and Silbury "Hills"; at Stonclu-nge, on Salisbury
 PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE. 5

"
Plain, great megalithic circles and many barrows; Sarsen stones"
at Ashdown; tumuli, dolmens, chambers, and circles in Derby-
shire. In Ireland, many cairns and circles. In Scotland, circles
and barrows in the Orkney Islands. In France, Carnac and Lok-
mariaker in Brittany are especially rich in dolmens, circles, and
avenues. In Scandinavia, Germany, and Italy, in India and in
Africa, are many similar remains.
 CHAPTER II.

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Breasted, A History of Egypt from the
Earliest Times. Brugsch Bey, Egypt under the Pharaohs.
Champollion, Monuments de I'Egyple el de la Nubie. Choisy,
L'art de bdtir chez les Egyptiens. Jomard, Description dc
I'Egyple, Antiquites. Lepsius, Denkmdler aits Aegypten und
Aethiopien. Marietta, Monuments of Upper Egypt. Alaspero,
Egyptian Archeology. Perrot and Chipiez, History 0} Art in
Ancient Egypt. Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire de I' art egyptien.
Petrie, History of Egypt; The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh;
Ten Years' Digging in Egypt, 1881-91. Rawlinson, History of
Ancient Egypt. Reber, History of Ancient Art. Rossellini,
Monumenti del Egitto. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of
Ancient Egyptians. (Also many other titles under Mariette,
Maspero, Naville, and Petrie.)

LAND AND PEOPLE. As long ago as 6000 B.C., the Egyptians

were a people already highly civilized, and skilled in the arts of
peace and war. The narrow valley of the Nile, fertilized by the
periodic overflow of the river, was flanked by rocky heights,
nearly vertical in many places, which afforded abundance of ex-
cellent building stone, while they both isolated the Egyptians and

protected them from foreign aggression. At the Delta, however,

the valley widened out, with the falling away of these heights, into
broad lowlands, from which there was access to the outer world.
Originally divided into two kingdoms, the whole country as far
as to Nubia was united under one monarchy at a period variously
estimated as from 3500 to 4500 years B.C., under a dynasty
known as the first of a series of twenty-six preserved to us in the
dynastic lists of Manetho, a priest of tlvj first century A.D
 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 7

Menes is the traditional name of the first king of the first dynasty
to rule over lx>th Upper and Lower Egypt.
The art history of Kgypt may be divided into five periods as

follows:*
I. THE ANCIENT EMPIRE (cir. 3400-2160 B.C.), comprising
the first ten dynasties, with Memphisas the capital.
II. THE FIRST THERAN MONARCHY or MIDDLE EMPIRE
(2160-1788 B.C.), comprising the eleventh and twelfth dynasties

reigning at Thebes.
The Hyksos invasion or incursion of the Shepherd Kings in-

terrupted the current of Egyptian art history for a period,

with other disturbances, of some two hundred years.
III. THE SECOND THEBAN MONARCHY (1588-1150 B.C.),

comprising the eighteenth, nineteenth and part of the twentieth

dynasty, was the great period of Egyptian history; the age of
conquests and of vast edifices.
IV. THE DECADENCE AND SAITIC PERIODS (1150-324 B.C.),

comprising the remaining dynasties to and including the

twenty-sixth,reigning at Tanis, Bubastis and Sais, and the

Persian conquest; a period almost barren of important monu-
ments.
(Periods III. and IV. constitute together the period of the NEW
EMPIRE, if we omit the Persian
dominion.)
V. THE REVIVAL (from 324 B.C. to cir. 330 A.D.) comprises the
Ptolemaic or Macedonian and Roman dominations.
THE ANCIENT EMPIRE: THE PYRAMIDS. The great works
of this period are almost exclusively sepulchral, and include the
most ancient buildings of which we have any remains. While
there is little of strictly architectural art, the overwhelming si/ce
and majesty of the Pyramids, and the audacity and skill shown
in their construction, entitle them to the first place in any sketch

* The dates are those given '>>' Breasted ; those assigned by

Flinders Petrie are several centuries earlier for the earlier dy-
nasties.
8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

of this period. They number over a hundred, scattered in six

groups, from Abu-Roash in the north to Meidoum in the south,
and are of various shapes and sizes. They are all royal tombs
and belong to the first twelve dynasties; each contains a sepulchral
chamber, and each at one time possessed a small chapel adjacent
to it, but this has, in almost every case, perished.
Three pyramids surpass all the rest by their prodigious size;
these are at Ghizeh and belong to the fourth dynasty. They are

FIG. I. SECTION OP GREAT PYRAMID.

rt, King's Chamber; I, Queen s Chamber; c. Chamber cut in Roek.

known by the names of their builders; the oldest and greatest

being that of Cheops, or Khufu;* the second, that of Chephren,
or Khafra; and the third, that of Mycerinus, or Menkhauru.
Other smaller ones stand at the feet of these giants.
"
The base of the Great Pyramid" measures 764 feet on a side;
itsheight is 482 feet, and its volume must have originally been
nearly three and one-half million cubic yards (Fig. i). It is con-

structed of limestone upon a plateau of rock levelled to receive it,

and was finished externally, like two neighbors, with a coating
its

cf polished stone, supposed by some to have been disposed in

* The Egyptian names known to antiquity are Riven here first in

the more familiar classic form, and then in the Egyptian form.
 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.

bands of which it \vas long ago

different colored granites, but of

despoiled. contained
It three principal chambers and an elabor-
ate system of inclined passages, all executed in finely cut granite
and limestone. The sarcophagus was in the uppermost cham-

ber, above which the superincumbent

weight was relieved by open spaces

and a species of rudimentary arch of
A -shape (Fig. 2). The other two
pyramids from that of Cheops
differ in

the details of their arrangement and in

size, not in the principle of their con-

struction. Chephren is 454 feet high,

with a base 717 feet square. Mycer-

inus, which still retains its casing of
pink granite, is but 218 feet in height,
with a base 253 feet on a side.
PIG. 3. SECTION OP KING'S the other pyramids there
CHAMBER. Among is

considerable variety both of type and

material. At Sakkarah is one 190 feet high, constructed in six
unequal steps on a slightly ob-
long base measuring nearly 400
X357 feet. It was attributed
by Mariette to Ouenephes, of
the first dynasty, though now
more generally ascribed to Sene-
frou of the third. At Abu-Seir
and Meidoum are other stepped
pyramids ;
at Dashour is one
having a broken slope, the lower
part steeper than the upper.
Several at Meroe with unusually PI( 3. PLAN OP SPHINX TKMI'LE.
steep slopes belong to the Ethi-
opian dynasties of the Decadence, A number of pyramids
are built of brick.
10 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

TOMBS. The Ancient Empire has also left us a great number

of tombs of the typeknown as Mastabas. These are oblong
rectangular structures of stone or brick with slightly inclined
sides and flat ceilings. They uniformly face the east, and are
internally divided into three parts: the chamber or chapel, the
serdab, and the well. In the first of these, next the entrance, were
placed the offerings made to the Ka or "double," for whom also
scenes of festivity or worship were carved and painted on its walls
to minister to his happiness in his incorporeal life. The serdabs,
or secret inner chambers, of which there were several in each
mastaba, contained statues of the defunct, by which the existence
and identity of the Ka were preserved. Finally came the well,
leading to the mummy chamber, deep underground, which con-
tained the sarcophagus. The sarcophagi, both of this and later
ages, are good examples of the minor architecture of Egypt; many
of them are panelled in imitation of wooden construction and
richly decorated with color, symbols, and hieroglyphs.
OTHER MONUMENTS. Two other monuments of the An-
cient Empire also claim attention: the Sphinx and the adjacent
so-called "Sphinx temple"
at Ghizeh. The first of

these, a
huge sculpture
carved from the rock, rep-
resents Harmachis in the
form of a human-headed
lion. It is ordinarily partly

FIG. RUINS OF SPHINX TEMPLE.

buried in the sand; is 70 feet
4.

long by 66 feet high, and

forms one of the most striking monuments of Egyptian art.
Close to it lie the nearly buried ruins of the temple once sup-

posed to be that of the Sphinx, but now proved by IVtrie to have

been erected connection with the second pyramid. The plan
in

and present aspect of this venerable edifice are shown in Figs. }

and 4. The hall was roofed with stone lintels carried on sixteen
 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. I I

square monolithic piers of alabaster. The whole was buried in

a rectangular mass of masonry and revetted internally with ala-
baster, but was wholly destitute internally as well as externally
of decoration or even of

mouldings. With the ex-

ception of scanty remains

of a few of the pyramid-

temples chapels, and

or
the temple discovered by
Petrie in Meidoum, it is
the only survival from the

temple architecture of that

early age. FIG. 5. TOMB AT ABYDOS.
THE MIDDLE EMPIRE:
TOMBS. The monuments of this period, as of the preceding,
are almost wholly sepulchral. We
now encounter two types of
tombs. One, structural and pyramidal, is represented by many
examples at Abydos, the most venerated of all the burial
grounds of Egypt (Fig.
5). All of these are built
of brick, and are of mod-
erate size and little artis-

tic interest. The second

type is that of tombs cut
in the vertical cliffs of the
west bank of the Nile Val-

ley. The entrance to these

faces eastward as required

FIO. 6.-TOMB AT by tradition ; the remoter

end of the excavation

pointing toward the land of the Sun of Night. But such tun-
nels only become works of architecture when, in addition to the

customary mural paintings, they receive a decorative treatment

in the design of their structural forms. Such a treatment ap-
12 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

pears in several tombs at Beni-Hassan, in which columns are

reserved in cutting away the rock, both in the
chapel-chambers
and in the vestibules or porches which precede them. These
columns are polygonal in some cases, clustered in others. The
former type, with eight, sixteen, or thirty-two sides (in these last
the arrises or edges are emphasized by a slight concavity in each

face, likeembryonic fluting), have a square abacus, suggesting

the Greek Doric order, and giving rise to the name proto-Doric

(Fig. 6). Columns of this type are also found at Karnak, Kalab-

FIG. 7. SECTION AND HALF-PLAN OF A TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.

she, Amada, and Abydos. A reminiscence of primitive wood

construction seen in the dentils over the plain architrave of the
is

entrance, which in other respects recalls the triple entrances to

certain mastabas of the Old Empire. These dentils are imita-
tions of the ends of rafters,and to some archaeologists suggest a
wooden origin for the whole system of columnar design. But
these rock-cut shafts and' heavy architraves in no respect resemble
wooden prototypes, but point rather to an imitation cut in the
rock of a well-developed, pre-existing system of stone construc-
tion, some of whose details, however, were undoubtedly derived
from early methods of building in wood. The vault was below
the chapel and reached by a separate entrance. The serdab was
 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 13

replaced by a niche in which was the figure of the defunct carved

from the native rock. Some of the tombs employed in the
chapel-chamber columns of quatrefoil section with capitals like
clustered buds (Fig. 7), and this type became in the next period
one of the most characteristic forms of Egyptian architecture.
TEMPLES. Of the temples of this period only two have left
any remains of importance. Both belong to the twelfth dynasty
(cir. 2000 B.C.). Of one of thece many badly shattered fragments
have been found in the ruins of Bubastis; these show the clustered

type of lotus-bud column mentioned above. The other, of which

a few columns have been identified among the ruins of the Great

Temple Karnak, constituted the oldest part of that vast ag-

at

glomeration of religious edifices, and employed columns of the

so-called proto-Doric type. From these remains it
appears that
structural stone columns as well as those cut in the rock were used
Indeed, it is probable that the
at this early period (2000 B.C.).
whole architectural system of the New Empire was based on
models developed in the age we are considering; that the use of
multiplied columns of various types and the building of temples
of complex plan adorned with colossal statues, obelisks, and
painted reliefs were perfectly understood and practised in this
period. But the works it
produced have perished, having been
most probably demolished to make way for the more sumptuous
edifices of later times.

THE NEW EMPIRE. This was the grand age of Egyptian ar-
chitecture and history. An extraordinary series of mighty men
ruled the empire during a long period following the expulsion of
the Hyksos usurpers. The names of Thothmes, Amenophis,
Jiatasu,* Seti, and Ramesesf made glorious the eighteenth and

*
More
correctly written Thutmosis, Amen-hotcp, Hatshepsut.
While it is now known that Rameses II. carved his own car-
t
touche on many works erected under his predecessors, enough
great works chiefly temples are indisputably of his reign to en-
title him to rank among the greatest builder-monarchs of history.
 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

nineteenth dynasties. Foreign conquests in Ethiopia, Syria, and

Assyria enlarged the territory and increased the splendor of the
empire. The majority of the most impressive ruins of Egypt
belong to this period, and it was in these buildings that the char-

acteristic elements of Egyptian archi-

tecture were brought to perfection and
carried out on the grandest scale.
a. TOMBS OF THE NEW EMPIRE.
Some of these are structural, others

excavated; both types displaying con-

;j
. siderable variety in arrangement and

Iliiiiiiif detail. The rock-cut tombs of Bab-

el-Molouk, among which
are twenty-
fiveroyal sepulchres, are striking both
; by the simplicity of their openings and
the depth and complexity of their
to -M
* shafts, tunnels, and chambers. From
the pipe-like length of their tunnels

f they have since the time of Herodotus

been known by the name svrin.v.

Every precaution was taken to lead

e astray and baffle

the intending violator
of their sanctity. They penetrated
FIG. 8. PLAN OF THE RAMES-
SEUM. hundreds of feet into the rock; their
a, Sanctuary; b, Hypostyle chambers, often formed with columns
Hall; c, Second court; d,
Entrance court; e. Pylons. and vault-like roofs, were resplendent
with colored reliefs and ornament des-
tined to solace and sustain the shadowy Ka until the soul itself,

the Ba, should arrive before the tribunal of Osiris, the Sun of
Night. Most impressively do these brilliant pictures,* intended
to be forever shut away from human eyes, al test the siiucrityof

the Egyptian belief and the conscientiousness of the art which it

inspired.
* See Van Dyke's History of Painting, Figure i.
 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 15

While the tomb of the private citizen was complete in itself,

containing the Ka-statues and often the chapel, as well as the

mummy, the royal tomb demanded something more elaborate in
scaleand arrangement. In some cases external structures of
temple-form took the place of the underground chapel and serdab.
The royal effigy, many times repeated in painting and sculpture

throughout this temple-like edifice, and flanking its gateways with

colossal seated figures, made buried Ka-statues unnecessary. Of
these sepulchral temples three are of the first magnitude. They
are that of Queen Hatasu (XVIIIth dynasty) at Deir-el-Bahari;
that of Rameses II. (XlXth dynasty), the Ramesseum, near by
to the southwest and that of Rameses III. (XXth dynasty) at Medi-
;

net Abou still further to the southwest. Like the tombs, these
were all on the west side of the Nile; so also was the sepulchral
temple of Amenophis III. (XVIIIth dynasty), the Amenopheum,
of which hardly a trace remains except the two seated colossi

which, rising from the Theban plain, have astonished travellers

from the times of Pausanias and Strabo down to our own. These
mutilated figures, one of which has been known ever since classic
"
times as the vocal Memnon," are 56 feet high, and once flanked
the entrance to the forecourt of the temple of Amenophis. The
plan of the Ramesseum, with its sanctuary, hypostyle hall, and
forecourts, its pylons and
obelisks, is shown in Figure 8, and may
be compared with those of other temples given on pp. 17 and 18.
That of Medinet Abou resembles it closely. The Ramesseum
occupies a rectangle of 590X182 feet; the temple of Medinet
Abou measures 500 X 160 feet, not counting the extreme width of
the entrance pylons. The temple of Hatasu at Deir-el-Bahari is
partly excavated and partly structural, a model which is also fol-
lowed on a smaller scale in several lesser tombs. Such an edifice

is called a hemispeos.
 CHAPTER III.

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE Continued.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter II.

TEMPLES. The surpassing glory of the New Empire was its

great temples. Some of them were among the most stupendous
creations of structural art. To temples rather than palaces were
the resources and energies of the kings devoted, and successive
monarchs found no more splendid outlet for their piety and am-
bition than the founding of new temples or the extension and
adornment of those already existing. By the forced labor of
thousands of fellaheen (the system known as the corvee and abol-
ished only in recent years under British rule), architectural piles
of vast extent could be erected within the lifetime of a monarch.
As in thetombs the internal walls bore pictures for the contempla-
tion of the Ka, so in the temples the external walls, for the glory
of the king and the delectation of the people, were covered with
colored reliefs reciting the monarch's glorious deeds. Internally
the worship and attributes of the gods were represented in a simi-
lar manner, in endless iteration.

THE TEMPLE SCHEME. This is admirably shown in the

temple of Khonsu, at Karnak, built by Rameses III. (XXth
dynasty), and in the temple of Edfou (Figs. 9 and 10), though this
belongs to the Ptolemaic period. It comprised a sanctuary or

sekos, a hypostyle (columnar) hall, known as the "hall of assem-

bly," and a forecourt preceded by a double pylon or gateway.

Each of these parts might be made more or less complex in differ-
ent temples, but the essential features are encountered every-
 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.

where under all changes of form. The

primitive conception of the temple
was no doubt that of the house or
dwelling of the deity, and this com-
bination of courts, halls, passages and
chambers was probably the mere
amplification of the plans of early

royal palaces, modified and extended

to meet the requirements of the Egyp-
tian ritual. The building of a temple

began with the sanctuary, which con-

tained the shrine of the god, with
sulx)rdinate rooms for the priests. at*
These chambers were low, dark,
mysterious, accessible only to the

priests and king. They were given

a certain dignity by being raised

upon a sort of platform above the

general level, and reached by a
TEMPLE OF EUFOU.
few Steps. They Were SUmp- FIG- 9- PLAN.

tuously decorated internally with

ritual pictures in relief. The hall was sometimes loftier, but
set on a massive columns supported a
slightly lower level; its

roof of stone lintels, and light was admitted either through

clearstory windows under the roof of a central portion higher

than the rides, as at Karnak, or over a low screen-wall built
between the columns of the front row, as at Kdfou and Denderah.

ifira mi
PIU. 10. TKMI'LK OP KUPOU. SECTION.
i8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

This method was peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.

The court was usually surrounded by a single or double col-
onnade; sometimes, however, this colonnade only flanked the
was wholly wanting. The
sides or fronted the hall, or again

pylons were twin buttress-like masses flanking the entrance

gate of the court. They were shaped like oblong truncated
pyramids, crowned by flaring cornices, and were decorated
on the outer face with masts carrying banners, with obelisks, or
with seated colossal figures of the royal builder. An avenue of

^^^^HTuTuTj I -ff- 1 t

tfe ., ife
IBS
liiS
^tiinun:

=r
FIG. II. TEMPLE OF KARN'AK. PLAN.

sphinxes formed the approach to the entrance, and the whole tem-
ple precinct was surrounded by a wall, usually of crude brick,
pierced by one or more gates with or without pylons. The piety
of successive monarchs was displayed in the addition of new
hypostyle halls, courts, pylons, or obelisks, by which the temple
was successively extended in length, and sometimes also in width,
by the increased dimensions of the new courts. The great Tem-
ple of Karnak most strikingly illustrates tin's growth. Begun by
Osourtesen (XTIth dynasty) nearly 2000 years B.C., it was not
completed in its present form until the time of the Ptolemies, when
the last of the pylons and external gates were erected.
The variations in the details of this general type were numerous.
Thus, at Kl Kab, the temple of Amenophis III. has the sekos and
 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. *9

hall but no forecourt. At Deir-el-Medineh the hall of the Ptole-

maic Hathor-temple a mere porch in two parts, while the en-

is

closure within the circuit wall takes the place of the forecourt.
At Karnak all the parts were repeated several times, and under
Amenophis III. (XVIIIth dynasty) a wing was built at a nearly
right angle to the main structure. At Luxor, to a complete typi-
cal temple were added three aisles of an unfinished hypostyle

hall, and an elaborate forecourt, whose axis is inclined to that of

the other buildings, owing to a bend of the river at that point. At
Abydos a complex sanctuary of many chambers extends southeast
at right angles to the general mass, and the first court is without
columns. But in all these structures a certain unity of effect is
produced by th'e lofty pylons, the flat roofs diminishing in height
over successive portions from the front to the sanctuary, the slop-

ing windowless walls covered with carved and painted pictures,

and the dim and massive interiors of the columnar halls.
The size of these temples varies greatly. That of Karnak is
over 200 feet long; Luxor 850; the Ramesseum nearly 600;
1

Abydos and Medinet Abou each 500; while the little temple of
Dandour measured less than 50 feet in length.
TEMPLES OF KARNAK. Of these various temples that of
Amen-Ra incomparably the largest and most imposing. Its
is

construction extended through the whole duration of the New

Empire, of whose architecture it is a splendid resume (Fig. n).

Its extreme length is 1,215 f ee *> an d fts greatest width 376 feet.

The sanctuary and its accessories, mainly built by Thothmes I.

and Thothmes III., cover an area nearly 4$6X 290 feet in extent,
and comprise two hypostyle halls and countless smaller halls and
chambers. It is preceded by a narrow columnar vestibule and

two pylons enclosing a columnar atrium and two obelisks. This

is entered from the Great Hypostyle Hall (It in Fig. 1 1 Fig. 12),;

the noblest single work of Egyptian architecture, measuring 340

X 170 feet,and containing 134 columns in sixteen rows, support-
ing a massive stone roof. The central columns with bell-capitals
2O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

are 70 feet high and nearly 12 feet in diameter; the others are
smaller and lower, with lotus-bud capitals, supporting a roof
lower than that over the three central aisles. A clearstory of
stone-grated windows makes up the difference in height between
these two roofs. The interior, thus lighted, was splendid with
painted reliefs, which helped not only to adorn the hall but to
give scale to its massive parts. The whole stupendous creation

PIO. 12. CENTRAL PORTION OF HYPOSTVLE HALL AT KARN'AK.

(From model in Metropolitan Museum, Xew York.)

was the work of three kings Rameses I., Seti I., and Ramcses II.

(XlXth dynasty).
In front of it was the great court, flanked by columns, and still

showing the ruins of a central avenue of colossal pillars begun,

but never completed, by the Bubastid kings of the XXI Id dynasty.
One or two smaller structures and the curious lateral wing built
by Amenophis III. interrupt the otherwise orderly and symmetri-
cal advance of this plan from the sanctuary to the huge first pylon
(last in point of date) erected by the Ptolemies.
The smaller temple of Khonsu, south of that of Amen-Ra, has

already been alluded to as a typical example of templar design.

Next to Karnak in importance comes the Temple of Luxor in its
immediate neighborhood. It has two forecourts adorned with
 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 21

and connected by what seems to be an

double-aisled colonnades
The Ramesseum and the temples of
unfinished hypostyle hall.
Medinet Abou and Deir-El-Bahari have already been mentioned
(p. 15). At Gournah and Abydos are the next most celebrated
temples of this period; the first famous for its rich clustered lotus-

columns, the latter for its beautiful sanctuary chambers, dedi-

PIG. 13. GREAT TEMPLE OP IPSAMBOVL.

cated each to a different deity, and covered with delicate painted

time of Seti I.
reliefs of the

GROTTO TEMPLES. Two other styles of temple remain to

The first
be noticed. is the subterranean or grotto temple, of
which the two most famous, at Ipsamboul (Abou-simbel), were
excavated by Ramcses II. They are truly colossal conceptions,
reproducing in the native rock the main features of structural

temples, the court being represented by the larger of two cham-

bers in the Greater Temple (Fig. 13). Their facades are adorned
22 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

with colossal seated figures of the builder; the smaller has also
two effigies of Nefert-Ari, his consort. Nothing more striking and
boldly impressive is to be met with in Egypt than these singular
rock-cut facades. Other rock-cut temples of more modest
dimensions are Addeh, Feraig, Beni-Hassan (the "Speos
at

Artemidos"), Beit-el-Wali, and Silsileh. At Gherf-Hossein,

Asseboua, and Derri are temples partly excavated and partly
structural.
PERIPTERAL TEMPLES. The last type of temple to be no-
ticed is represented by only three or four structures of moderate
size; it is the peripteral, in which a small chamber is surrounded

by columns, usually mounted on a terrace with vertical walls.

They were mere chapels, but are among the most graceful of
existing ruins. At Phike are two structures, one by Nectanebo,
the other Ptolemaic, resembling peripteral temples, but without
cella-chambers or roofs. They may have been waiting-pavilions
for the adjoining temples. That at Elephantine (Amenophis
III.)has square piers at the sides, and columns only at the ends.
Another by Thothmes II., at Medinet Abou, formed only a part
(the sekos?) of a larger plan. At Edfou is another, belonging to
the Ptolemaic period.
LATER TEMPLES. After the architectural inaction of the
Decadence came a marvellous recrudescence of splendor under
the Ptolemies, whose Hellenic origin and sympathies did not lead
them into the mistaken effort to impose Greek models upon
Egyptian art. The temples erected under their dominion, and
laterunder Roman rule, vied with the grandest works of the
Ramessida^, and surpassed them in the rich elaboration and vari-

ety of their architectural details. The temple at Edfou (Figs.

9, 10, 14) is the most perfectly preserved, and conforms most

is the most elab-
closely to the typical plan; that of Isis, at Phihc,
orate and ornate. Dcnderah also possesses a group of admirably
preserved temples of the same period. At Esneh, and at Kalab-
she' and Kardassy or Ghertashi in Nubia are others. In all these
 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 23

one notes innovations of detail and a striving for effect quite

different from the simpler majesty of the preceding age (Fig. 14).
One peculiar feature is the use of screen walls built into the front
rows of columns of the hypostyle hall. Light was admitted above
these walls, which measured about half the height of the columns
and were interrupted at the centre by a curious doorway cut
through their whole height and without any lintel. Long disused
types of capital were revived and others greatly elaborated; and

F:G. 14.- EDFOP. FRONT OF HYPOSTYLE HALL.

the wall-reliefs were arranged in bands and panels with a regu-

larity and symmetry rather Greek than Egyptian.

ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS. With the exception of a few
purely utilitarian vaulted structures, all Egyptian architecture
was based on the principle of the lintel. Artistic splendor de-

pended upon the use of painted and carved pictures, and the
decorative treatment of the very simple supports employed.
Piers and columns sustained the roofs of such chambers as were
and produced, in halls like those of
too wide for single lintels,

Karnak, Ramesseum, or of Denderah, a stupendous effect

of the

by their height, massivcness, number, and colored decoration.

 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The simplest piers were plain square shafts; others, more elabo-
rate, had lotus stalks and flowers or heads of Hathor carved upon
them. The most striking were those against whose front faces
were carved colossal figures of Osiris, as at Luxor, Medinet Abou,
and Karnak (Fig. 15). The columns,
which were seldom over six diameters
in height, were treated with greater
variety; the shafts, slightly tapering
upward, were either round or clustered
in section, and usually contracted at
the base. The capitals with which
they were crowned were usually of
one of the five chief types described
below. Besides round and clustered
shafts, the Middle Empire and a few
monuments of the New
of the earlier

Empire employed polygonal or slightly

FIG. OSIRIS PIER
tinted shafts (see p. i?), as at Beni-
15.
UINET ABOU). Hassan and Karnak; these had a plain

square abacus, with sometimes a

cushion-like echinus beneath it. A round plinth served as a
base for most of the columns.
CAPITALS. The five chief types of capital were: a, the cam-
pani/orm or inverted bell (central aisles at Karnak, Luxor, the
Ramesseum); />,
the clustered lotus-bud (Beni-Hassan, Karnak,

Luxor, Gournah, etc.) r, the plain lotus-bud as at Karnak (Great

;

Hall); the palm-capital, frequent in the later temples; and

d,

e, the Hathor-headed, in which heads of Hathor adorn the four

faces of a cubical mass surmounted by a model of a shrine (Se-
dinga, Edfou, Denderah, Esneh). These types were richly em-
bellished and varied by the Ptolemaic architects, who gave a
clustered or quatrefoil plan to the bell-capital, or adorned its sur-
face with palm leaves. A few other forms are met with as excep-
tions. They are shown in Fig. 16.
 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 25

Every part of the column was richly decorated in color. Lotus-

leave* or petals swathed the swelling lower part of the shaft,
which was elsewhere covered with successive bands of carved
pictures and of hieroglyphics. The capital was similarly covered
with carved and painted ornament, usually of lotus-flowers or
leaves, or alternate stalks of lotus and papyrus.
The lintels were plain and square and often of pro-
in section,

digious size. Where they appeared externally they were crowned

FIG. I 6. TYPES OF COLUMN.

a, Cainpaniform; b, Clustered Lotus-Column: c. Simple Lotus-Column; d, Pa!t-
Colutnn; f, Hathor-headed Column.

with a simple cavetto cornice, its curved surface covered with

colored flutings alternating with cartouches of hieroglyphics.
Sometimes, especially on the screen walls of the Ptolemaic age,
this was surmounted by a cresting of adders or unui in closely

serried rank. No other form of cornice or cresting is met with.

Mouldings as a means of architectural effect were singularly lack-

ing in Egyptian architecture. The only moulding known is the
clustered torus (tor us = a convex moulding of semicircular pro-

file), which resembles a bundle of reeds tied together with cords

or ribbons. It forms an astragal under the cavetto cornice and

runs down the angles of the pylons and walls.

POLYCHROMY AND ORNAMENT. Color was absolutely es-

sential to the decorative scheme. In the vast and dim interiors,

26 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

as well as in the blinding glare of the sun, mere sculpture or relief

would have been wasted. The application of brilliant color to

pictorial forms cut in low relief, or outlined by deep incision with
the edges of the figures delicately rounded (intaglio riliei'o), was
the most appropriate treatment possible. The walls and col-
umns were covered with pictures treated
in this way, and the ceilings and lintels

were embellished with symbolic forms in

the same manner. All the ornaments,
as distinguished from the paintings,
rir were symbolical, at least in their origin.

Over the gateway was the solar disk or

globe with wide-spread wings, the sym-

bol of the sun winging its way to the
FIG. I?. EGYPTIAN FLORAL
ORNAMENT-FORMS. conquest of night; upon the ceiling
were sacred vultures, zodiacs, or stars
spangled on a blue ground. Externally the temples presented
only masses of unbroken wall; but these, as well as the pylons,
were covered with huge pictures of a historical character. Unly
in the tombs do we find painted ornament of a purely con-

ventional sort (Fig. 17). Rosettes, diaper patterns, spirals,

and checkers are to be met with in them; but many of these can
be traced to symbolic origins.*
DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. The only remains of

palaces are the pavilion of Rameses III. at Medinet Abou, and

another at Semneh. The Royal Labyrinth has so completely

perished that even its site is uncertain. The Egyptians lived so

much out of doors that the house was a less important edifice than
in colder climates. Egyptian dwellings were probably in most
cases built of wood or crude brick, and their
disappearance is

thus easily explained. Relief pictures on the monuments indi-

* and
See ("loodycar's (,'niiiiintir [ I lie Loins for an rlalx irate in-

genious presentation of tlir theory of a common lotus-origin for

all the conventional forms occurring in H}j;\ptian ornament.
 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 27

cate the use of wooden framing for the walls, which were probably
with crude brick or panels of wood. The larger houses
filled in

had extensive plans with outer and inner courts surrounded by

porticoes and by the various halls and chambers for the family,
guests and dependents. The larger halls probably had wooden
ceilings supported by wooden posts, which, like the Walls of
framed wood or of unbaked brick, have long since perished.
The architecture was probably simple. Gateways like those

of the temples on a smaller scale, the cavetto cornice on the

walls, and occasionally carved columns of wood or stone, were
the only details pretending to architectural splendor. The
ground-plans of many houses in ruined cities, as at Tel-el-
Amarna and a nameless city of Amenophis IV., are discernible
in the ruins; but the superstructures are wholly wanting.

MONUMENTS: The principal necropolis regions of Egypt are

centred about Ghizeh and ancient Memphis for the Old Empire
(pyramids and mastabas), Thebes for the Middle Empire (Silsileh,
Beni-Hassan), and Thebes (Vale of the Kings, Vale of the Queens)
and Abydos for the New Empire.
The Old Empire has also left us the Sphinx, Sphinx temple, and
the temple at Meidoum.
The most important temples of the New Empire were those of
Karnak (the great temple, the southern or temple of Khonsu, by
Rameses III.), of Luxor (Rameses II.), Medinet Abou (great tem-
ple of Rameses III., lesser temples of Thothmes II. and III. with
peripteral sekos ;
also Pavilion of Rameses III.) ;
of Abydos (Seti
I. and Rameses II.) ;
of Gournah ;
of Eilithyia (Amenophis III.) ;

of Soleb and Sesebi Nubia; of Elephantine (peripteral, by Amen-

in

ophis III.) the tomb temple of Queen Hatasu at Deir-el-Bahari,

;

the Ramesseum (Rameses II.) the Amenopheum (Amenophis

;

III.); hcmispeos at Gherf Hossein two grotto temples at Ipsam-

;

boul (Rameses II.).

At Meroe
are pyramids of the Ethiopia kings of the Decadence.
Temples of the Ptolemaic period; Phihe, Denderah, Kdfon.
Temples of the Roman period; Kouni Ombos; Kalabshe, Kar-
dassy and Dandour in Nubia; Esneh.
 CHAPTER IV.

CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Reber. Also, Babelon,

Manual 0} Oriental Antiquities. Botta and Flandin, Monuments
de Ninive. Layard, Discoveries in Nineveh; Nineveh and its
Remains. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldcca and Su-
siana. Perrot and Chipiez, History oj Art in Chaldtca and As-
syria. Peters, Nippur. Place, Ninive et I'Assyrie.

SITUATION; HISTORIC PERIODS. The Tigro-Euphrates val-

ley was the seat of a civilization nearly or quite as old as that of
the Nile, though inferior in its monumental art. The kingdoms
of Chaldaea and Assyria which ruled in this valley, sometimes as
rivalsand sometimes as subjects one of the other, differed con-
siderably in character and culture. But the scarcity of timber
and the lack of good building-stone except in the limestone table-
lands and more distant mountains of upper Mesopotamia, the
abundance of clay, and the flatness of the country, imposed upon
the builders of both nations similar restrictions of conception,

form, and material. Both peoples, moreover, were probably, in

part at least, of Semitic race.* The Chaldaeans had attained a
high civilization before 4000 B.C., and had for centuries main-
tained fixed institutions and practised the arts and sciences when
the Assyrians began their career as a nation of conquerors by re-

ducing ChaUhea to subjection.

* This is denied by some recent writers, so far as the Chald;eans

arc concerned, and is not intended here to apply to the Accadians
and Summerians of primitive Chaldita.
 CHALD.EAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. 2$

The history of Chakkeo-Assyrian art may be divided into three

main periods, as follows:
1. The EARLY CHALDEAN, 4000 to 1250 B.C.

2. The ASSYRIAN, 1250 to 606 B.C.

3. The BABYLONIAN, 606 to 538 B.C.
In 538 the empire fell before the Persians.

GENERAL CHARACTER OF MONUMENTS. Recent excava-

tions at Nippur the sacred city of Chakkea, have
(Niffer),
uncovered ruins older than the Pyramids. Though of slight
importance architecturally, they reveal the early knowledge of the
arch and the possession of an advanced culture. The poverty of
the building materials of this region afforded only the most lim-
ited resources for architectural effect. Owing to the flatness of

the country and the impracticability of building lofty structures

with sun-dried bricks, elevation above the plain could be secured

only by erecting buildings of moderate height upon enormous

mounds or terraces, built of crude brick and faced with hard
brick or stone. This led to the development of the stepped pyra-
mid as the typical form of Chakkeo-Assyrian architecture.
Thick walls were necessary both for stability and for protection
from the burning heat of that climate. The lack of stone for col-
umns and the difficulty of procuring heavy beams for long spans
made broad halls and chambers impossible. The plans of Assy-
rian palaces look like assemblages of long corridors and small
cells (Fig. 18). Neither the wooden post nor the column played
any part in this architecture except for window-mullions and sub-
ordinate members.* It is probable that the vault was used for

roofing many of the halls; the arch was certainly employed for
doors and the barrel-vault for the drainage-tunnels under the ter-

races, made necessary by the heavy rainfall. What these struc-

* Sec
Fergusson, Palaces of Ninci'di and Pcrscpolis, for an in-
genious but unsubstantiated argument for the use of columns in
Assyrian palaces.
 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

tures lacked in durability and height was made up in decorative

magnificence. The interior walls were wainscoted to a height of

eight or nine feet with alabaster slabs covered with those low-
relief pictures of hunting scenes, battles, and gods, which now
enrich the museums of London, Paris, and other modern cities.

i.

-PALACE OF SARGON AT KHORSABAD.

Elsewhere painted plaster or more durable enamelled tile in bril-

liant colors embellished the walls, and, doubtless, rugs and tapes-
tries added their richness to this architectural splendor.

CHALD^EAN ARCHITECTURE. The ruins at Mugheir (the

Biblical Ur), dating, perhaps, from 2200 H.C., belong to the two-
storied terrace or platform of a temple to Sin or Hurki. The wall
of sun-dried brick is faced with enamelled tile. The shrine,
which was probably small, has wholly disappeared from the sum-
 CHALD/EAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. 31

mit of the mound. At Warka (the ancient Erech) are two terrace-
walls of palaces, one of which is ornamented with convex flutings
and with a species of mosaic in checker patterns and zigzags,
formed by terra-cotta cones or spikes driven into the clay, their

exposed bases being enamelled in the desired colors. The other

shows a system of long, narrow panels, in a style suggesting the
influence of Egyptian models through some as yet unknown chan-
nel. This panelling became a common feature of the later Assyr-
ian art (see Eig. 19). At Birs-Nimroud are the ruins of a stepped

pyramid surmounted by a small shrine. Its seven stages are said

to have been originally faced with glazed tile of the seven planet-

ary colors, gold, silver, yellow, red, blue, white, and black. The
ruins at Nippur, which comprise temples, altars, and dwellings

dating from 4000 B.C., have been alluded to. Babylon, the later
capital of Chalda?a, to which the shapeless mounds of Mujelibeh
and Kasr seem to have belonged, has left no other recognizable
vestige of its ancient magnificence.
ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. Abundant ruins exist of Nine-

veh, the Assyrian capital, and its adjacent palace-sites. Excava-

tions at Koyunjik, Khorsabad, and Nimroud have laid bare a
number of these royal dwellings. Among them are the palace of
Assur-nazir-pal (885 B.C.) and two palaces of Shalmaneser II.
(850 B.C.) at Nimroud; the great palace of Sargon at Khorsabad
(721 B.C.); that of Sennacherib at Koyunjik (704 B.C.); of Esar-
haddon at Nimroud (650 B.C.); and of Assur-bani-pal at Koyun-
jik (660 B.C.). All of these palaces are designed on the same
general principle, best shown by the plan
(Eig. 18) of the palace
of Sargon at
Khorsabad, excavated by Botta and Place.
In this palace two large and several smaller courts are sur-
rounded by a complex series of long, narrow halls and small,
square chambers. One court probably belonged to the harem,
another to the- king's apartments, others to dependents and to the
service of the palace. The crude brick walls are immensely thick
and without windows, the only openings being for doors. The
32 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

absence of columns made wide halls impossible, and great size

could only be attained in the direction of length. A terraced

pyramid supported an altar or shrine to the southwest of the pal-

ace; at the west cornerwas a temple, the substructure of which
was crowned by a cavetto cornice showing plainly the influence of
Egyptian models. The whole palace stood upon a stupendous
platform faced with cut stone, an unaccustomed extravagance in
Assyria.
ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS. There is no evidence that the
Assyrians ever used columnar supports except in minor or acces-

FIG. IQ. GATE, K.HORSABAD.

sory details. There are few halls in any of the ruins too wide to be
spanned by good Syrian cedar beams or palm timbers, and these
few cases seem to have had vaulted ceilings. So clumsy a feature
as the central wall in the great hall of Esarhaddon's palace at
Nimroud would never have been resorted to for the support of the
ceiling had the Assyrians been familiar with the use of columns.
That they understood the arch and vault is proved by their ad-
mirable terrace-drains and the fine arched gate in the walls of
Khorsabad (Fig. 19), as well as by bas-reliefs representing dwell-
ings with domes of various forms. Moreover, a few vaulted
 CHALD/EAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. 33

chambers of moderate size, and fallen fragments of crude brick

vaulting of larger span, have been found in several of the Assyrian
ruins.
The construction was extremely simple. The heavy clay walls
were faced with alabaster, burned brick, or enamelled tiles. The
roofs were probably covered with stamped earth, and sometimes

paved on top with tiles or slabs of alabaster to form terraces.

Light was introduced most probably through windows immedi-
ately under the roof and divided by small columns forming mul-
lions, as suggested by certain relief pictures. No other system
seems consistent with the windowless walls of the ruins. It is
possible that many rooms depended wholly on artificial light or on
the scant rays coming through open doors. To this day, in the
hot season the population of Mosul takes refuge from the torrid
summer in windowless basements lighted only by lamps.
heats of
ORNAMENT. The only structural decorations seem to have
been the panelling of exterior walls in a manner resembling the
Chaldican terrace-walls, and a form of parapet like a stepped
cresting. There were no characteristic mouldings, architraves,
capitals, or cornices. Nearly all the ornament was of the sort
called applied, i.e., added after the completion of the structure
itself. Pictures in low relief covered the alabaster revetment.

They depicted hunting-scenes, battles, deities, and other mytho-

logical subjects, and are interesting to the architect mainly for
their occasional representations of buildings and details of con-

struction. Above this wainscot were friezes of enamelled brick

ornamented with symbolic forms used as decorative motives;
winged bulls, the "sacred tree" and mythological monsters, with
and guilloches (ornaments of
rosettes, palmettes, lotus-flowers,

interlacing bands winding about regularly spaced buttons or

eyes). These ornaments were also used on the archivolts around
the great arches of palace gates. The most singular adornments
of these gates were the carved "portal guardians" set into deep
jambs colossal monsters with the bodies of bulls, the wings of
34 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

eagles, and human heads of terrible countenance. Of mighty

bulk, they were yet minutely wrought in every detail of head-

dress, beard, feathers, curly hair, and anatomy.

The purely conventional ornaments mentioned above the

rosette, guilloche, and lotus-flower, and probably also the pal-

mette were derived from Egyp-
tian originals. They were treated,
however, in a quite new spirit and
adapted to the special materials
and uses of their environment.
Thus the form of the palmette,
even if derived, as is not unlikely,
from the Egyptian lotus-motive,
was assimilated to the more fa-
FIG. 20. ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT.
miliar palm-forms of Assyria
(Fig. 20).

Assyrian architecture never rivalled the Egyptian in grandeur

or constructive power, in seriousness, or the higher artistic quali-
ties. It did, however, produce imposing results with the poorest

resources, and in its use of the arch and its development of orna-
mental forms itfurnished prototypes for some of the most charac-
teristic features of later Asiatic art, which profoundly influenced
both Greek and Byzantine architecture.

MONUMENTS. The most important Chaldaean and Assyrian

monuments of which there are extant remains, have already been
enumerated in the text. It is therefore unnecessary to duplicate
the list here.
 CHAPTER V.

PERSIAN, LYCIAN AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Babelon, Reber. Also

Bliss, Excavations at Jerusalem. Dieulafoy, L'Art antique de la
Perse, and L 'Aero pole de Suse. Fellows, Account of Discoveries in
Lycia. Fergusson, The Temple at Jerusalem. Flandin et Coste,
Perse ancicnne. Perrot and Chipiez, History oj Art in Persia;
History oj Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Carlo,, and Lycia; History oj
Art in Sardinia and Jnda;a. Texier, L'Armenie et la Perse;
L'Asie Mineurc. De Vogue, Le Temple de Jerusalem.

PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE. With the Persians, who under

Cyrus (536 B.C.) B.C.) became the masters
and Cambyses (525
of the Orient, the Aryan race superseded the Semitic, and assimi-
lated in new combinations the forms it borrowed from the Assyrian
civilization. Under the Achrcmenidrc (536 to 330 B.C.) palaces
were built in Persepolisand Susa of a splendor and majesty im-
possible in Mesopotamia, and rivalling the marvels in the Nile
Valley. The conquering nation of warriors who had overthrown
the Egyptians and Assyrians was in turn conquered by the arts of
its vanquished foes, and speedily became the most luxurious of all
nations. The Persians were not great innovators in art; but in

habiting a land of excellent building resources, they were able to

combine the Egyptian system of interior columns with details
l>orrowed from Assyrian art, and suggestions, derived most prob-

ably from the general use in Persia and Central Asia, of wooden
posts or columns as intermediate supports. Out of these ele-
ments they evolved an architecture which has only become fully
known to us since the excavations of M. and Mme. Dieulafoy
at Susa in 1882.
36 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE. The Persians

used both crude and baked bricks, the latter far more freely than
was practicable in Assyria, owing to the greater abundance of
fuel. Walls when built of the weaker material were faced with
baked brick enamelled in brilliant colors, or both moulded and

enamelled, toform colored pictures in relief. Stone was employed

for walls and columns, and, in conjunction with brick, for the

jambs and lintels of doors and windows. Architraves and ceiling-

beams were of wood. The palaces were erected, as in Assyria,
upon broad platforms, partly cut in the rock and partly structural,

approached by imposing flights of steps. These palaces were

composed of detached buildings, propykcas or gates of honor, vast
audience-halls, called apadanas, open on one or two sides, and
chambers or dwellings partly enclosing or flanking these halls, or

grouped in separate buildings. Temples appear to have been of

small importance, perhaps owing to habits of out-of-door worship
of fire and sun. There are few structural tombs, but there are a
number of imposing royal sepulchres cut in the rock at Naksh-i-
Roustam.
ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS. The Persians, like the Egyp-
tians, used the column as an internal feature in hypostyle halls of

great size, and externally to form porches, and perhaps, also, open
kiosks without walls. The great Hall of Xerxes at Persepolis
covers 100,000 square feet more than double the area of the

Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But the Persian column was derived

from wooden prototypes and used with wooden architraves, per-
mitting a wider spacing than is possible with stone. In the

present instance thirty-six columns sufficed for an area nearly

equal to that which in the Karnak hall contained one hundred
and thirty-four. The shafts being slender and finely fluted
instead of painted or carved, the effect produced was totally
different from that sought by the Egyptians. The most striking
peculiarity of the column was the capital, which was forked
(Eig. 21). In one of the two principal types the fork, formed by
 PERSIAN, LYCIAN, AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE. 37

the coupled fore-parts of bulls or symbolic monsters, rested

on the top of the shaft. In the other, two singular mem-
directly
bers were interj>osed between the fork and the shaft; the lower,
a sort of double bell or bell-and-palm
capital, and above it, just beneath the
fork, a curious combination of vertical
scrolls or volutes, resembling certain
ornaments seen in Assyrian furniture
The transverse architrave rested in the

fork; the longitudinal architrave was

supported on the heads of the mon-

sters. A rich moulded base, rather

high and in some cases adorned with

carved leaves or flutings, supported the
columns, which in the Hall of Xerxes
were over 66 feet high and 6 feet in
diameter. The architraves have per-
ished, but the rock-cut tomb of Darius
at Naksh-i-Roustam reproduces in its

facade a showing a
palace-front,
banded architrave with dentils an ob-
vious imitation of the ends of wooden raf-
ters on a lintel built up of several beams.
IOLUMN FROM PER-
These features of the architrave, as SEPOLIS.

well as the fine flutings and moulded

bases of the columns, are found in Ionic architecture, and
Lycian tombs.
in part, at least, in As all these examples date
from nearly the same period, the origin of these forms and their
mutual relations have not been fully determined. The Persian
capitals,however, are unique, and so far as known, without direct
prototypes or derivatives. Their constituent elements may have
been borrowed from various sources. One can hardly help seeing
the Egyptian palm-capital in the lower member of the compound
type (Fig. 21 ).
38 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The doors and windows had banded architraves or trims and

cavetto cornices very Egyptian in character. The portals were
flanked, as in Assyria, by winged monsters; but these were built
up in several courses of stone, not carved from single blocks like
their prototypes. Plaster or, as at Susa, enamelled bricks, re-

placed as a wall-finish the Assyrian alabaster wainscot. These

bricks, splendid in color, moulded into relief pictures covering
large surfaces, and used more generally on exterior walls than for
interior decoration, are the oldest examples of the skill of the
Persians in a branch of ceramic art in which they have always ex-
celled down to our own day.
LYCIAN ARCHITECTURE. The architecture of those Asiatic

peoples which served as intermediaries between the ancient civili-

zations of Egypt and Assyria on the one hand and of the Greek
on the other need occupy us only a moment in passing. None of
them developed a complete and independent style or produced
monuments of the first rank. Those chiefly concerned in the
transmission of ideas were the Cypriotes, Phoenicians, and
Lycians. The
part played by other Asiatic nations is too slight
to be considered here. From Cyprus the Greeks could have
learned littlebeyond a few elementary notions regarding sculpture
and pottery, although it is claimed by some that the volute-form in
Ionic architecture was originally derived from patterns on Cy-
priote pottery and from certain Cypriote steles, where it appears
as a modified lotus motive. The Pha-nicians were the world's
traders from a very early age down to the Persian conquest.
They not only distributed through the Mediterranean lands the
manufactures of Egypt and Assyria, but also counterfeited them
and adopted their forms in decorating their own wares. But they
have bequeathed us not a single architectural ruin of importance,
either of temple or palace, nor are the few tombs still extant of
sufficient artistic interest to deserve even brief mention in a work
of this scope.
In Lycia, however, there arose a system of tomb-design which
 PERSIAN, LYCIAN, AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE. 39

came near creating a new architectural style, and which doubtless

influenced both Persia and the Ionian colonies. The tombs were
mostly cut in the rock, though a few are free-standing monolithic
monuments, resembling sarcophagi or small shrines mounted on a
high base or pedestal.
In all of these tombs we recognize a manifest copying in stone
of framed wooden structures. The walls are panelled, or imitate
open structures framed of squared timbers. The roofs are often
gabled, sometimes in the form of a pointed arch; they generally
show a banded architrave, dentils, and a raking cornice, or else an
imitation of broadly projecting eaves with small round rafters.
There are several with porches of Ionic columns; of these, some
are of late date and evidently copied from Asiatic Greek models.

Others, and notably one at Telmissus, seem to be examples of a

primitive Ionic, and may indeed have been early steps in the de-
velopment of that splendid style which the Ionic Greeks, both in
Asia Minor and in Attica, carried to such perfection.
JEWISH ARCHITECTURE. The Hebrews borrowed from
the art of every people with whom they had relations, so that we
encounter in the few extant remains of their architecture Egyp-
tian, Assyrian, Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and Syro-Byzantine
features, but nothing like an independent national style. Among
the most interesting of these remains are tombs of various periods,

principally occurring in the valleys near Jerusalem, and errone-

ously ascribed by popular tradition to the judges, prophets, and
kings of Israel. Some of them are structural, some cut in the
rock; the former (tomb of Absalom, of Zechariah) decorated with
Doric and Ionic engaged orders, were once supposed to be primi-
tive types of these orders and of great antiquity. They are now
recognized to be debased imitations of late Greek work of the
third or second century n.c. They have Egyptian cavetto cor-
nices and pyramidal roofs, like many Asiatic tombs. The open-
ings of the rock-cut tombs have frames or pediments carved with
rich surface ornament showing a similar mixture of types Ro-
4O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

man triglyphs and garlands, Syrian-Greek acanthus leaves, con-

ventional foliage of Byzantine character, and naturalistic carvings
of grapes and local plant life. The carved arches of two of the
ancient city gates (one the so-called Golden Gate) in Jerusalem

display rich acanthus foliage somewhat like that of the tombs, but
more vigorous and artistic. If of the time of Herod or even of

Constantine, as claimed by some, they would indicate that Greek

artists in Syria created the prototypes of Byzantine ornament.

They are more probably, however, Byzantine restorations of

the 6th century A.D.
The one
great achievement of Jewish architecture was the na-
tional Temple of Jehovah, represented by three successive edi-
"
fices on Mount Moriah, the site of the present so-called Mosque
of Omar." The
first, by Solomon (1012 B.C.) appears from
built

the Biblical description* to have combined Egyptian conceptions

(successive courts, lofty entrance-pylons, the Sanctuary and the

sekos or "Holy of Holies") with Phoenician and Assyrian details
and workmanship (cedar wood-work, empaistic decoration or
overlaying with repousse metal work, the isolated brazen columns
Jachin and Boaz). The whole stood on a mighty platform built
up with stupendous masonry and vaulted chambers from the
valley surrounding the rock on three sides. This precinct was
nearly doubled by Herod (18
in size B.C.) who extended it south-
ward by a terrace-\vall of still more colossal masonry. Some of
the stones are twenty-two feet long; one reaches the prodigious
" "
length of forty feet. The Wall of Lamentations is a part of

this terrace,upon which stood the Temple on a raised platform.

As by Herod, the Temple reproduced in part the antique
rebuilt

design, and retained the porch of Solomon along the east side;
but the whole was superbly reconstructed in white marble with
abundance of gilding. Defended by the Castle of Antonia on the
northwest, and embellished with a new and imposing triple colon-
nade on the south, the whole edifice, a conglomerate of Egyptian,
* 2 Chronicles
i Kings vi.-vii.; iii.-iv.
 PERSIAN, LYCIAN, AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE. 41

Assyrian, and Roman conceptions and forms, was one of the most
singular and yet magnificent creations of ancient art.
The temple of Zerubbabel (515 B.C.), intermediate between
those above described, was probably less a re-edification of the

first, than a new design. While based on the scheme of the first
temple, it appears to have followed more closely the pattern de-
scribed in the vision of Ezekiel (chapters xl.-xlii.). It was far

inferior to its predecessor in splendor and costliness. No ves-

tiges of it remain.

MONUMENTS. PERSIAN: at Murghab, the tomb of Cyrus,

known as Gabre-Madre-Soleimana gabled structure on a seven-
stepped pyramidal basement (525 B.C.)- At Persepolis the palace
of Darius (521 B.C.) the Propylaea of Xerxes, his palace and his
;

harem (?) or throne-hall (480 B.C.), one of the most imposing

architectural groups in the world. At various points, tower-like
tombs, supposed erroneously by Fergusson to have been fire altars.
At Naksh-i-Roustam, the tomb of Darius, cut in the rock. Other
tombs near by at Persepolis proper and at Pasargada?. At the
latter place remains of the palace of Cyrus. At Susa the palace of
Xerxes and Artaxerxes (480-405 B.C.).
LYCIAN the principal Lycian monuments are found in Myra,
:

Antiphellus, and Telmissus. Some of the monolithic tombs have

been removed to the British and other European museums.
JEWISH the temples have been mentioned above. The palace
:

of Solomon. The rock-cut monolithic tomb of Siloam. So-called

tombs of Absalom and Zechariah, structural probably of Herod's
;

time or later. Rock-cut tombs of the Kings; of the Prophets, etc.

City gates (Herodian or early Christian period).
 CHAPTER VI.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Reber. Also Anderson

and Spiers, Architecture 0} Greece and Rome. Baumeister,
Denkmaler der klassischen Alterthums. Botticher, Tcktonik dcr
Hellenen. Chipiez, Histoire critique dcs ordres grecs. Curtius,
Adler and Treu, Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia. Durm, Ant-ike
Baukunst (in Handbuch d. Arch). Frazer, Pausanias* Descrip-
tion of Greece. Hitorff, L architecture
1

polychrome cliez les Grecs.

Krell, Geschichte des dorischen Stils. Marquand, Greek A rchitec-
ture. Michaelis, Der Parthenon. Penrose, An Investigation, etc.,
o/ Athenian Architecture. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in
Primitive Greece; La Grece de I'JSpopee; La Grece archaique.
Schliemann, Myccnce; Ilios. Schuchardt, Schlicmann's Excava-
tions. Stuart and Revett, Antiquities of Athens. Tarbell, His-
tory of Greek Art. Texier, L'Asie Mineure. Wilkins, Antiquities
of Magna Grcccia.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. art marks the begin-

Greek
ning of European civilization. The
Hellenic race gathered up
influences and suggestions from both Asia and Africa and fused
them with others, whose sources are unknown, into an art in-
tensely national and original, which was to influence the arts of

many racesand nations long centuries after the decay of the Hel-
lenic states. The Greek mind, compared with the Egyptian or
Assyrian, was more highly intellectual, more logical, more sym-
metrical, and above all more inquiring and analytic. Living no-
where remote from the sea, the Greeks became mer-
sailors,

chants, and colonizers. The Ionian kinsmen of the European

Greeks, speaking a dialect of the same language, populated the
coasts of Asia Minor and many of the islands, so that through
them the Greeks were open to the influences of the Assyrian,
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 43

Phoenician, Persian, and Lycian civilizations. In Cyprus they

encountered Egyptian influences, and finally, under Psammet-
ichus, they established in Egypt itself the Greek city of Naukratis.

They were thus by geographical situation, by character, and by

circumstances, peculiarly fitted to receive, develop, and transmit
the mingled influences of the East and the South.
PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS. Authentic Greek history be-
gins with the first Olympiad, 776 B.C. The history of the lay
period of primitive and developing culture preceding that date
was wholly unknown, otherwise than through legends and the
Homeric poems, until the
researches of Schliemann
and and in
his successors,

still more recent years the

Cretan discoveries of Evans,
uncovered the remains of
the prehistoric cities of

Troy, in Asia Minor, My-

cenas and Tiryns, in Greece,

and of Cnossus in Crete,

and revealed the existence
of an ancient culture ex-

tending back over 2000 years

B.C., already in its decline at FIG. 22. LION GATE AT MYCEN*.

the time of the Homeric

wars. This civilization has been called the Mycemcan, but
is now more properly termed the Aegean or Mediterranean
culture. It belongs to the bronze age, and reached its culmina-
tion during the time of the XIX and XX dynasties in Egypt, about
1500-1300 B.C. Its long decline began with the introduction of
iron into the Mediterranean countries, and it seems to have been
overthrown or submerged by the Dorian migration of the end of
the 1 2th century B.C. It borrowed much from Egypt, with which

the primitive Greeks of the Aegean countries and islands main-

44 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

tained an active commerce; but it is believed to have been largely

an independent civilization, for it displays a purely Western
vivacity and originality. The swords, gold jewels, carved gems
(" island stones "), bronzes and pottery, as well as the architectural
remains, display these qualities in a marked degree.
" "
PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE. A remarkable feature of the
architecture of the Mycenaean or Aegean age is the complete
absence of temples. Fortifications, houses, palaces, and tombs
make up primitive house
the ruins thus far discovered. The
consisted of a hall or megaron with four columns about the
central hearth (whence, no doubt, the atrium and peristyle of
Roman houses, through their Greek intermediary prototypes)
and a porch or aithonsa, with or without columns in ant is, open-
ing directly into the megaron, or indirectly through an ante-room
called the prodomos. Here we have the prototypes of the Greek
temple in ant is, with its naos having interior columns, whether
roofed over or hypcethral (see pp. 55, 56). The use of timber
for certain of the structural details led in time to many of the
forms later developed in stone in the entablature of the Doric
order. But it is hard to discover, as Dorpfeld would have it, in
the slender Mycenaean columns with their inverted taper, the pro-
totype of the massive Doric column with its upward taper. The
Mycenaean column was apparently derived from wooden models,
the sturdy Doric column from stone or rubble piers (see p. 51).
The gynecaiim, or women's apartments, the men's apartments,
and the bath were in these ancient palaces grouped in varying

relations about the megaron: their plan, purpose, and arrange-

ment are clearly revealed in the ruins of Tiryns, where they are
more complete and perfect than either at Troy or Mycena-.*
FORTIFICATIONS AND WALLS. The most imposing remains
of Aegean architecture are the acropolis fortifications and city
walls of Mycenae and Tiryns. At tin- latter place the walls of
* A Mvceii;ean house \\-a-; uncovered at Xiller in C liald;ea
tvpiral
1>y the expedition of the University of Pennsylvania.
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 45

huge stones, piled without cement, contain passages covered by

stones successively corbelled out until they meet overhead. At

Mycenae the city wall is pierced by the remarkable Lion Gate

(Fig. 22), consisting of two jambs and a huge lintel, over which
the weight is relieved by a triangular opening. This is filled with
a sculptured group, now much defaced, representing two rampant
lions flanking a downward-tapering column. This symbolic
group has relations with Hittite and Phrygian sculptures, and
with the symbolism of the worship of Rhea Cybele. The masonry
of this wallis
carefully dressed but not regularly coursed. Other
primitive walls and gates showing openings and embryonic
arches of various forms, are found widely scattered, at Samos and
Delos, at Phigaleia, Thoricus,
Argos and many other points.
The very earliest are hardly more
than random piles of rough stone.
Those which may fairly claim
notice for their artistic masonry
are of a later date and of three FIG -
23. POLYGONAL MASONRY.

kinds: the coursed, the polyg-

onal, and the uncoursed or Cyclopean, so called from the
tradition that they were built by the Cyclopes. The polygonal
walls were composed of large, irregular polygonal blocks care-

fully fitted together and dressed to a fairly smooth face, as at

Mycenae (Fig. 23). The Cyclopean masonry, of huge irregular

stones with smaller pieces to wedge the interstices, is illustrated

by the walls of Tiryns. All three kinds were used contemporane-

ously, though in the course of time the regular coursed masonry
finally superseded the polygonal.
THOLOS OF ATREUS. All these structures present, however,

only the rudiments of architectural art. The so-called Tholos (or

Treasury) of Atreus, at Mycen.v, on the other hand, shows the

germs of truly artistic design (Fig. 24). It is in reality a tomb,
and is one of a large class of prehistoric tombs found in almost
46 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

every part of the globe, consisting of a circular stone-walled and

stone-roofed chamber buried under a tumulus of earth. This one
is a beehive-shaped con-
struction of horizontal
courses of masonry, with a
stone-walled passage, the

dromos, leading to the

entrance door. Though
internally of domical form,
its construction with hori-
zontal beds in the masonry

proves that the idea of the

true dome with the beds
of each course pitched at
an angle always normal to
the curve of the vault, was
not yet grasped. A small

sepulchral chamber opens

from the great one, by a
FIG. 24. THOLOS OP ATREUS.
SECTION. door with the customary
relieving triangle over it.

Traces of a metal lining have been found

on the inner surface of the dome and on
the jambs of the entrance-door. This en-
trance is the most artistic and elaborate

part of the edifice (Fig. 25). The main

opening is enclosed in a three-banded frame,
and was once flanked by half columns which
tapered downward as in the sculptured
column over the Lion Gate. Shafts, bases,
and capitals were covered with zig-zag bands
H5. 25. THOLOS OP
or chevrons of fine spirals. This well-studied ATRP.US. DOORWAY.
decoration, the banded jambs, and the curi-

ously inverted columns (of which several other examples

 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 47

exist in or near Mycenae), all point to a fairly developed art, de-

rived partly from Egyptian and partly from local or possibly
Asiatic sources. That Egyptian influences had affected this

proved by a fragment of carved and painted

early art is further
ornament on an alabaster ceiling in Orchomenos, imitating with
remarkable closeness certain ceiling decorations in Egyptian
tombs. This fragment was found in a "beehive" tomb analo-

gous to that of Mycenae.*

Few
other details of the Aegean architecture have been pre-
served. Certain alabaster fragments display a peculiar orna-
ment like a diglyph flanked by half-rosettes encircled by a guil-
loche. The columns had well-defined bases and capitals, but
show little if any analogy to the columns of later Greek art. Ex-
cept for the ceiling in the Orchomenos tomb there is little evi-

dence of influences from Egyptian architecture. This is the

more notable as the chief buildings of Myceme and Tiryns belong
to the 1 3th and iath centuries B.C., the period of Egyptian great-

ness under the second Theban monarchy, and it argues for the

independent development of this art.

Until further investigations of the remarkable Cretan art re-

vealed in the ruins of the Palace of Minos at Cnossus shall have
made known something more of the architectural forms and
decorative art of that early culture than we now know, it will be

impossible to determine how far, if at all, the architecture of

Mycena.', Tiryns and Troy was dependent upon or inspired from

that of Crete.
With the Dorian migration (dr. noo B.C.) this chapter of
Greek architecture comes to its close. The artistic revival of the

eighth century under the Ionian Greeks in Rhodes and Melos

* The columns and other fragments of the doorway of the Tholos
of Atreus, long lost in England, were in 1904 recovered and set up
in the British Museum, under the direction of R. Phone Spiers.

F.R.I.B.A., to whom I am indebted for the restoration reproduced

in Figure 25.
48 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

produced no architecture that has come down to us. There is a

nearly complete sundering between the Mycenaean architecture
and the historic architecture of Greece. The end of the one and
beginnings of the other are alike shrouded in uncertainty.
HISTORIC MONUMENTS: THE ORDERS. It was the Dorians
and lonians who developed the architecture of classic Greece.
This fact is perpetuated in the traditional names, Doric and Ionic,

given to the two systems of columnar design which formed the

most striking feature of that architecture. While in Egypt the
column was used almost exclusively as an internal support and
decoration, in Greece it was chiefly employed to produce an im-
posing exterioreffect. It was the most important element in the

temple architecture of the Greeks, and an almost indispensable

adornment and temple enclos-
of their gateways, public squares,
ures. To column the two races named above gave each a
the

special and radically distinct development, and it was not until

the Periclean age that the two forms came to be used in conjunc-

tion, even by the mixed Doric-Ionic people of Attica. Each of

the two types had its own special shaft, capital, entablature,
mouldings, and ornaments, although considerable variation was
allowed in the proportions and minor details. The general type,
however, remained substantially unchanged from first to last.
The earliest examples known to us of either order show it com-
plete in all its parts; its later development being restricted to the
refining and perfecting of its proportions and details. The prob-
able origin of these orders will be separately considered later on.
THE DORIC. The column of the Doric order (Figs. 26, 27)
consists of a tapering shaft rising directly from the stylobate or

platform and surmounted by a capital of great simplicity and

beauty. The shaft is fluted with sixteen to twenty shallow chan-
nellings of segmental or elliptical section, meeting in sharp edges
or arrises. The capital is made up of a circular cushion or

echinus adorned with fine grooves called annuhc, and a plain

or
square abacus or cap. Upon this rests a plain architrave
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 49

epistyle, with a narrow fillet, the la-nia, running along its upper

edge. The frieze above it is divided into square panels, called

the metopes, separated by vertical triglyplis having each two ver-
ticalgrooves and chamfered edges. There is a triglyph over each
column and one over each intercolumniation, or two in rare in-
stances where the columns are widely spaced. The cornice con-
sists of a broadly projecting corona
resting on a bed-mould of one or two
simple mouldings. Its under sur-

face, called the soffit, is adorned

with mulules, square, flat projections

having each eighteen gnltce depend-

ing from its under side. Two or
three small mouldings run along
the upper edge of the corona, which
has in addition, over each slope of
the gable, a gutter-moulding or cy-
malium. The cornices along the
horizontal edges of the roof have
instead of the cymatium a row of

antefixa, ornaments of terra-cotta FIG. 26. GREEK DORIC ORDER.

or marble, placed opposite the foot a, Crepidoma, or Stylobate;
p. Column; c. Architrave; d,
of each tile-ridge of the roofing.
Tifnia; e. Frieze; f^ Horizontal
The enclosed triangular field of the cornice: g, Raking cornice; h.
Tympanum of pediment; k, Me-
gable, called the tympanum, was in tope*
the larger monuments adorned with
sculptured groups resting on the shelf formed by the horizontal
cornice below. Carved ornaments called acroteria commonly
embellished the three angles of the gable or pediment.
POLYCHROMY. It has been fully proved, after a century of
debate, that all this elaborate system of parts, severe and dignified
* In this and other cuts of the orders, only the upper and lower
parts of the shaft are shown, the intervening and greater part of the
shaft being omitted, to save space.
 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

in their simplicity of form, received a rich decoration of color.

While the precise shades and tones employed cannot be predi-
cated with certainty, it is well established that the triglyphs were

painted blue and the metopes red, and that all the mouldings were
"
decorated with leaf-ornaments, eggs-and-darts," and frets, in
red, green, blue, and gold. The walls and columns were also

colored, probably with pale tints of yellow or buff, to reduce the

glare of the fresh marble or the whiteness of the fine stucco with
which the surfaces of maso.iry of coarser stone were primed. In
the clear Greek atmosphere and outlined against the brilliant sky,
the Greek temple must have presented an aspect of rich, spark-

ling gayety.
ORIGIN OF THE ORDER. It is generally believed that the
details of the Doric frieze and cornice were reminiscences of a
primitive wood construction, going back perhaps to Mycemean
prototypes. The triglyph
suggests the chamfered
ends of cross-beams made
up of three planks each;
the mutules, the sheath-

ing of the eaves; and the

guttie, the heads of the

spikes or trenails by
which the sheathing was
secured. It is known
that in early astylar
temples the metopes
Fir,. 27. DORIC ORDER OP THB PARTHENON'. \VCrC left O])Cn like tllC

spaces between the ends

of ceiling-rafters. In the earlier peripteral temples, as at
Selinus, the triglyph-frie/.e is retained around the cella-wall
under the ceiling of the colonnade, where it has no func-
tional significance, as a survival from times antedating the

adoption of the colonnade, when the tradition of a wooden

 .
.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 51

roof-construction showing externally had not yet been for-

gotten.
A similar wooden origin for the Doric column has been advo-
cated by some, who point to the assertion of Pausanias that in the
Doric Heraion at Olympia the original wooden columns had with
one exception been replaced by stone columns as fast as they de-
cayed. (See page 63.) This, however, only proves that wooden
columns were sometimes used in early buildings, not that the
Doric column was derived from them. Dcirpfeld, a high author-
ity, would seek its origin in the Mycenaean column (see ante, p.
44). Others would derive it from the Egyptian columns of Beni
Hassan (p. 12), which it certainly resembles. But it is not likely
that the Greeks, in selecting models for imitation, would have
passed over the splendors of Karnak and Luxor to copy these in-

conspicuous tombs perched high up on the cliffs of the Nile. It

would seem that they invented this form independently, develop-
ing it in buildings which have perished; unless, indeed, they
brought the idea with them from their primitive Aryan home in
Asia.
THE ORDER was characterized by greater slenderness
IONIC
and elegance of detail than the Doric, and depended
of proportion
more on carving than on color for the decoration of its members
(Fig. 28). It was adopted in the fifth century B.C. by the people

of Attica, and used both for civic and religious buildings, some-
times alone and sometimes in conjunction with the Doric. The
column was from eight to ten diameters in height, against four
and one-third to seven for the Doric. It stood on a base which
was usually composed of two tori (see p. 25 for definition) sepa-
rated by a scotia (a concave moulding of semicircular or semi-

elliptical profile), and was sometimes provided also with a square

flat base-block, the plinth. There was much variety in the pro-
portions and details of these mouldings, which were often en-
riched by flutings or carved guilloches. The tall shaft bore
twenty-four deep narrow flutings separated by narrow fillets.
 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The capital was the most peculiar feature of the order.

It

consisted of a bead or astragal and echinus, over which was a

band ending on either side in a scroll or volute, the
horizontal
which presented the aspect shown in Fig. 29. A thin
sides of
moulded abacus was interposed between this member and the
architrave.
The Ionic capital was marked by two awkward features which
all its richness could not conceal. One
was the protrusion of the echinus be-
yond the face of the band above' it, the
other was the disparity between the
side and front views of the capital,

especially noticeable at the corners of a

colonnade. To obviate this, various
contrivances were none wholly
tried,
successful. Ordinarily the two adjacent
exterior sides of the corner capital were
treated alike, the scrolls at their meet-
FIG. 28. GREEK IONIC OR-
ing being bent out at an angle of
DER. (MILETUS.)
45, while the two inner faces simply

intersected, cutting each other in halves.

The entablature comprised an architrave of two or three flat

bands crowned by fine mouldings; an uninterrupted frieze, fre-

quently sculptured in relief; and a simple cornice of great beauty.
In addition to the ordinary bed-mouldings there was in most

examples a row of narrow blocks or dentils under the corona,

which was itself crowned by a high cymatium of extremely grace-

ful profile, carved with the rich " honeysuckle" (antlieniion) orna-
ment. All the mouldings were carved with the "egg-and-dart,"
heart-leaf and anthemion ornaments, so designed as to recall by
their outline the profile of the
moulding itself. The details of this
order were treated with much more freedom and variety than
those of the Doric. The pediments of Ionic buildings were rarely
or never adorned with groups of sculpture. The volutes and
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE 53

echinus of the capital, the fluting of the shaft, the use of a moulded
circular base, and in the cornice the high corona and cymatium,
these were constant elements in every Ionic order, but all other
details varied widely in the different examples.
ORIGIN OF THE IONIC ORDER. The origin of the Ionic order
has given rise to almost as much
controversy as that of the Doric.
Its different elements were apparently derived from various
sources. The Lycian tombs may
have contributed the denticular cor-

nice and perhaps also the general

form of the column and capital. The
banded architrave is found in My-
cenae as well as in Lycian and Per-
sian work, and is plainly derived from

superposed wooden lintels.

Various archaic capitals found in
FIG. 29. SIDE VIEW OP IONIC
Ionic Asia Minor and Greece display
CAPITAL.
separately the component elements
of the Ionic capital. Thevolutes appear to have originated

primarily in branching spirals springing from the shaft, as in

many Assyrian and Cypriote fmials and stele-heads; their union
by a horizontal band, forming a sort of abacus, was a late modi-
fication. The volute or scroll itself as an independent decorative
motive may have originated in successive variations of Egyptian
lotus-patterns.* But the combination of these diverse elements
and their development into the final form of the order was the
work of the Ionian Greeks, and it was in the Ionian provinces
of AsiaMinor that the most splendid examples of its use are to
be found (Halicarnassus, Miletus, Priene, Kphesus), while the
most graceful and perfect are those of Doric-Ionic Attica.
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. This was a late outgrowth of the
Ionic rather than a new order, and up to the time of the Roman
conquest was only used for monuments of small size (see Fig. 38).
* As
contended by W. H. (loodyear in his Grammar of the Lotus.
54 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Its entablature in pure Greek examples was identical with the

Ionic; the shaft and base were only slightly changed in propor-
tion and detail. The however, was a new departure,
capital,

consisting in the best examples of a high bell-shaped core

surrounded by one or two rows of
acanthus leaves, above which were
pairs of branching scrolls meeting at
the corners in spiral volutes. These
served to support the angles of a
moulded abacus with concave sides

(Fig. 30). One example, from the

Tower of the Winds (the clepsydra of
Andronicus Cyrrhestes) at Athens, has
only smooth pointed palm-leaves and
no scrolls, above a single row of
acanthus leaves. Indeed, the variety
and disparity among the different ex-

amples prove that we have here only

the first steps toward the evolution of
an independent order, which it was
reserved for the Romans to fully de-

velop.
FIG. 30. GREEK CORINTHIAN GREEK TEMPLES: THE TYPE.
ORDER. With the orders as their chief dec-
(From the monument of orative element the Greeks built
Lysicrates.)
up
a splendid architecture of religious
and secular monuments. Their noblest works were temples,
which they designed with the utmost simplicity of general
scheme, but carried out with a mastery of proportion and detail
which has never been surpassed. Of moderate size in most
cases, they were intended primarily to enshrine the simulacrum of
the deity, and not, like Christian churches, to accommodate great

throngs of worshippers. Nor were they, on the other hand, sanc-

tuaries designed, like those of Kgypt, to exclude all but a privi-
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 55

leged few from secret rites performed only by the priests and
king. The statue of the deity \vas enshrined in a chamber, the
naos (see plan, Fig. 31), often of considerable size, and accessible
to the public through a columnar porch, the pronaos. A smaller
chamber, the opisthodomus, was sometimes added in the rear of

the main sanctuary, to serve as a treasury or depository for votive

offerings. Together these formed a windowless structure called

the cella, beyond which was the rear porch, the posticum or epi-
naos. This whole structure was in
the larger temples surrounded by
a colonnade, the peristyle, which
formed the most splendid feature
of Greek architecture. The external
aisle on either side of the cella was
called the pteroma. A single gabled
roof covered the entire building.
The Greek colonnade was thus
an exterior feature, surrounding the
PIG. 31. TYPES OF GREEK
solid cella-wall instead of being en- TEMPLE PLAN'S.

closed by it as in Egypt. The temple a, In Ant is; b. Prostyle', c,

Atiiphiprostylc; Peripteral
was a public, not a royal monument;
</,

(The Parthenon}; N, A'aas; O,

and its builders aimed, not as in OpisthoJomus;* S, Statue.

Egypt at size and overwhelming

sombre majesty, but rather at sunny beauty and the highest
perfection of proportion, execution, and detail (Fig. 34).
There were of course many variations of the general type

just described. Each of these has received a special name,

which is given in the following list with explanations and is

illustrated in Fig. 31.

*
Theremuch uncertainty in the use of this term. By many
is

writers applied to the posticum or rear portico.

it is In the Par-
thenon itself the chamber marked was specially designated as the
Parthenon, and the naos was called the llecatompedon or hun-
dred-foot hall.
$6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

In antis; with a porch having two or more columns enclosed

between the projecting side-walls of the cella.*
Prostylar (or prostyle) with a columnar porch in front and no
;

peristyle.

Amphiprostylar (or -style); with columnar porches at both

ends but no peristyle. f
Peripteral; surrounded by columns.!
Pseudo peripteral; with false or engaged columns built into the
walls of the cella, leaving no pteroma.

Dipteral; with double lateral ranges of columns (see Fig. 39).

Pseudo dipteral, with a single row of columns on each side,
whose distance from the wall is equal to two intercolumniations
of the front-H

Tetraslyle, hexastyle, octastyle, decastyle, etc.; with four, six,

eight, or ten columns in the end rows.

The Greeks also occasionally erected circular temples or
shrines, though the majority of these belong to the Macedonian
age: e. g., the Philippeion at Olympia.
CONSTRUCTION. All the temples known to us are of stone,

though it is evident from allusions in the ancient writers that

wood was sometimes used in early times. (See p. 63.) The
finest temples, especially those of Attica, Olympia, and Asia
Minor, were of marble. In Magna Gnecia, at Assos, and in other
places where marble was wanting, limestone, sandstone, or lava
was employed and finished with a thin, fine stucco. The roof
was almost invariably of wood and gabled, forming at the ends
pediments decorated in most cases with sculpture. The disap-
pearance of these inflammable and perishable roofs has given
rise to endless speculations as to the lightingof the cellas, which in

* Themis Temple at Rhamnus.

t Temple of Nike Apteros, Athens.
$ All the larger temples, also the Mausoleum.
Temple of Zeus at Agrigentum.
II Two of the temples at Selinus.
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 57

all known
ruins, except one at Agrigcntum, are destitute of win-
dows. has been conjectured that light was admitted through
It

openings in the roof, and even that the central part of the cella
was wholly open to the sky. Such an arrangement is termed
hypccth ral, from an expression used in a description by Vitruvius;*

but this description corresponds to no known structure, and the

weight of opinion now inclines against the use of the hypaethral

opening, except possibly in one or two of the largest temples, in

which a part of the cella in front of the statue may have been thus
left open. But even hypathros is not substantiated by
this partial

direct evidence. hardly seems

It probable that the magnificent
chryselephantine statues of such temples were ever thus left ex-
posed to the extremes of the climate, which are often severe even
in Greece. In the model of the Parthenon designed by Ch.

Chipiez for the Metropolitan Museum in New York, a small

clerestory opening through the roof admits a moderate amount of
light to the cella; but this ingenious device rests on no positive
evidence (see Frontispiece). It seems on the whole most prob-

able that the cella was lighted entirely by artificial illumination;

but the controversy in its present state is and must be wholly
speculative.
The wooden roof was covered with tiles of terra-cotta or
marble. It was probably ceiled and panelled on the under side,

and richly decorated with color and gold. The pteroma had
under the exterior roof a ceiling of stone or marble, deeply
panelled between transverse architraves.
The naos and opisthodomus being in the larger temples too
wide be spanned by single beams, were furnished with interior
to

columns to afford intermediate support. To avoid the extremes

of too great massiveness and excessive slenderness in these col-

umns, they were built in two stages, and advantage was taken of
this arrangement, in some cases, at least, to introduce lateral

galleries into the naos.

*Lib III., Cap. I.
 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

SCULPTURE AND CARVING. All the architectural member-

ing was treated with the greatest refinement of design and execu-
tion, and the aid of sculpture, both in relief and in the round, was
invoked to give splendor and significance to the monument. The
statue of the deity was the
focus of internal interest,
while externally, groups
of statues representing
the Olympian deities or

the mythical exploits of

gods, demigods, and
heroes, adorned the
gables. Relief carvings
in the friezes and metopes
commemorated the fa-

vorite national myths.

In these sculptures we
have the finest known
adaptations of pure
sculpture i.e., sculpture
treated as such and com-

plete in itself to an
architectural framework.
The noblest examples
FIG. 32. CARVED ANTHEMION ORNAMENT.
ATHENS. of this decorative sculp-
ture are those of the

Parthenon, consisting of figures in the full round from the pedi-

ments, groups in high relief from the metopes, and the beautiful
frieze of the Panathenaic procession from the cella-wall under the
pteroma ceiling. The greater part of these splendid works are
now in the British Museum, whither they were removed by Lord
Elgin in 1801. From Olympia, Aegina, and Phigaleia, other
master-works of the same kind have been transferred to the

museums of Europe. In the Doric style there was little

carving
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 59

other than the sculpture, the ornament being mainly polychro-

matic. Greek Ionic and Corinthian monuments, however, as
well as minor works such as steles, altars, etc., were richly adorned
with carved mouldings and friezes, festoons, acroteria, and other
embellishments executed with the chisel. The anthemion orna-
ment, a form related to the Egyptian lotus and Assyrian palmette,
most frequently figures in these. It was made into designs of
wonderful vigor and beauty (Fig. 32).
DETAIL AND EXECUTION. In the handling and cutting of
stone the Greeks displayed a surpassing skill and delicacy.
While ordinarily they were content to use stones of moderate size,
they never hesitated at any dimension necessary for proper effect
or solid construction. The lower drums of the Parthenon peri-

style are 6 feet 6J inches in diameter, and 2 feet 10 inches high,

cut from single blocks of Pentelic marble. The architraves of
the Propyla.-a at Athens are each made up of two lintels placed
side by side, the longest 17 feet 7 inches long, 3 feet 10 inches
high, and 2 feet 4 inches thick. In the colossal temples of Asia
Minor, where the taste for the vast and grandiose was more pro-
nounced, blocks of much greater size were used. These enormous
stones were cut and fitted with the most scrupulous exactness.
The walls of all important structures were built in regular courses

throughout, every stone carefully bedded with extremely close"

joints. The masonry was usually laid up without cement and
clamped with metal; there is no filling in with rubble and con-
crete between mere facings of cut stone, as in most modern work.
When the only available stone was of coarse texture it was fin-

ished with a coating of fine stucco, in which sharp edges and

minute detail could be worked.
The details were, in the best period, executed with the most
extraordinary refinement and care. The profiles of capitals and
mouldings, the carved ornament, the arrises of the (lutings, were
cut with marvellous precision and delicacy. It has been
rightly
"
said that the Greeks built like Titans and finished like jew-
60 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

ellers." But this perfect finish was never petty nor wasted on
unworthy or vulgar design. The just relation of scale between
the building and all its parts was admirably maintained; the
ornament was distributed with rare judgment, and the vigor of
its design saved it from all appearance of
triviality.
The sensitive taste of the Greeks led them into other refine-

ments than those of mere mechanical perfection. In the Par-

thenon especially, but also in lesser degree in other temples, the
seemingly straight lines of the building were all slightly curved,
and the vertical faces inclined. This was done to correct the

monotony and stiffness of absolutely straight lines and right

angles, and certain optical illusions which their acute observation
had detected. The long horizontal lines of the stylobate and cor-
nice were made convex upward; a similar convexity in the hori-
zontal corona of the pediment counteracted the seeming concav-

ity otherwise resulting from its meeting with the multiplied in-
clined lines of the raking cornice. The columns were almost
imperceptibly inclined toward the cella, and the corner inter-
columniations made a trifle narrower than the rest; while the
vertical lines of the arrises of the flutings were made convex out-
ward with a curve of the utmost beauty and delicacy. By these
and other like refinements there was imparted to the monument
An elasticity and vigor of aspect, an elusive and surprising beauty
impossible to describe and not to be explained by the mere com-
position and general proportions, yet manifest to every cultivated

eye.*

* These
refinements, first noticed by Allason in 1814, and later
confirmed by Cockerel! and Haller as to the columns, were pub-
lished to the world in 1838 by Iloffer, verified by Pcnrose in 1846,
and further developed by the investigations of Ziller and later

observers.
 CHAPTER VII.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Continued.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter VI. Also,

Bacon and Clarke, Investigations at Assos. Cavvadias, Foutfles
d'pidaure. D'Ooge, The Acropolis at Athens. Espouy, Frag-
ments ^architecture antique. Harrison and Verrall, Mythology
and Monuments of Ancient Athens. Hitorff et Zanth, Recueil des
Monuments de Segeste et Selinonte; Architecture antique de la
Sicile. Magne, Le Parthenon. Middleton, Plans and Drawings
0} Athenian Buildings. Newton and Pullan, A History o) Dis-
coveries at Halifarnassus, etc. Koldewey and Puchstein, Die
griechischen Tern pel in U nter-italien und Sicilien. Waldstein,
The Argive Heraum.

HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. The history of Greek archi-

tecture, subsequent to the Heroic or Primitive Age, may be di-

vided into periods as follows:
The ARCHAIC; from 650 to 500 B.C.
The TRANSITIONAL; from 500 to 460 B.C., or to the revival of

prosperity after the Persian wars.

The PERICLEAN; from 460 to 400 B.C.
The FLORID or ALEXANDRIAN; from 400 to 30x3 B.C.
The DECADENT; 300 to 100 B.C.
The ROMAN; 100 B.C. to 200 A.D.
These dates are, of course, arbitrary; the development of styles
isa continuous and gradual process; but divisions like the above
are convenient aids in following this development through its
various phases.
ARCHAIC PERIOD. The archaic period is characten/.ed by
the exclusive use of the Doric order, which anpears in the earliest
62 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

monuments complete in all its parts, but heavy in its proportions

and coarse in its execution. The oldest known temples of this

period are the Apollo Temple at Corinth (650 B.C. ?), and the
Northern Temple on the acropolis at Selinus in Sicily (cir.

610-590 B.C.). They are both of a coarse limestone covered with

stucco. The columns are low and massive (4^ to 4 diameters
in height), widely spaced, and carry a very high entablature. The
triglyphs still appear around the cella wall under the pteroma

Ji
ceiling, an illogical detail destined to disappear in later buildings.
Other temples at Selinus date from the middle or latter part of
. the sixth century; they have
| higher columns and finer

p| profiles than those just men-

^ tioned. The great Temple of
Zeus at Selinus was the earli-
I 999999999999 est of five colossal Greek
temples of very nearly identi-
FIG. 33.-TEMPLE OP ZEUS. cal dimensions; it measured
AGRIGENTUM. 7

360 feet by 167 feet in plan,

but was never completed. During the second half of the sixth
century important Doric temples were built at PcTStum in South
Italy, and Agrigentum in Sicily; the somewhat primitive temple at
Assos in Asia Minor, with uncouth carvings of centaurs and mon-
sters on its architrave, belongs to this same period. The Temple
of Zeus at Agrigentum (Fig. 33) is another singular and ex-

ceptional design, and was the second of the five colossal temples
mentioned above. The temple was entirely enclosed by walls
with engaged columns showing externally, and the roof was sup-

ported internally by two rows of massive columns. Colossal

atlantes or applied statues figured in the design, but in what
manner is not known. The temple was never completed.
THE TRANSITION. During the transitional period there was
a marked improvement in the proportions, detail, and workman-
ship of the temples. The cella was made broader, the columns
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 63

more slender, the entablature lighter. The triglyphs disappeared

from the cella wall, and sculpture of a higher order enhanced the
architectural effect. The profiles of the mouldings and espe-
cially of the capitals became more subtle and refined in their
curves, while the development of the Ionic order in important
monuments in Asia Minor was preparing the way for the splen-
dors of the Periclean age.Three temples especially deserve
notice: the
Aphaea* Temple on the island of jEgina, the Temple
of Zeus at Olympia, and the so-called Theseum perhaps a

temple of Heracles in Athens. They belong to the period 470-

450 B.C.; they are all hexastyle and peripteral, and without
triglyphs on the cella wall. Of the three the second in the list is
interesting as the scene of those rites which preceded and accom-
panied the Panhellenic Olympian games, and as the central
feature of the Altis, the most complete temple-group and enclos-
ure among all Greek remains. It was built of a coarse conglom-

erate, finished with fine stucco, and embellished with sculpture by

the greatest masters of the time. The adjacent Heraion (temple
of Hera) was a highly venerated and ancient shrine, originally
built with wooden columns which, according to Pausanias, were
replaced one by one, as they decayed, by stone columns. The
truth of this statement is attested by the discovery of a singular

variety of capitals among its ruins, corresponding to the various

periods at which they were added. The Theseum is the most
perfectly preserved of all Greek temples, and in the refinement of
its forms is only surpassed by those of the Periclean age.

THE PERICLEAN AGE. The Persian wars may be taken

as the dividing line between the Transition period and the Peri-
clean age. The elan of national enthusiasm that followed the
expulsion of the invader, and the glory and wealth which accrued
to Athens as the champion of all Hellas, resulted in a splendid

reconstruction of the Attic monuments as well as a revival of

* identified with the Temple of Zeus described by Pau-
Formerly
sanias ;
claimed also until recently as a Temple of Athena.
64 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

building activity in Asia Minor. By the wise administration of

Periclesand by the genius of Ictinus, Phidias, and other artists of
surpassing skill, the Acropolis at Athens was crowned with a
group of buildings and statues absolutely unrivalled. Chief
among them was the Parthenon, the shrine of Athena Parthenos,
which the critics of all schools have agreed in considering the

FIG. 34. RUINS OF TUB PARTHENON.

most faultless in design and execution of all buildings erected by

man (Figs. 31, 34, and Frontispiece). It was an octastyle perip-
teral temple, with seventeen columns on the side, and measured
220 by 100 feet on the top of the stylobate. It was the work of
Ictinus and Callicrates, built to enshrine the noble statue of the

goddess by Phidias, a standing chryselephantine figure forty feet

high. It was the masterpiece of (Jreek architecture not only by
reason of its refinements of detail, but also on account of the
beauty
of its sculptural adornments. The frieze about the cella wall
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 65

under the pteroma ceiling, representing in low relief with mas-

terly skill the Panathenaic procession; the sculptured groups in
the metopes, and the superb assemblages of Olympic and sym-
bolic figures of colossal size in the pediments, added their majesty
to the perfection of the architecture. Here also the horizontal
curvatures and other refinements are found in their highest devel-

opment. Northward from it, upon the Acropolis, stood the

Erechtheum, an excellent example of the Attic-Ionic style (Figs.
35> 36)- Its singular irregularities of plan and level, and the
variety of its detail, exhibit in a striking way the Greek indiffer-
ence to mere formal symmetry when
confronted by practical considera-
tions. The motive in this case was
the desire to include in one design
several existing and venerated shrines
to Attic deities and heroes Athena
Polias, Poseidon, Pandrosus, Erech-
theus, Boutes, etc. Begun by un-
known architects in 479 B.C., and
1

FIG 3 s._p LAN OP

. ERECHTHEUM.
not completed until 408 B.C., it re-

mains in its ruin still one of the most interesting and attractive of
ancient buildings. Its two colonnades of differing design, its

beautiful north doorway, and the unique and noble caryatid

porch or balcony on the south side are unsurpassed in delicate

beauty combined with vigor of design.* A smaller monument
of the Ionic order, the amphiprostyle temple to Nike Apteros
* Recent
investigations by the Greek Archaeological Society in
connection with repairs and a partial restoration of the Erechtheum,
have brought to light many peculiarities of design and construction
hitherto unknown. In the course of this work, Mr. G. P. Stevens,
representing the Archaeological Institute of America, was able to
demonstrate the existence in the east wall of the original structure
of two windows, as shown in Figure 35, which, as well as Figure
36, was copied, with his permission, from his drawings (see
Journal Arclueol. lust, of America, X., I. </ seq.).
66 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

the Wingless Victory stands on a projecting spur of the Acrop-

olis to the southwest. It measures only 27 feet by 18 feet in

plan; the cella is

nearly square; the columns are sturdier than
those of the Erech-

theum, and the ex-

ecution of the mon-

ument is admirable.
It was the first com-
pleted of the extant
buildings of the

group of the Acrop-

olis and dates from
466 B.C.

FIG. 36. WEST END OP ERECHTHEUM, RESTORED. In tllC PrOpylSBE

(Fig. 37), the mon-
umental gateway to the Acropolis, the Doric and Ionic orders
appear to have been combined for the first time (437 to 432 B.C.).
It was the master work of Mnesicles. The front and rear
facades were Doric hexa-

styles; adjoining the

front porch were two
projecting lateral wings
employing a smaller Doric
order. The central pas-

sageway led between two

rows of Ionic columns to
the rear porch, entered by
five doorways and crowned,
like the front, with a pedi-

ment. The whole was FIG. 37. PROPYL^A AT ATHENS. PLAN.

executed with the same
splendor and perfection as the other buildings of the Acropolis,
and was a worthy gateway to the group of noble monuments
which crowned that citadel of the Attic capital. The two orders
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 6/

were also combined in the temple of Apollo Epicurius at

Phigalaea (Bassae). This temple was erected in 430 B.C. by

Ictinus, who used the Ionic order internally to decorate a row of

projecting piers instead of free-standing columns in the naos, in

which there was also a single Corinthian column of rather archaic
design, which may have been used as a support for a statue or
votive offering.
ALEXANDRIAN AGE. A period of reaction followed the splen-
did architectural activity of the Periclean age. A succession of
disastrous wars the Sicilian, Peloponnesian, and Corinthian
drained the energies and destroyed the peace of European Greece
for seventy-five years, robbing Athens of her supremacy and in-
flicting wounds from which she never recovered. In the latter
part of the fourth century, however, the triumph of the Mace-
donian empire over all the Mediterranean lands inaugurated a
new era of architectural magnificence, especially in Asia Minor.
The keynote of the art of this time was splendor, as that of the
preceding age was artistic perfection. The Corinthian order
came into use, as though the Ionic were not rich enough for the
sumptuous taste of the time, and capitals and bases of novel and
elaborate design embellished the Ionic temples of Asia Minor.
In the temple of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus, the plinths of the
bases were made octagonal and panelled with rich scroll-carvings;
and the piers which buttressed the interior faces of the cella walls

were given capitals of singular but elegant form, midway between

the Ionic and Corinthian types. This temple belongs to the list of
colossal edifices already referred to; its dimensions were 366 by 163
feet, making it the largest of them all. The famous Artemisium
(temple of Artemis or Diana) at Kphcsus measured 342 by 163 feet.
Several of the columns of the latter were enriched with sculptured

figures encircling the lower drums of the colossal shafts. The

most lavish expenditure was bestowed upon small structures,
shrines, and sarcophagi. The graceful monument still visible in
Athens, erected by the chora-gus Lysicrates in token of his vie-
68 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

tory in the choral competitions, belongs to this period (330 B.C.).

It is circular, with a slightly domical imbricated roof, and is

decorated with elegant engaged Corinthian columns (Fig. 38).

In the Imperial Museum at Constantinople are several sar-
cophagi of this period, found at Sidon, but executed by Greek
artists, and of exceptional beauty.
They are in the form of temples or

shrines; the finest of them, sup-

posed by some to have been made

for Alexander's favorite general

Perdiccas, and by others for the

Persian satrap who figures prom-

inently on its sculptured reliefs, is
the most sumptuous work of the
kind in existence. The exquisite
polychromy of its beautiful reliefs
and the perfection of its rich de-
tails of cornice, pediment, tiling,
and crestings, make it an exceed-
ingly interesting and instructive

example of the minor architecture

FIG. 38.- 3HORAGIC MONUMENT OF
LYSICRATES. of the period.

(Restored model, N. V.) THE DECADENCE. After the

decline of Alexandrian
magnifi-
cence Greek art never recovered itsancient glory, but the flame
was not suddenly extinguished. While in Greece proper the
works of the second and third centuries B.C., are for the most part
weak and lifeless, like the Stoa of Attalus (175 B.C.) and the
Tower of the Winds (the Clepsydra of Andronicus Cyrrhestes,
100 B.C.) at Athens or the Portico of Philip in Delos, there were
still a few worthy works built in Asia Minor. The splendid Altar
erected at Pergamon by Eumenes II. (dr. 180 B.C.) in the Ionic
order, combined sculpture of extraordinary vigor with imposing
architecture in masterly fashion. At Aizanoi an Ionic Temple to
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 69

Zeus, by some attributed Roman period, but showing rather

to the

the character of good late Greek work, deserves mention for its
elegant details, and especially for its frieze-decoration of acanthus
leaves and scrolls resembling those of a Corinthian capital.
ROMAN PERIOD. During this period, i.e., throughout the
second and first centuries B.C., the Roman dominion was spread-
ing over Greek and the structures erected subsequent to
territory,
the conquest partake of the Roman character and mingle Roman

conceptions with Greek details and vice versa. The temple of

the Olympian Zeus at Athens (Fig.39), a mighty dipteral Corinth-
ian edifice measuring 354 by
171 feet, standing on a vast
mmmmmmmmm mm
terrace or temcnos surrounded

by a buttressed wall, was be- T::::: Ji [

1 mm*
gun by Antiochus Epiphanes mmmmmmmmmmummm mmmmm'm
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
(170 n. c.) on the site of an
earlier unfinished Doric tem-
PIG. 39. TEMPLE OF OLYMPIAN ZEUS,
pie of the time of Pisistratus, ATHENS.
and carried out under the
direction of the Roman architect, Cossutius. It was not, how-
completed until the time of Hadrian, 130 A.D. Mean-
ever, finally
while Sulla had despoiled it of several columns which he carried
to Rome (86 B.C.), to use in the rebuilding of the temple of Jupiter
on the Capitol, where they undoubtedly served as models in the
development of the Roman Corinthian order. The columns
were 57 most perfect Corinthian
feet high, with capitals of the

type; fifteen are now standing, and one lies prostrate near by.
To the Roman period also belong the Agora Gate (cir. 35 B.C.),
the of Hadrian (117 A.D.), the Odeon of Regilla or of
Arch
II erodes
Atticus (143 A.D.), at Athens, the Propykea at Eleusis,
and many temples and tombs, theatres, arches, etc., in the Greek
provinces.
SECULAR MONUMENTS; PROPYL^EA. The stately gateway
by which the Acropolis was entered has already been described.
70 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

It was the noblest and most perfect of a class of buildings whose

is found in the monumental columnar porches of the
prototype
palace-group at Persepolis. The Greeks never used the arch in
these structures, nor did they attach to them the same importance
as did most of the other nations of antiquity. The Altis of
Olympia, the national shrine of Hellenism, appears to have
had no central gateway of imposing size, but a number of insig-
nificant entrances disposed at random. The Propylaea of
Sunium, Priene and Eleusis are the most conspicuous, after those
Athenian Acropolis. Of these the Ionic gateway at Priene
of the

is the finest, although the later of the two at Eleusis is interesting

for its anta-capitals. (Anla = a. flat pilaster decorating the end of

a wing-wall and treated with a base and capital usually differing

from those of the adjacent columns.) These are of Corin-
thian type, adorned with winged horses, scrolls, and anthemions
of an exuberant richness of design, characteristic of this late

period.
The specifications have been preserved to us of an arsenal of
the Periclean age at the Piraeus, but no vestige of the structure
itself remains, nor has any other building of like character been
preserved.
COLONNADES, STO^E. These were built to connect public
monuments (as the Uionysiac theatre and Odeon at Athens); or
along the sides of great public squares, as at Assos and Olympia
(the so-called Echo Hall); or as independent open public halls,
as the Stoa Diple at Thoricus. They afforded shelter from sun
and promenading, meetings with friends, public
rain, places for

gatherings, and similar purposes. They were rarely of great

size, and most of them are of rather late date, though the archaic
structure at Pa-stum, known as the Basilica, was probably in

reality an open hall of this kind.

THEATRES, ODEONS. These were invariably cut out of the

rocky hillsides, a few cases (Mantimea, Myra, Anti-
though in

phellus) a part of the seats were sustained by a built-up sub-

 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.

structure and walls to eke out the deficiency of the hill-slope under
them. The front of the excavation was enclosed by a stage and a
set scene or background, leaving somewhat over a semicircle for
the orchestra enclosed by the lower tier of seats (Fig. 40). An
altar to Dionysus (Bacchus) was the essential feature in the fore-

ground of the orchestra, where the Dionysiac choral dance was

performed. The seats formed successive steps of stone or marble
sweeping around the sloping excavation, with carved marble
thrones for the priests,
archons, and other digni-
taries. The only architectural
decoration of the theatre was
that of the set scene or skenc,
which with its
wing-walls
(paraskenai] enclosing the
stage (logeion) was a per-
manent structure of stone or
marble adorned with doors,
FIG. 40. PLAN OF GREEK THEATRE.
cornices, pilasters, etc.*
o. Orchestra; /, London; /, Paraskenai;
This has perished in nearly Sken ; st, st, sta.
t
-

every case; but at Aspendus,

in Asia Minor, there is one still
fairly well preserved, with a rich
architectural decoration on its inner face. The extreme diameter
of the theatres varied greatly; thus at Aizanoi
it is
187 feet, and
at Syracuse 495 feet. One
the best preserved of Greek
of
theatres is that at Fpidaurus, the only one not altered funda-

mentally by the Romans. The theatr" of Dionysus at Athens

(finished 325 n.r.) could accommodate thirty thousand spectators.
The odeon differed from the theatre principally in being
smaller and entirely covered in by a wooden roof. The Odeon of

*
There has been much controversy over Dorpfcld's contention
that the sta^e of the true (ireek theatre was on a level with the
orchestra and that the raised logd'on is in every case a late addi-
tion; but the consensus of opinion seems to be against this view.
?2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Regilla, built by Hcrodcs Atticus in Athens (143 A.D.), is a well-

preserved specimen of this class, but all traces of its cedar ceiling
and of its intermediate supports have disappeared.
BUILDINGS FOR ATHLETIC CONTESTS. These comprised
stadia and hippodromes for races, and gymnasia and pahustnu for
individual exercise, bathing, and amusement. The stadia and
hippodromes were oblong enclosures surrounded by tiers of seats
and without conspicuous architectural features. The pahcstra
or gymnasium for the terms are not clearly distinguished was
a combination of courts, chambers, tanks (pixciiiff) for bathers
and exedra or semicircular tiers of seats for spectators; it served
not merely for the exercises of athletes, but also for public reci-
tations and entertainments. It was the prototype of the Roman

thermae, but simpler in plan and adornment. Every Greek city

had one or more of them, but they have almost wholly disap-
peared, and the brief description by Vitruvius and scanty re-
mains at Alexandria Troas and Ephesus furnish almost the only
information we possess regarding their form and arrangement.
TOMBS. These are not numerous, and the most important
are found in Asia Minor. The greatest of these is the famed
Mausoleum monument erected to
at Halicarnassus in Caria, the

the king Mausolus by widow Artemisia (354 B.C.; Eig. 41).

his

It was designed by Satyrus and Pythius in the Ionic style, and

comprised a podium or base 50 feet high and measuring 80 feet

by TOO feet, in which was the sepulchre. Upon this base stood a
cellasurrounded by thirty-six Ionic columns, and crowned by a
pyramidal roof, on the peak of which was a colossal marble
quadriga at a height of 130 feet. It was superbly decorated by
Scopas and other great sculptors with marble lions, and a
statues,

magnificent frieze. The British Museum possesses fragments

most imposing monument. At Xanthus the Nereid Mon-
of this

ument, so called from its sculptured figures of Nereides, was a

somewhat similar design on a smaller scale, with sixteen Ionic
columns. At Mylassa was another tomb with an open Corin-
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 73

thian colonnade supporting a roof formed in a stepped pyramid.

Some of the later rock-cut tombs of Lycia at Myra and Anti 1

phellus may also be counted as Hellenic works.

PIG. 41. MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS.

(As restored by the author.)

DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE, Our knowledge of the typical

Greek house is principally derived from literary sources, few re-
mains of Greek houses having been found sufficiently well pre-
served to permit of restoring even the plan. It is probable that

they resembled in general arrangement the houses of Pompeii

(see p. 107) but

;
that they were generally insignificant in size and
decoration. The exterior walls were pierced only by the en-
trance doors, all light being derived from one or more interior
courts. In the Macedonian epoch there must have been greater

display and luxury in domestic architecture, but no remains have

come down to us of sufficient importance or completeness to war-
rant further discussion.
74 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

MONUMENTS. In addition to those already mentioned in the

text the following should be enumerated :

PREHISTORIC PERIOD. In the Islands about Santorin, remains of

houses antedating 1500 B.C.; at Tiryns the Acropolis, walls, and
miscellaneous ruins the like also at Mycenae, besides various
;

tombs walls, gates, and houses of six successively superposed

;

cities at Hissarlik (Troy, Ilios.) ;

walls and gates at Samos, Thori-
cus, Menidi, Athens, etc. Extensive palace ruins in Crete.
ARCHAIC Doric Temples at Metapontium (by Dunn as-
PERIOD.
signed to 610 B.C.), Selinus, Agrigentum, Paestum at Athens the ;

first Parthenon in Asia Minor the primitive Ionic Artemisium at

;

Ephesus and the Heraion at Samos, the latter the oldest of colossal
Greek temples.
TRANSITIONAL PERIOD. At Agrigentum, temples of Concord, Cas-
tor and Pollux, Demeter, Aesculapius, all circ. 480 B.C. temples at ;

Selinus and Segesta at Delphi, temple of Apollo, various shrines,

;

etc.

PERICLEAN PERIOD. In Athens the Ionic temple on the lllissus,

destroyed during the last century; on Cape Sunium the temple
of Athena, 430 B.C., partly standing; at Nemea, the temple of Zeus;
at Tegea, the temple of Athena Elea (400? B.C.) at Rhamnus, the ;

temples of Themis and of Nemesis at Argos, two temples, stoa, ;

and other buildings all these were Doric.

;

ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD. The temple of Dionysus at Teos ; temple

of Artemis Leucophryne at Magnesia, both about 330 B.C. and of
the Ionic order; at Epidaurus, temple of Aesculapius, 3<So B.r. ;

theatre; circular tholos (or well-house?), Corinthian internally,

Doric externally, about 360 B.C. ; portico, temple of Artemis, etc.
DECADENCE AND ROMAN PERIOD. At Athens the Stoa of Eumenes,
circ. 170 ]!.c.; themonument of Philopappus on the Museum hill,

no A.D. ; the Gymnasium of Hadrian, 114 to 137 A.I). ;

the last two
of the Corinthian order.
THEATRES. P>csides those already mentioned there are important
remains of theatres at Argos, Segesta, lassus (400? B.C.), Delos,
Sicyon, Patara, and Thoricus besides many others of less im-
;

portance scattered through the Hellenic world. At Taormina are

extensive ruins of a large Greek theatre rebuilt in the Roman
period.
 CHAPTER VIII.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Anderson and Spiers,

Baumeister, Rcber, Biihlmann (see General Bibliography).
Canina, L'Arcliileltiira antica dcscritta, etc. Choisy, UArt de
batir chcz les Remains. Dennis, The Cities and Cemeteries o)
Etruria. Desgodetz, Rome in her Ancient Grandeur. Durm,
Die Baukunst dcr Etrusker; Die Baukunst der Romcr (in Hdbuch.
d. Arch). Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Modern Dis-
covery; New Tales of Old Rome; Ruins and Excavations oj
Ancient Rome. De Martha, Arclieohgic ctrusque el romaine.
Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome. Taylor and Cresy,
The Architectural Antiquities of Rome.

LAND AND PEOPLE. The geographical position of Italy con-

ferred upon her special and obvious advantages for taking up
and carrying northward and westward the arts of civilization. A
scarcity of good harbors was the only drawback amid the bless-
ings of a glorious climate, fertile soil, varied scenery, and rich
material resources. From a remote antiquity Dorian colonists
had occupied the southern portion and the island of Sicily, enrich-
ing them with splendid monuments of Doric art; and Phoenician
commerce had brought thither the products of Oriental art and
industry. The founding of Rome (assigned by popular tradition
to the date 75,^5
n. c.) established the nucleus about which the

sundry populations of Italy were to crystallize into the Roman

nation, under the dominating influence of the Latin element.
Later on, the absorption of the Etruscans added to this composite

people a race of builders' and engineers, as yet rude and uncouth

in their art, but destined to become a powerful factor in develop-
 76 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

ing the new architecture that was to spring from the contact of the
practical Romans with the Greek
noble art of the centres.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. While the Greeks be-

queathed to posterity the most perfect models of form in literary

and plastic art, it was reserved for the Romans to work out the
applications of these to every-day material life. The Romans
were above all things a practical people. Their consummate
skill as organizers is manifest in the marvellous administrative

institutions of their government, under which they united the

most distant and diverse nationalities. Seemingly deficient in
culture, they were yet able to recast the forms of Greek architec-
ture in new moulds, and to evolve therefrom a mighty architecture
adapted to wholly novel conditions. They brought engineering
into the service of architecture, which they fitted to the varied re-

quirements of government, public amusement, private luxury,

and the common comfort. They covered the antique world with
arches and amphitheatres, with villas, baths, basilicas, and tem-

ples, all bearing the unmistakable impress of Rome, though

wrought by artists and artisans of divers races. Only an extra-

ordinary genius for organization could have accomplished such

results.

The Rome marvellously extended the range of

architects of
their art, and gave
a flexibility by which it accommodated itself
it

to the widest variety of materials and conditions.

They made
the arch and vault the basis of their system of design, employing
them on a scale previously undreamed of, and in combinations
of surpassing richness and majesty. They systematized their
methods of construction so that soldiers and barbarians could
execute the rough mass of their buildings, and formulated the
designing of the decorative details so that artisans of moderate
skillcould execute them with good effect. They carried the prin-

ciple of repetition of motives to its utmost limit, and sought to

counteract any resulting monotony by the scale and splendor of
the design. Above all they developed planning into a fine art,
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 77

displaying their genius in a wonderful variety of combination and

in an unfailing sense of the demands of constructive propriety,

practical convenience, and artistic effect. Where Egyptian or

Greek architecture shows one type of plan, the Roman shows a
score.

GREEK INFLUENCE. Previous to the closing years of the

Republic the Romans had no art but the Etruscan. The few
buildings of importance they possessed were of Etruscan
design and workmanship, excepting a small number built by
Greek hands. It was not until the Empire that Roman architec-
ture took on a truly national form. True Roman architecture is
essentially imperial. The change from the primitive Etruscan

style to the splendors of the imperial age was due to the conquest
of the Greek states. Not only did the Greek campaigns* enrich
Rome with an unprecedented wealth of artistic spoils; they also

brought into Italy hosts of Greek artists, and filled the minds of
the campaigners with the ambition to realize in their own domin-
ions the marble colonnades, the temples, theatres, and propyla.'a
of the Greek cities they had pillaged. The Greek orders were
adopted, altered, and applied to arcaded designs as well as to peri-
styles and other open colonnades. The marriage of the column
and arch gave birth to a system of forms as characteristic of
Roman architecture as the Doric or Ionic colonnade is of the
Greek.
THE ROMAN ORDERS. To meet the demands of Roman
taste the Etruscan column was retained with simple entabla- its

ture; the Doric and Ionic were adopted in a modified form; the
Corinthian was developed into a complete and independent order,
and the Composite was added to the list. An approximation to
a standard system of proportions for all these five orders was

gradually evolved, and the mouldings were profiled with arcs of

circles instead of the subtler Greek curves. It must not be sup-

posed, however, that all this was due to arbitrary rules imposed
*
Sec p. 89.
 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

by authority. was a gradual convergence of practice due

It to

growing experience, and the uniformity was much less than is

sometimes imagined. In the building of many-storied structures

the orders were superposed, the more slender over the sturdier,
in an orderly and graded succession. The immense extent and
number of the Roman
buildings, the
coarse materials often used, the relative

scarcity of highly trained artisans, and

above all, the necessity of making a
given amount of artistic design serve
for the largest possible amount of

architecture, combined to direct the

designing of detail into uniform chan-

nels. Thus in time was established a
sort of canon of proportions, which
was reduced to rules by Vitruvius, and

revived in much more detailed and

precise form by Vignola in the six-

teenth century.
In each of the orders, including the
Doric, the column was given a base
one half of a diameter in height (the

unit of measurement being the diam-

eter of the lower part of the shaft,
the crassitudo of Vitruvius). The shaft
FIO. 42. ROMAN" DORIC ORDER
(THEATRE OK MARCELLUS).* was made to contract about one-sixtli

in
diameter^ toward the capital, under
which was terminated by an astragal or collar of small mould-
it

ings; at the base it ended in a slight Hare and fillet called the
cincture. The entablature was in all cases given not far from one
quarter the height of the whole column. The Tuscan order was
a rudimentary or Ftruscan Doric with a column seven diameters
high and a simple entablature without triglyphs, mulules, or
* See footnote to
Figure 26.
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 79

dentils. But few examples of its use are known. The Doric
(Fig. 42) retained the triglyphs and metopes, the mutules and
gutUe of the Greek; but the column was made eight diameters
high, the shaft was smooth or had deep (lutings separated by
narrow fillets, and was usually provided with a simple moulded

base on a square plinth. Mutules were used only over the

triglyphs, and were even replaced in
some cases by dentils; the corona
was made lighter than the Greek, and
a cymatium replaced the antefme on
the lateral cornices. The Ionic

(Fig. 43) underwent fewer changes,

and these principally in the smaller
mouldings and details of the capital.
The column was approximately
nine diameters high. The Corin-
thian order, the column of which was
given a height of ten diameters, was
made into an independent order by
the designing of a special base of
small tori and scoiicc, and by sumptu-

ously carved modillions or brackets

enriching the cornice and supporting
the corona above a denticulated bed- - ROMAN IONIC ORDER.

mould (Fig. 44). Though the first

designers of the modillion were probably Greeks, it must, never-

theless, be taken as really a Roman device, worthily completing
the essentially Roman Corinthian order. The Composite was
formed by combining into one capital portions of the Ionic and
Corinthian, and giving to it a simplified form of the Corinthian
cornice.The Corinthian order remained, however, the favorite
Roman architecture.
order of
USE OF THE ORDERS. The Romans introduced many in-
novations in the general use and treatment of the orders. Mono-
So HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

lithic shafts were preferred to those built up of superposed drums.

The fluting was omitted on these, and when hard and semi-
precious stone like porphyry or verd-antique was the material, it
was highly polished to bring out its color. These polished mono-
liths were often of great

size, and they were used

in almost incredible
numbers.
Another radical de-

parture from Greek usage

was the mounting of
columns on pedestals to
secure greater height
without increasing the
size of the column and its

entablature. The Greek

anta was developed into
the Roman pilaster or
flattened wall-column,
and every free column, or
range of columns perpen-
dicular to the facade, had
its corresponding pilaster
to support the wall-end of
the architrave. 'But the
ORDER (TEMPLE OF
-I'UKl.VriUAN
CASTOR AND POLLUX). most radical innovation
was the general use of

engaged columns as wall-decorations or buttresses. The en-

gaged column projected from the wall by more than half its

diameter, and was up with the wall as a part of its substance

built

(Fig. 45). The entablature was in many cases advanced only

over the columns, between which it was set back almost to the

plane of the wall. This practice is open to the obvious criticism

that it makes the column appear superfluous by depriving it of its
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
7
8l

function of supporting the continuous entablature. The objec-

tion has less weight when the projecting entablature over the
column serves as a pedestal for a statue or similar object, which
restores to the column its function as a support (see the Arch of

Constantine, Fig. 63).

ARCADES. The orders, though
probably at first used only as free
supports in porticoes and colon-
nades, were early applied as dec-
orations to arcaded structures.
This practice became general with
the multiplication of many-storied
arcades like those of the amphi-
theatres, the engaged columns being
set between the arches as buttresses,
supporting entablatures which
marked the divisions into stories

(Fig. 45). This combination has

been assailed as a false and illogical

device, but the criticism proceeds

from a too narrow conception of
architectural propriety. It is de-
fensible upon both artistic and logi-
cal grounds; for it not only furnishes

a most desirable play of light and

PIO. 45. ROMAN ARCADB WITH
shade and a pleasing contrast of ENGAGED COLUMNS.
rectangular and curved lines, but (From the Colosseum.)

by emphasizing the constructive

divisions and elements of the building and the vertical support
of the piers, it also contributes to the expressiveness and vigor of
the design.
VAULTING. The Romans substituted vaulting in brick,
concrete, or masonry for wooden ceilings wherever possible, l>oth

in public and private edifices. The Etruscans were the first

82 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

vault-builders, and the Cloaca Maxima, the great sewer of Repub-

lican Rome (about 500 B.C.) still remains as a monument of their
engineering skill. Probably not only Etruscan engineers (whose
traditions were perhaps derived from
Asiatic sources in the remote past),
but Asiatic builders also from con-

spray
quered eastern provinces, were en-

gaged together in the development of

the wonderful system of vaulted con-
struction to which Roman architecture
so largely owed its grandeur. Three
FIG. 46. BARREL VAULT. types of vault were commonly used:
the barrel-vault, the groined or

four-part vault, and the dome.

The barrel-vault (Fig. 46) was generally semi-cylindrical in
section, and was used to cover corridors and oblong halls, like the

temple-cellas, or was bent around a curve, as in amphitheatre

passages.
The groined vault is formed by the intersection of two barrel-
vaults (Fig. 47). When several compartments of groined vault-

ing are placed together over an oblong

plan, a double advantage is secured.
Lateral windows can be carried up to
the full height of the vaulting instead of

being stopped below its springing; and

the weight and thrust of the vaulting
are concentrated upon a number of iso-
lated points instead of being exerted
along the whole extent of the side walls,
FIG. 47. GROINED VAULT.
as with the barrel-vault. The Romans
g, g, Groins.
saw that it was sufficient to dispose the

masonry at these points in masses at right angles to the length of

the hall, to resist better the lateral thrust of the vault. This ap-
pears clearly in the plan of the Basilica of Constantino (Fig. 58).
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 83

The dome was in all Roman examples supported on a

almost
circular wall built
up from the ground, as in the Pantheon (Fig.
54). The pendentive dome, sustained by four or eight arches
over a square or octagonal plan, is not found in true Roman

buildings.
The Romans made of the vault something more than a mere
constructive device. It became in their hands an element of
interior effect at least equally important with the arch and column.
No style of architecture has ever evolved nobler forms of ceiling
than the groined vault and the dome. Moreover, the use of
vaulting, besides providing an absolutely fireproof form of roof,
also made possible effects of unencumbered spaciousness and
amplitude which could never be compassed by any combination
of piersand columns. While Greece gave to architecture ex-
amples of perfect proportion and finish, the Romans endowed it

with new resources and started it on wholly new lines of develop-

ment of far-reaching importance.

CONSTRUCTION. The constructive methods of the Romans
varied with the conditions and resources of different provinces,
but were everywhere dominated by the same practical spirit.
Their vaulted architecture demanded for the support of its enor-
mous weights and for resistance to its disruptive thrusts, piers and
buttresses of great mass. To construct these wholly of cut stone

appeared preposterous and wasteful to the Roman. Italy

abounds in clay, lime, and a volcanic product, pozzolana, which
makes an admirable hydraulic cement. With these materials it
was possible to employ unskilled labor for the great bulk of this
massive masonry, and to erect with the greatest rapidity and in
the most economical manner those stupendous piles which, even
in their ruin, excite the admiration of every beholder.
STONE, CONCRETE, AND BRICK MASONRY. For build-
ings of an externally decorative character such as temples, arches
of triumph, and amphitheatres, as well as in all places where
brick and concrete were not easily obtained, stone was employed.
 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The walls were built by laying up the inner and outer faces in
ashlar or cut stone, and filling in the intermediate
space with rub-
ble (random masonry of uncut stone) laid up in cement, or with
concrete of broken stone and cement in successive layers, forming
a conglomerate closely united with the face-masonry. In Syria
and Egypt the local preference for stones of enormous size was
gratified, and even surpassed, as in Herod's terrace-walls for the

temple at Jerusalem (p. 40), and in the splendid structures of

Palmyra and Baalbec. In Italy, however, stones of moderate
size were preferred, and when blocks of unusual dimensions occur

they are in many cases marked with false joints, dividing them
into apparently smaller blocks, lest they should dwarf the building

by their large scale. The general use in

the Augustan period of marble for a
decorative lining or wainscot in interiors
led in time to the objectionable practice
of coating buildings of concrete with an
apparel of sham marble masonry, by
carving false joints upon an external
FIG. 48. ROMAN WALL veneer of thin slabs of that material.
MASONRY.
Ordinary concrete walls were frequently
a, Brickwork; li. Tufa faced with small blocks of tufa, called,
ashlar; r. Opus reticu-
latuin; t. Opus inccrttint. according to the manner of its appli-
cation, opus rcticulatum, opus inccrtum,

opus spi<~ati{))i, etc. (Fig. 48.) In most cases, however, the

facing was of carefully executed brickwork, covered sometimes

by a coating of stucco. The bricks were large, measuring from
one to two feet square where used for quoins or arches, but tri-

angular where they served only as facings. Bricks were also

used in the construction of skeleton ribs for concrete vaults of
large span.
VAULTING. Here, as in the wall-masonry, economy and
common sense devised methods extremely simple for accomplish-

ing vast designs. While the smaller vaults were, so to speak, cast
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 85

in concrete upon moulds made of rough hoards, the larger vaults

appear to have been often built with the aid of a skeleton of light
ribs of brick, which served as supports for intermediate centrings
on which between them. The whole
to cast the concrete fillings

vault, once hardened, formed really a monolithic curved lintel,

exerting no thrust whatever, so that the extraordinary precau-
tions against lateral disruption practised by the Romans were, in

many cases quite superfluous.

fact, in
DECORATION. The temple of Castor and Pollux in the
Forum (long miscalled the temple of Jupitor Stator), is a typical
example of Roman architectural decoration, in which richness
was preferred to the subtler refinements of design (see Fig. 44).
The splendid figure-sculpture which adorned the Greek monu-
ment would have been inappropriate on the theatres and thermae
of Rome or the provinces, even had there been the taste or the
skill to produce it. Conventional carved ornament was substi-
tuted in its place, and developed into a splendid system of highly
decorative forms. Two principal elements appear in this decora-
tion the acanthus-leaf, as the basis of a whole series of wonder-

fully varied motives; and symbolism, represented principally by

what are technically termed grotesques combinations of appar-
ently incongruous natural forms, as when an infant's body termi-
nates in a bunch of foliage (Fig. 49). Only to a limited extent do
we find true sculpture employed as decoration, and that mainly
for triumphal arches or memorial columns.
The architectural mouldings were nearly always carved, the
Greek water-leaf and egg-and-dart forming the basis of most of
the enrichments; but these were greatly elaborated and treated
with more minute detail than the Greek prototypes. Friezes and
bands were commonly ornamented with the foliated scroll or
rinccaii, which was as characteristic of Roman art as the an-
themion was of the Greek. It consists of a continuous stem

throwing out alternately on either side branches which curl into

spirals and are richly adorned with rosettes, acanthus-leaves,
86 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

scrolls, tendrils,and blossoms. In the best examples the detail

was modelled with great care and minuteness, and the motive
itself was treated with
extraordinary variety and fertility of inven-
tion. A derived and enriched form of the anthemion was some-
times used for bands and friezes; and grotesques, dolphins,
griffins, infant genii, wreaths, festoons, ribbons, eagles, and
masks are also common features in Roman relief carving.

FIG. 49. ROMAN CARVED ORNAMENT.

(Latcr.in Museum.)

The Romans made great use of panelling and of moulded

plaster in their interior decoration, especially
for ceilings. The
panelling of domes and vaults, in various geometric forms pleas-
ingly combined, was usually roughly shaped in their first con-

struction and finished afterward with rich mouldings and

in stucco

rosettes (Fig. 50). In works of a small scale the panels and

decorations were wrought in relief in a heavy coating of plaster

applied to the finished structure, and these stucco reliefs are

among the most refined and charming products of Roman art.
(Baths of Titus; baths at Pompeii; Palace of the Ciesars and
tombs at Rome.)
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 87

COLOR DECORATION. Plaster was also used as ground for

painting, executed in distemper, in fresco, or by the encaustic

process, wax liquefied by a hot iron being the medium for apply-
ing the color in the latter case. Pompeii and Herculanum furnish
countless examples of brilliant
wall-painting in which strong
primary colors form the ground,
and a semi-naturalistic, semi-
fantastic representation of fig-
ures, architecture and landscape
is mingled with festoons, vines,
and purely conventional orna-
ment. Mosaic was also employed
to decorate floors and wall-spaces,
and sometimes for ceilings.* The
later imperial baths and palaces
were especially rich in mosaic of
the kind called opus Grecanicum, PIG. 50. ROMAN CEILING PANELS.
executed with numberless minute (a, From Palmyra; t. Basilica of Con-
stantine.)
cubes of stone or glass, as in the
Baths of Caracalla and the Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli.
To
the walls of monumental interiors, such as temples, basili-

cas, and therrme, splendor of color was given by veneering them

with thin slabs of rare and richly colored marble. No limit seems
to have been placed upon the costliness or amount of these pre-

cious materials. Byzantine architecture borrowed from this

practice its system of interior color decoration.
*
Sec Van Dyke's History of Painting, p. 33.
 CHAPTER IX.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Continued.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter VIII. Adams,

Ruinsof the Palace of Spalatro. Burn, Rome and the Campagna.
Cameron, Description 0} the Baths o) the Romans. Frothingham,
Roman Triumphal Arches. Also, Guhl and Koner, Life of the
Ancient Greeks and Romans. Man, tr. by Kelcey, Pompeii,
its Life and Art. Mazois, Ruines de Pompeii. Niccolini, Lc
Case cd i Monumcnti di Pompeii. Von Presuhn, Die ncueste
Ausgrabungcn zu Pompeii. Wood, Ruins of Palmyra and
Baalbec.

THE ETRUSCAN STYLE. Although the first Greek archi-

tects were employed in Rome as early as 493 B.C., the architecture
of the Republic was practically Etruscan until nearly 100 B.C.
Its monuments, consisting mainly of city walls, tombs, and tem-
ples, are all marked by a general uncouthness of detail, denoting
a lack of artistic refinement, but they display considerable con-
structive skill. In the Etruscan walls we meet with both poly-

gonal and regularly coursed masonry; in both kinds the true arch
appears as the almost universal form for gates and openings. A
famous example is the Augustan Gate at Perugia, a late work re-
built about 40 B.C., but thoroughly Etruscan in style. At Vola-
terne (Volterra) is another arched gate, and in Perugia fragments
of another appear built into the modern walls.
still

The Etruscansbuilt both structural and excavated tombs;

they consisted in general of a single chamber with a slightly

arched or gabled roof, supported in the larger tombs on heavy
square piers. The interiors were covered with pictures; exter-
nally there was little ornament except about the gable and door-
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 89

way. The
latter had a stepped or moulded frame with curious

crossettesor ears projecting laterally at the top. The gable re-

called the wooden roofs of Etruscan temples, but was coarse in

detail, especially in itsmouldings. Sepulchral monuments of

other types are also met
with, such as cippi or memorial pillars,
sometimes in groups of live on a single pedestal (tomb at Albano).
Among the temples of Etruscan style that of Jupiter Capitol-
inus on the Capitol at Rome, destroyed by fire in 80 B.C., was
the chief. Three narrow chambers side by side formed a cella

nearly square in plan, preceded by a hexastyle porch of huge

Doric, or rather Tuscan, columns arranged in three aisles,
widely spaced and carrying ponderous wooden architraves.
The roof was of wood; the cymatium and ornaments, as
well as the statues in the pediment,
were of terra-cotta, painted and
gilded. The details in general showed
acquaintance with Greek models,
which appeared in debased and awk-
ward imitations of triglyphs, cornices,
antefixa 1
,
etc.

GREEK STYLE. The victories of

Marcellus at Syracuse, 212 B.C., Fa-
bius Maximus at Tarentum (209 B.C.),
Flaminius (196 B.C.), Mummius (146
B.C.), Sulla (86 B.C.), and others in the

various Greek provinces, steadily in-

creased the vogue of Greek archi-
tecture and number of Greek
the
artists in The temples of the
Rome.
last two centuries B.C., and Some of FIG .
SI . -TEMPLE FORTUNA
earlier date, though still Etruscan in

plan, were in many cases strongly Greek in the character of

their details. A few have remained to our time in tolerable

preservation. The temple of Fortuna Virilis (really of Fors

 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Fortuna ?), of the second century (?) B.C., is a tetrastyle prostyle

pseudoperipteral temple with a high podium or base, a typical

Etruscan cella, and a deep porch, now walled up, but thoroughly
Greek in the elegant details of
its Ionic order (Fig. 51). Two
circular temples, both called

erroneously Temples of Vesta,

one at Rome near the Cloaca
Maxima, the other at Tivoli

(Fig. 52), belong among the

monuments of Greek style.
The first was probably dedi-
cated to Hercules, the second

probably to the Sibyls; the

latter being much the better

preserved of the two. Both

were surrounded by peristyles
of eighteen Corinthian columns,
and probably covered by coni-
cal roofs with gilded bronze
tiles. The Corinthian order
appears here complete with its
modillion cornice, but the crisp-

PIG. 52. CIRCULAR TEMPLE. TIVOLI. ness of the detail and the fine-
ness of the execution are Greek
and not Roman. These temples date from about 72 B.C., though
the one at Rome was probably rebuilt in the first century A.D.
IMPERIAL ARCHITECTURE: AUGUSTAN AGE. Fven in the
temples of Greek style Roman conceptions of plan and composi-
tion are dominant. The Greek architect was not free to repro-
duce textually Greek designs or details, however strongly he
might impress with the Greek character whatever he touched.
The demands of imperial splendor and the building of great edi-
fices of varied form and complex structure, like the thermae and
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. QI

and amphitheatres, called for new adaptations and combinations

of planning and engineering. The reign of Augustus (27 B.C.-
14 A.D.) inaugurated the imperial epoch, but many works erected
before and after his reign properly belong to the Augustan age by
right of style. In general, we find in the works of this period the

happiest combination of Greek refinement with Roman splendor.

It was in this period that Rome first assumed the aspect of an opu-

lent and splendid metropolis, though the way had been prepared
for this by the regularization and adornment of the Roman Forum
p
and the erection o many temples, basilicas, fora, arches, and
theatres during the generation preceding the accession of Augus-
tus. His reign saw the inception or completion of the portico of
Octavia, the Augustan forum, the Septa Julia, the first Pantheon,
the adjoining Thermae of Agrippa, the theatre of Marcellus, the
firstof the imperial palaces on the Palatine, and a long list of

temples, including those of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux),

of Mars Ultor,of Jupiter Tonans on the Capitol, and others in the

provinces; besides colonnades, statues, arches, and other embel-

lishments almost without number.
LATER IMPERIAL WORKS. With the successors of Augustus
splendor increased to almost fabulous limits, as, for instance, in
the vast extent and the prodigality of ivory and gold in the famous
Golden House of Nero.
After the great Rome, presumably
fire in

kindled by the agents of this emperor, a more regular and monu-

mental system of street-planning and building was introduced,
and the first municipal building-law was decreed by him. To
the reign of Vespasian (68-79 A.D.) we owe the rebuilding in
Roman style and with the Corinthian order of the temple of Jupi-
ter Capitolinus, the Baths of Titus, and the beginning of the
Flavian amphitheatre or Colosseum. The two last-named edi-
fices both stood on the site of Nero's ( Jolden House, of which the

greater part was demolished to make way for them. During the
last years of the first century the Arch of Titus was erected, the
Colosseum finished, amphitheatres built at Verona, Pola, Reggio,
92 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Tusculum, Nimes (France), Constantine (Algiers), Pompeii and

Herculanum (these last two cities and Stabice rebuilt after the
earthquake of 63 A.D.), and arches, bridges, and temples erected
all over the Roman world.
The part of the second century was distinguished by the
first

splendid architectural achievements of the reigns of Trajan (98-

117) and Hadrian (117-138 A.D.)- The works of this great age
were marked by great dignity of conception as well as beauty of
detail; they include the Forum and Basilica of Trajan and the
Pantheon, besides splendid works in the provinces.
many Dur-
ing the latter part of the century a very interesting series of build-
ings were erected in the Hauran (Syria), in which Greek and
Syrian workmen under Roman direction produced examples of
vigorous stone architecture of a mingled Roman and Syrian char-
acter.

The most remarkable thermae of Rome belong to the third cen-

tury those of Caracalla (211-217 A.D.) and of Diocletian (284-

305 A.D.) their ruins to-day ranking among the most imposing
remains of antiquity. In Syria the temples of the Sun at Baalbec
and Palmyra (273 A.D., under Aurelian), and the great palace of
Diocletian at Spalato, in Dalmatia (300 A.D.), are still the wonder
of the few travellers who reach those distant spots.
While during the third and fourth centuries there was a marked
decline in purity and refinement of detail, many of the later
works of the period display a remarkable freedom and originality
in conception. But these works are really not Roman, they are

foreign, that is, provincial products; and the transfer of the capi-
Byzantium revealed the increasing degree in which Rome
tal to

was coming to look to the East for her strength and her art.
TEMPLES. The Romans built both rectangular and circular
temples, and there was much variety in their treatment. In the

rectangular temples a high podium, or basement, was substituted

for the Greek stepped stylobate, and the prostyle plan was more
common than the peripteral. The cella was relatively short and
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 93

wide, the front porch inordinately deep, and sometimes divided by

longitudinal rows of columns into three aisles. In most cases the
exterior of the cella in prostyle temples was decorated by engaged
columns. A barrel vault gave the interior an aspect of spacious-
ness impossible with
theGreek system of a
wooden ceiling support-
ed on double ranges
of columns. In the
place of these, free or
engaged columns along
the side-walls received
the ribs of the vaulting.
Between these ribs the
ceiling was richly pan-
elled, or collered and
sumptuously gilded.
The temples of For-
tuna Virilis (Fig. 51)
and of Faustina at
Rome (the latter built
141 A.D., and its ruins

incorporated into the

modern church of S.

Lorenzo in Miranda),
and the beautiful and
admirably preserved FIG. 53. TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME. PLAN.
Maison Carree, at
Nimes (France; 4 A.IX), are examples of this type. In the

temples of Concord, Julius, and Vespasian, all in the Forum,

the porch was on the long side of the cella. Some of the larger
temples were peripteral. The temple of the Dioscuri (Castor
and Pollux) in the Forum, was one of the most magnificent of
these, certainly the richest in detail (Fig. 44). Very remarkable
94 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

was the double temple of Venus and Rome, east of the Forum,
built by the Emperor Hadrian about 130 A.D. (Fig. 53), a vast

pseudodipteral edifice with two cellas meeting back to back in

the center. The temple stood in the midst of an imposing
columnar peribolus entered by magnificent gateways. Other im-
portant temples have already been mentioned.
Besides the two circular temples already described, the temple
House of the Vestals, at the east end of the
of Vesta, adjoining the

Forum, should be mentioned. At Baalbec is a circular temple

whose entablature curves inward between the widely-spaced col-
umns until it touches the cella in the middle of each inter-colum-
niation. the caprices of design which sometimes
It illustrates

resulted from the disregard of tradition and the striving after

originality (273 A.D.).

THE PANTHEON. The noblest of all circular temples of
Rome and of the world was the Pantheon. It was built by
Hadrian, 117-138 A.D., on the site of

the earlier rectangular temple of the

same name erected by Agrippa. It
measures 142 feet in diameter inter-
nally; the wall is 20 feet thick and

supports a hemispherical dome rising

to a height of 140 feet (Figs. 54,55)-

Light is admitted solely through a

round opening 28 feet in diameter at
the top of the dome, the simplest and
most impressive method of illumina-
tion conceivable. The rain and snow
that enter produce no appreciable
PIG. 54. PLAN OF THE PAN-
effect upon the temperature of the
THKON.
vast hall. There is a single entrance,
with noble bronze doors, admitting directly to the interior,
around which seven niches, alternately rectangular and semi-
circular in plan and fronted by Corinthian columns, lighten,
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 95

without weakening, the mass of the encircling wall. This wall

was originally incrusted with rich marbles, and the great dome,
adorned with deep coffering in rectangular panels, was decorated
with rosettes and mould-

ings in gilt stucco. The

dome appears to consist

of a shell of brick with

numerous arches and
ribs covered with a
heavier external shell

of concrete. The in-

terior panelling
appears
to the writer to have

been hewn out of the

mass of the brick vault

regardless of the ribs

and arches in its
structure.
The exterior (Fig. 56)
was less successful FIG. 55. INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.
than the The
interior.

gabled porch of twelve superb granite columns 50 feet high,

three-aisled in plan after the Etruscan mode, and covered origi-

nally by a ceiling of bronze, was a rebuilding with the materials

and on the plan of the original pronaos of the Pantheon of
Agrippa. The circular wall behind it is faced with fine brick-
work, and displays, like the dome, many curious arrangements of

discharging arches, reminiscences of traditional constructive

precautions here wholly useless and fictitious because only skin-

deep. A revetement of marble below and plaster above once con-
cealed this brick facing. The portico, in spite of its too steep
" "
gable (once filled with a gigantomachia in gilt bronxe) and its
somewhat awkward association with a round building, is never-
theless a noble work, its capitals in Pentelic marble ranking
96 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

among the finest known examples of the Roman Corinthian.

Taken as a whole, the Pantheon is one of the great
masterpieces
of the world's architecture.
FORA AND BASILICAS. The fora were the places for gen-
The chief of those in Rome, the Forum
eral public assemblage.

Magnum, or Forum Romanum, was at first merely an irreg-

FIG. 56. EXTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.

(From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)

ular vacant space, about and in which, as the focus of the civic

life, and statues gradually accumu-

temples, halls, colonnades,
lated. These chance aggregations the systematic Roman mind
reduced in time to orderly and monumental form; successive em-
perors extended them and added new fora at enormous cost and
with great splendor of architecture. Those of Julius, Augustus,

Vespasian, and Nerva (or Domitian), adjoining the Roman

Forum, were magnificent enclosures surrounded by high walls
and single or double colonnades. Each contained a temple or
basilica, besides gateways, memorial columns or arches, and
countless statues. The Forum of Trajan surpassed all the
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 97

rest; covered an area of thirty-five thousand square yards, and

it

included, besides the main area, entered through a triumphal

arch, the Basilica Ulpia, the temple of Trajan, and his colossal

Doric column of Victory. Both in size and beauty it ranked as

the chief architectural glory of the city (Fig. 57). The six fora

together contained thir-

teen temples, three ba-

silicas, eight triumphal

arches, a mile of por-
ticos, and a number of

other public edifices.*

Besides these, a net-

work of colonnades cov-

ered large tracts of the

city, affording sheltered fl*"*\1'l t*****i

communication in every C. COLUMN or ^A JAM
L.L. LlBRAK.CS
direction, and here and
there expanding into PEFISTWE Of FbRUM

squares or gardens sur-

rounded by peristyles.
The public business ^1 ABCHOFthAJAN

of Rome, both judicial

and commercial, was
FIG. 57. FORl'M AND BASILICA OF TRAJAN.
largely transacted in the
basilicas, large buildings consisting usually of a wide and lofty
central nave flanked by lower side-aisles, and terminating at
one or both ends in an apse or semicircular recess called the
tribune, in which were the seats for the magistrates. The side-
aisles were separated from the nave by columns supporting a
clearstory wall, pierced by windows above the roofs of the side-
aisles. In some cases the latter were two stories high, with

galleries; in others the central space was open to the sky, as at

*
Lanciani : Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries,
p. 89.
98 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Pompeii, suggesting the derivation of the basilica from the open

square surrounded by colonnades, or from the forum itself,
with which we find it usually associated. The most important
basilicas in Rome were the Sempronian, the JEmilian (about
54 B.C.), the Julian in the Forum Magnum (51 B.C.), and the
Ulpian in the Forum of Trajan (113 A.D.). The last two were
probably open basilicas, only the side-aisles being roofed. The
Ulpian (Fig. 57) was the most magnificent of all, and in con-
junction with the Forum of Trajan formed one of the most im-
posing of those monumental aggregations of columnar architec-
ture which contributed so largely to
the splendor of the Roman capital.
These monuments frequently suffered
from the burning of their wooden roofs.
Itwas Constantine who completed the
vaulted and fireproof basilica, be-
first

gun by his predecessor and rival, Max-

entius, on the site of the former Temple
FIG. 58. BASILICA OF CON- ,
STANTINE. PLAN. of Peace (Figs. 58, 59) .
Itsdesignrc-
produced on a grand scale the plan of
the tepidarium-halls of the thenruT, the side-recesses of which
were converted into a continuous side-aisle by piercing arches
through the buttress-walls that separated them. Above the im-
posing vaults of these recesses and under the cross-vaults of the
nave were windows admitting abundant light. A narthc.v, or
porch, preceded the hall at one end; there were also a side en-
trance from the Via Sacra, and an apse or tribune for the magis-
trates opposite each of these entrances. The dimensions of the
main hall (325X85 feet), the height of its vault (117 feet), and
the splendor of columns and incrustations excited univer-
its

sal admiration, and exercised a powerful influence on later

architecture.
THERMS. The leisure of the Roman people was largely
spent in the great baths, or lliernni', which took the place substan-
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 99

tially of the modern club. The establishments erected by the

emperors for this purpose were vast and complex congeries of
large and small halls, courts, and chambers, combined with a

masterly comprehension of artistic propriety and effect in the se-

quence of oblong, square, oval, and circular apartments, and in
the relation of the greater to the lesser masses. They were a com-

PIG. 59. BASILICA OP CONSTANTIN'E. RUIN'S.

bination of the Greek pahrstra with the Roman balnea, and united
in one harmonious design great public swimming-baths, private
baths for individuals and families, places for gymnastic exercises
and games, courts, peristyles, gardens, halls for literary entertain-
ments, lounging-rooms, and allthe complex accommodation re-

quired for the service of the whole establishment. They were

built withapparent disregard of cost, and adorned with splendid
extravagance. The earliest were the Baths of Agrippa (27
B.C.) behind the Pantheon; next may be mentioned those of
Titus, built on the substructions of Nero's Golden House. The
 100 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

remains of the Thermae of Caracalla (211 A.D.) form the

most extensive mass of ruins in Rome, and clearly display the ad-
mirable planning of this and similar establishments. A gigantic
block of buildings containing the three great halls for cold, warm,
and hot baths, stood in the centre of a vast enclosure surrounded
by private baths, cxcdra, and halls for lecture-audiences and other
gatherings. The enclosure was adorned with statues, flower-

gardens, and places for

A ^ out-door games. The

:

Baths of Diocletian (302

-e embodied this ar-
A.D.)

rangement on a still more

extensive scale; they
could accommodate 3,500
bathers at once, and their
ruins cover a broad terri-
FIG. 60. THERM/E OP CARACALLA. PLAN OP near the railway ter-
torv
*
'

CENTRAL BLOCK.
A ,
Hot Bath: B, Intermediate
Caldariu,,,, or
minUS f the modem City.
Chamber: C, Tepidarium, or Warm Bath; D, TllC dlUrcll of S. Maria
Frigidarium, or Cold Bath: E, Peristyles;
a, Gymnastic Rooms; 6, Dressing Kooms; c, degll Angell was formed
Cooling Rooms; d, Small Courts; ,, Entrance*; ] Michael Angelo Ollt of
J
v, Vestibules.
the tepidarium of these
baths a colossal hall 340X87 feet, and 90 feet high. The orig-
inal vaulting and columns are still intact, and the whole interior
most imposing, in spite of later stucco disfigurements. The
circular laconicum (sweat-room) serves as the porch to the present
church. It was in the building of these great halls that Roman
architecture reached its most original and characteristic expres-
sion. Wholly unrelated to any foreign model, they represent
distinctively Roman ideals, both asto plan and construction.

PLACES OF AMUSEMENT. The earliest Roman theatres

differed from the Greek in having a nearly semicircular plan, and
in being built up from the level ground, not excavated in a hill-

side (Fig. 61). The first theatre was of wood, built by Mummius
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 101

145 B.C., and it was not

until ninety years later that stone was first

substituted for the more perishable material, in the theatre of

Pompey. The Theatre of Marcellus (23-13 B.C.) is in part
still extant, and later theatres in
Pompeii, Orange (France), and
in the Asiatic provinces are in excellent
preservation. The or-
chestra was not, as in the Greek theatre, reserved for the choral

dance, but was given up to spectators of rank; the stage was

adorned with a permanent architectural background of columns
and arches, and sometimes roofed with wood, and an arcade or
colonnade surrounded the
upper tier of seats. The
amphitheatre was a still

more distinctively Roman

edifice. It was elliptical
in plan, surrounding an
elliptical arena, and built

up with continuous en-

circling tiers of seats.

The earliest stone amphi- FIG. 6l. ROMAN THEATRE. (HERCULANUM.)

theatre was erected by (From model.)
Statilius Taurus in the
time of Augustus. It was practically identical in design with
the later and much larger Flavian amphitheatre, commonly
known Colosseum, begun by Vespasian and completed
as the
82 A.D. (Fig. 62). This immense structure measured 607 X 506
feet in plan and was 180 feet high; it could accommodate eighty-

seven thousand spectators. Engaged columns of the Tuscan,

Ionic, and Corinthian orders decorated three stories of the ex-

terior; the fourth was a nearly unbroken wall with slender Co-
rinthian pilasters. Solidly constructed of travertine, concrete,
and tufa, theColosseum, with its imposing but monotonous
exterior, almost sublime by its scale and seemingly endless

repetition, but lacking in refinement or originality of detail and

dedicated to bloody and cruel sports, was a characteristic product
IO2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

of the Roman character and civilization.

At Verona, Pola,
Capua, and many the foreign provinces there are well-
cities in

preserved remains of similar structures.

Closely related to the amphitheatre were the circus and the
stadium. The Circus Maximus between the Palatine and
Aventine was the oldest of those in Rome. That erected
hills

by Caligula and Nero on the site afterward partly occupied by St.

Peter's, was more splendid, and is said to have been capable of

FIG. 62. COLOSSKUM. HALF PLAN.

accommodating over three hundred thousand spectators after its

enlargement in the fourth century. The long, narrow race-course
was divided into two nearly equal parts by a low parapet, the
spina, on which were the goals (mct(c) and many small decorative
structures and columns. ( )ne end of the circus, as of the stadium
also, was semicircular; the other was segmcntal in the circus,
square in the stadium; a colonnade or arcade ran along the top
of the building, and the entrances and exits were adorned with

monumental arches.
TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND COLUMNS. Rome and the

provincial cities abounded in monuments commemorative of

victory, usually single or triple arches with engaged columns and
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 103

rich sculptural adornments, or single colossal columns supporting

statues. The arches were characteristic products of Roman

design, and some of them deserve high praise for the excellence of

their proportions and elegance of their details. There were in

Rome in the second century A.D., thirty-eight of these monu-

ments. The Arch of Titus (71-82 A.D.) is the simplest and
most perfect of those still extant in Rome; the arch of Septimius
Severus in the Forum (203 A.D.) and that of Constantine (330
A.D.) near the Colosseum,
are more sumptuous but
lesspure in detail. The
last-named was in part
enriched with sculptures
taken from the earlier

arch of Trajan. The

statues of Dacian captives
on the attic (attic
= a.

species of subordinate

story added abov'e the

main cornice) of this arch FIG. 63. ARCH OF CONSTANTINE.

were a fortunate addition, (From model in Metropolitan Museum,

New York.)
furnishing a raison d'etre
for the columns and broken entablatures on which they rest.

Memorial columns of colossal size were erected by several em-

perors, both in Rome and abroad. Those of Trajan and of
Marcus Aurelius arc still standing in Rome in perfect pres-
ervation.The first was 140 feet high including the pedestal
and the statue which surmounted it; its
capital marked the
height of the ridge levelled by the emperor for the forum
on which the column stands. Its most striking peculiar-
ity is the spiral band of reliefs winding around the shaft
from bottom totop and representing the Dacian campaigns
of Trajan. The other column is of similar design and
dimensions, but greatly inferior to the first in execution.
IO4 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Both are really towers, with interior stair-cases leading to the

top.
TOMBS. The Romans developed no special and national type
of tomb, and few of their sepulchral monuments were of large
dimensions. The most important in Rome were the pyramid
of Caius Cestius (late first century B.C.), and the circular tombs
of Cecilia B.C.), Augustus (14 A.D.) and Hadrian,
Matella (60
now the Castle of S. Angelo (138 A.D.). The latter was composed
of a huge cone of marble supported on a cylindrical structure 230
feet in diameter standing on a square podium 300 feet long and

wide. The cone probably once terminated in the gilt bronze

pine-cone now in the Giardino della Pigna of the Vatican. In
the Mausoleum of Augustus a mound of earth planted with trees
crowned a similar circular base of marble on a podium 220 feet

square, now buried.

The smaller tombs varied greatly in size and form. Some were
vaulted chambers, with graceful internal painted decorations of

figures and vine patterns combined with low-relief enrichments in

stucco. Others were designed in the form of altars or sarcophagi,
as at Pompeii; while others again resembled axlicuke, little tem-

ples, shrines, or small towers in several stories of arches and col-

umns, as Remy (France).
at St.

PALACES AND DWELLINGS. Into their dwellings the Ro-

mans carried all their and personal luxury.
love of ostentation

They anticipated in many details the comforts of modern civiliza-

tion in their furniture, their plumbing and heating, and their
utensils. Their houses may be divided into four classes: the

palace, the villa, the donuts or ordinary house, and the insula or
many-storied tenement built in compact blocks. The first three
alone concern us, and will be taken up in the above order.
The imperial palaces on the Palatine Hill comprised a wide
range in style and variety of buildings, beginning with the first

simple house of Augustus (26 B.C.), burnt and rebuilt 3 A.u. Ti-

berius, Caligula, and Nero added to the Augustan group; Domi-

 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 105

tian rebuilt a second time and enlarged the palace of Augustus,

and Septimius Severus remodelled the whole group, adding to it
his own
extraordinary seven-storied palace, the Septizonium.
The ruins of these successive buildings have been carefully ex-

cavated, and reveal a remarkable combination of dwelling-rooms,

courts, temples, libraries, basilicas, baths, gardens, peristyles,
fountains, terraces, and covered passages. These were adorned
with a profusion of pre-
cious marbles, mosaics,
i ,
Q ("I O Q
1-J.lli.Llllii.l.I-M
Fl
H-liiiiii-Tl
columns, and statues.
Parts of the demolished

palace of Nero were in-

corporated in the sub-

structions of the Baths
of Titus. The beautiful

arabesques and plaster

reliefs which adorned
them were the inspiration
of much of the fresco and
stucco decoration of the
Italian Renaissance. At
Spalato, in Dalmatia, are
the extensive ruins of the

great Palace of Diocle- FIG. 64. PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. SPALATO.

tian, which was laid out

on the plan of a Roman camp, with two intersecting avenues

(Fig. 64). comprised a temple, mausoleum, basilica, and

It

other structures besides those portions devoted to the purposes

of a royal residence.
The villa was in reality a country palace, arranged with special
reference to the prevailing winds, exposure to the sun and shade,
and the enjoyment of a wide prospect. Baths, temples, c.\rdrti',
theatres, tennis-courts, sun-rooms,and shaded porticos were
connected with the house proper, which was built around two or
io6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

three interior courts or peristyles. Statues, fountains, and colos-

sal vases of marble adorned the grounds, which were laid out in
terracesand treated with all the fantastic arts of the Roman land-
scape-gardener. The most elaborate and extensive villa was
that of Hadrian, at Tibur
fiortus or Garden (Tivoli); its ruins, covering
* ' ' hundreds of acres, form one
V< of the most interesting spots
to visit in the neighborhood
of Rome.
There are few remains in
Rome of the domus or pri-
vate house. Two, how ever,
r

have left remarkably inter-

esting ruins the Atrium

Vestae, or House of the
Vestal Virgins, east of the
Forum, a well-planned and
extensive house surrounding
a cloister or court; and the
House of Livia,or Gcrmani-

cus, so-called, on the Palatine

Hill, the walls and decora-
tions of which are excellently
preserved. The typical
FIG. 65. HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII. Roman house in a provincial
s, SAflfts: v, Vestibule; f, Family Rooms; town s >est illustrated
j ]
by
k, Kitchen; /, Lararium; P, P, /' Pert- . ..

styles.
the ruins of Pompeii and
Herculanum, which, buried
by an eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D., have been partially
excavated since 1721. The Pompeiian house (Fig. 65) con-
sisted of several courts or atria, some of which were sur-
rounded by colonnades and called peristyles. The front portion
was reserved for shops, or presented to the street a wall unbroken
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. IO7

save by the entrance; all the rooms and chambers opened upon
the interior courts, from which alone they borrowed their light.
In the brilliant climate of southern Italy windows were little
needed, as sufficient light was admitted by the door, closed only
by portieres for the most part; especially as the family life was
passed mainly in the shaded courts, to which fountains, parterres
of shrubbery, statues, and other adornments lent their inviting

charm. The general plan of these houses seems to have been of

Greek origin, as well as the system of decoration used on the
walls. These, when not wainscoted with marble, were covered
with fantastic, but often artistic, painted decorations, in which an

imaginary architecture as of metal, a fantastic and arbitrary per-

spective, illusory pictures, and highly finished figures were the
chief elements. These were executed in brilliant colors with ex-

cellent effect.The houses were lightly built, with wooden ceilings

and roofs instead of vaulting, and usually with but one story
on account of the danger from earthquakes. That the workman-
ship and decoration were in the capital often superior to what was
to be found in a provincial town like Pompeii, is evidenced by
beautiful wall-paintings and reliefs discovered in Rome in 1879
and now preserved in the Museo delle Terme. More or less

fragmentary remains of Roman houses have been found in almost

every corner of the Roman empire, but nowhere exhibiting as

completely as in Pompeii the typical Roman arrangement.
WORKS OF UTILITY. A word should be said about Roman
engineering works, which in many cases were designed with an
artistic sense of proportion and form which raises them into the

domain of genuine art. Such were especially the bridges, in

which a remarkable effect of monumental grandeur was often
produced by the form and proportions of the arches and piers,
and an appropriate use of rough and dressed masonry, as in the

Pons /Elius (Ponte S. Angelo), the great bridge at Alcantara

(Spain), and the Pont du Gard, near Nimes, in southern Trance.
The aqueducts are impressive ra,ther by their length, scale, and
108 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

simplicity, than by any special refinements of design, except

where their arches are treated with some architectural decor-
ation to form gates, as in the Porta Maggiore, at
Rome.
PROVINCIAL WORKS. Besides the temples, theatres, baths,
palaces, tombs and bridges already enumerated, in Palmyra,
Baalbec, Nimes, Orange, Reims, St. Remy, Alcantara, etc., men-
tion must be made of the extensive works of Roman architecture
in northern Africa, especially in Algiers, at Timgad, Orleans-
El-Djem, Sbeitla, Lambessa and Tebessa; in Syria at
ville,

Gerasa and in the necropolis of Petra; of city gates at Autun

(France) and Treves (Germany, the Porta Nigra); of villas

throughout northern Europe, including England (e.g. at many in

Silchester); and the great Egyptian temples built under the

Roman dominion (Esneh, Philae, Kardassy, etc.; see ante p. 22).
In Paris are still preserved the remains of the palace and baths of

Julian. Asia Minor abounds in splendid Greco-Roman theatres,

temples and other ruins.

MONUMENTS. (Those which have no important extant remains

are given in italics). TEMPLES: Jupiter Capitolinus, 600 B.C.; Ceres,
Liber, and Liber a, 494 B.C. (ruins of later rebuilding in S. Maria in
Cosmedin) first T. of Concord (rebuilt in Augustan age), 254 B.C.;
;

first marble temple in portico of Mctcllus, by a Greek, Hcrmodorus,

143 B.C. temples of Fortune at Praeneste and at Rome, and of

;

Vesta at Rome, 83-78 B.C.; of Vesta at Tivoli, and of Hercules

at Cori, 72 B.C. ;
first Pantheon, 27 B.C. In Augustan Age tem-
ples of Apollo, Concord rebuilt, Dioscuri, Julius, Jupiter Stator,
Jupiter Tonans, Mars Ultor, Minerva (at Rome and Assisi), Maison
Carree at Nimes, Saturn; at Puteoli, Pola, etc. of Peace; T.
T.

Jupiter Capitolinus, rebuilt 70 A.D. ; temple at Brescia. Temple of

Vespasian, 96 A.D. also of Mincrra ;
in Forum of Nerva of Trajan, ;

117 A.D.; second Pantheon; T. of Venus and Rome at Rome, and

of Jupiter Olympus at Athens, 135-138 A.D. ; Faustina, M 1 A.D. ;

many Syria; temples of Sun at Rome, Baalbec, and Palmyra,

in

cir. 273 A.U. of Romulus, 305 A.D. (porch S. Cosmo and Damiano).
;

PLACES OF ASSEMBLY: FORA Roman, Julian, 46 B.C.; Augustan, 40-

42 B.C.; of Peace, 75 A.U. ; Nerva, 97 A.U. ; Trajan (by Apollodorus
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 109

of Damascus, 117 A.D. BASILICAS: Sempronian, J'.milian, 1st cen-

tury Julian, 51 B.C.; Septa Julia, 26 H.C. the Curia, later rebuilt
B.C. ; ;

by Diocletian, 300 A.D. (now Church of S. Adriano) at 1'atio, 20 ;

A.D. (?); Forum and Basilica at Pompeii, 60 A.D. of Trajan; of ;

Constantino, 310-324 A.I). THEATRES (th.) and AMIMHTHEATRKS

(amp.): th. Pomfcy, 55 B.C.; of Balbus and of Marcellus, 13 i:. c ;

tli. and amp. at Pompeii and Herculanuni Colosseum at Rome, 78- ;

8j A.D. th. at Orange and in Asia Minor amp. at Albano, Con-

; ;

stantine, Nimes, Petra, Pola, Rcggio, Trevi, Tusculum, Verona,

etc. ; amp. Castrense at Rome, 96 A.D. Circuses and stadia at Rome.
THERM.E: of Agrippa, 27 B.C. of Nero; of Titus, 78 A.D. Domitian,
; ;

go A.D. ; Caracalla, 21 1 A.D. ; Diocletian, 305 A.D. ; Constantinc, 320 A.D. ;

Gallienus ("Minerva Medica"), 3d century A.D. at Pompeii, Stabian ;

Baths, Baths of Forum, etc. ARCHES of Stcrtinius, 196 B.C. Scipio, :

;

190 B.C. ; Augustus, 30 Titus, 71-82 A.D. Trajan, 117 A.D. Severus,
B.C. ; ; ;

203 A.D. ; Constantine, 320 A.D. ; of Drusus, Dolabella, Silversmiths, 204

A.D. Janus Quadrifrons, 320 A.D. ( ?) all at Rome. Others at Bene-
; ;

vento, Ancona, Rimini in Italy; also at Athens, and at Reims and

St. Chamas in France. Columns of Trajan, Antoninus, Marcus
Aurelius at Rome others at Constantinople, Alexandria, etc.
;

TOMBS along Via Appia and Via Latina, at Rome Via Sacra at
:
;

Pompeii; tower-tombs at St. Remy in France; rock-cut at Petra;

at Rome, of Caius Cestius and Cecilia Metella, ist century B.C. of ;

Augustus, 14 Hadrian, 138 A.D. PALACES and PRIVATE HOUSES:

A.D. ;

On Palatine, of Augustus, Tiberius, Nero, Domitian, Septimius

Severus, Elagabalus; Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli; palaces of
Diocletian at Spalato and of Constantinc at Constantinople.
House of Livia on Palatine (Augustan period) ;
of Vestals, re-
built by Hadrian, cir. 120 A.D. Houses at Pompeii and llercu-
lanum, cir. 60-79 A-i>.. e.g., of Pausa, of Diomed, of Tragic Poet,
of Musician, of M. Holconius, of the Vettii; rustic villa at !><>s-
coreale (walls removed to Metropolitan Museum, New York) ;

1
Villas of (Jordianus ("Tor do' Schiavi," 240 A.D.), and of Sal-
lust at Rome, and of Pliny at Laurcntium.
 CHAPTER X.

EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bunsen, Die Basil ikcn christlichcn

Roms. Butler, Architecture and other Arts in Northern Central
Syria. Corroyer, L 1
architecture romane. Cummings, A History
of Architecture in Italy. Dehio, Kirchliche Baukunst des Abend-
landes. Essenwein (Hdbuch d. Arch.), Aus gauge dcr klassischen
Baukunst. Gutensohn u. Knapp, Denkmaler dcr christlichen
Religion. Hiibsch, Monuments de I' architecture chretienne.
Lanciani, Pagan and Christian Rome. Mothes, Die Basiliken-
jorm bei den Christen, etc. Okely, Development 0} Christian
Architecture in Italy. Von Quast, Die altchristlichen Bauwerke
zu Ravenna. De Rossi, Roma Sottcrranea. Venturi, Storia dc
I'Arte Italiana. De Vogue, Syne Cent rale; J&glises de la Terre
Sainte.

INTRODUCTORY. The recognition of Christianity by

official
* in
Licinius and later by Constantine the early years of the third

century A.D., simply legalized an institution which had been for

three centuries gathering momentum for its final conquest of the

antique world. The new religion rapidly enlisted in its service

for a common purpose and under a common impulse races as
wide apart in blood and culture as those which had built up the
Rome. It was Christianity which reduced to civ-
art of imperial
West the Germanic hordes that had overthrown
ilization in the

Rome, bringing their fresh and hitherto untamed vigor to the task
of recreating architecture out of the decaying fragments of classic
art. So in the East its life-giving influence awoke the slumbering

*
The celebrated Juliet (if Milan supposed to have been issued
by Constantine in ,y.} A.U. is now believed to be a forgery.
 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Hi

Greek art-instinct to new triumphs in the arts of building, less

refined and
perfect indeed, but not less sublime than those of the
Periclean age. Long before the Constantinian edict, the Chris-
tians in the Eastern provinces had enjoyed substantial freedom
of worship. Meeting often in the private basilicas of wealthy con-

verts, and finding these, and still more the great public basilicas,
suited to the requirements of their worship, they early began to
build in imitation of these edifices. There are many remains of
these early churches in northern Africa and central Syria.
THE BASILICAN STYLE IN ROME. Early Christian art in
Europe was at first wholly sepulchral, developing in the cata-
combs the symbols of the new faith. Once liberated, however,
Christianity appropriated bodily for its public rites the basilica-
type and the general substance of Roman architecture. Shafts
and capitals, architraves and rich linings
of veined marble, even the pagan Bacchic
symbolism of the vine, it
adapted to new
uses in its own service. Constantino
led the way in architecture, endowing
Bethlehem and Jerusalem with splendid
churches, and his new capital on the
Bosphorus with the first of the three
historic basilicas dedicated to the Holy
Wisdom (Hagia Sophia). One of the
,. . FIG. 66. STA. COSTAN/A,
greatest of innovators, he seems to have KOMK.
had a special predilection for circular
buildings,and the tombs and baptisteries which he erected in

this form, especially that known as Santa Costan/.a (Eig. 66),

furnished the prototype for numberless Italian baptisteries in
later ages.*

The Christian basilica (see Eigs. 67, 68) generally comprised

* It
appears to be still uncertain whether this was erected as
a tomb to the sister or a baptistery for the daughter of Con-
stantinc.
112 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

a broad and lofty nave, separated by rows of columns from the

single or double side-aisles. The aisles had usually about half the

width and height of the nave, and like it were covered with wooden
roofs and ceilings. Above the columns which flanked the nave
rose the lofty clearstory wall, pierced with windows above the side-

aisle roofs and supporting the immense trusses of the roof of the
nave. The timbering of the latter was sometimes bare, some-
times concealed by a richly panelled ceiling, carved, gilded, and

painted. At the further end of the nave was the sanctuary or

apse, with the seats for the clergy on a raised platform, the bema,
in front of which was the altar. Transepts sometimes expanded
to right and left before the altar, under which was the conjcssio or
shrine of the titular saint or martyr.
An atrium or forecourt surrounded by a covered arcade pre-
ceded the basilica proper, the arcade at the front of the church
forming a porch or narllicx, which, however, in some cases existed
without the atrium. The exterior was extremely plain; the in-
terior, on the contrary, was resplendent with incrustations of
veined marble and with sumptuous decorations in glass mosaic
(called opus Grccanicnm} on a blue or golden ground. Especially
richwere the half-dome of the apse and the wall-space surround-
ing arch and called the triumphal arch; next in decorative im-
its

portance came the broad band of wall beneath the clearstory win-
dows. Upon these surfaces the mosaic-workers wrought with
minute cubes of colored glass pictures and symbols almost imper-
ishable, in which the glow of color and a certain decorative grand-
eur of effect in the composition went far to atone for the uncouth
drawing. With growing wealth and an increasingly elaborate
ritual, the furniture and equipments of the church assumed greater
architectural importance. A large rectangular space was re-
tained for the choir in front of the bema, and enclosed by a breast-
high parapet of marble, richly inlaid. On either side were the
pulpits or ambones for the Gospel and Epistle. A lofty canopy
was built over the altar, the ciborium or baldaquin, supported on
 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 113

four marble columns. A few basilicas were built with galleries,

as in S. Lorenzo and Sta. Agnese. Adjoining the basilica in the
earlier examples were the baptistery and the tomb of the saint,
circular or polygonal buildings usually; but in later times these
were replaced by the font or baptismal chapel in the church and
the conjessio under the altar.
Of the two Constantinian basilicas in Rome, the one dedicated
to St. Peter was demolished
in the fifteenth century; that of

St. John Lateran

has been so disfigured by modern alterations as
to be unrecognizable. The former of the two adjoined the site
of the martyrdom of St. Peter in the circus of Caligula and Nero;
it was five-aisled, 380 feet
in length by 212 feet in jjj fl 4

width. The nave was 80

feet wide and 100 feet

high, and the disproportion-

ately high clearstory wall
rested on horizontal archi-

,-p,
The
.....
traves carried by columns.

impressive dimensions
FIG - 67. PLAN OP THE BASILICA OP
ST. PAUL.

and simple plan of this structure gave it a

majesty worthy of its
rank as the first church of Christendom. St. Paul beyond
the Walls (S. Paolo fuori le mura), built in 386 by Thcodosius,
resembled St. Peter's closely in plan (Figs. 67, 68). Destroyed
by fire in 1823, it has been rebuilt with almost its pristine splen-
dor, and is, next to the modern St. Peter's and the Pantheon,
the most impressive place of worship in Rome. Santa Maria
Maggiore,* though smaller in size, is more interesting because
it so largely retains internally its original aspect, its Renaissance
ceiling happily harmonizing with its simple antique lines. Ionic
columns support architraves to carry the clearstory. In most
other examples, St. Paul's included, arches turned from column
* M. be generally used
Hereafter the abbreviation S. will in-

stead of the name Santa Maria.

114 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

to column perform this function. The first known case of such

use of classic columns as arch-bearers was in the palace of
Diocletian at Spalato; it also appears in Syrian buildings of the
third and fourth centuries A.D.
The basilica remained the model for ecclesiastical architecture
in Rome, without noticeable

change either of plan or de-

tail, until the time of the

Renaissance. All the earlier

examples employed columns

and capitals taken from an-
cient ruins, often incongru-
ous and ill-matched in size
an<1 ordcr San Clemente
n:\**mr^m~>s*MSi :

\\\ fffear IS^ii mmA (I Io8) built over the ruins of

'

a sixth-century basilica, has

HilUSli retoinrf

early aspect,
Zs,
intact
its
its

choir-enclo-

sure, baldaquin, and ambones

having been well preserved
or carefully restored. Other
important basilicas are men-
tioned in the list of monu-
PIG. 68. ST. PAUL BEYOND THE WALLS. ments on pages 118, 119; of
INTERIOR.
these the most important is
San Lorenzo, a combination of two buildings, the earlier two-
storied portion dating originally from Constantino's days, the
nave from the fifth century; but both remodelled by Ilonorius
III. early in the thirteenth century.

RAVENNA. The fifth and sixth centuries endowed Ra-

venna with a number of notable buildings which, with the excep-
tion of the cathedral, demolished in the last century, have been

preserved to our day. Subdued by the Byzantine emperor Jus-

tinian in 537, Ravenna became the meeting-ground for Early
 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 115

Christian and Byzantine traditions and the basilican and circular

plans are both represented. The two churches dedicated to St.

Apollinaris,S. Apollinare Nuovo (520) in the city, and S.

Apollinare in Classe (538), in what was formerly the port, are

especially interesting for their fine mosaics, and for the impost-
blocks interposed above the capitals of their columns to receive
the springing of the pier-arches. These blocks appear to be
somewhat crude modifications of the fragmentary architraves or
entablatures employed in classic Roman architecture to receive
the springing of vaults sustained by columns, and became com-
mon in Byzantine structures (Fig. 73). The use of external
arcading to give some slight adornment to the walls of the second
of the above-named churches, and the round bell-towers of brick
which adjoined both of them, were first steps toward the develop-
ment of the "wall-veil" or arcaded decoration, and of the cam-
paniles, which in later centuries became so characteristic of north
Italian churches (see Rome the campaniles
Chapter XIII.). In
which accompany many of the mediaeval basilicas are square and
pierced with many windows (see p. 163).
The became general in Italy, a large
basilican form of church

proportion of whose churches continued to be built with wooden

roofs and with but slight deviations from the original type, long
after theappearance of the Gothic style. The chief departures
from early precedent were in the exterior, which was embellished
with marble incrustations as in S. Miniato (Florence); or with
successive stories of wall-arcades, as in many churches in Pisa and
Lucca (see Fig. 94); until finally the introduction of clustered

piers, pointed arches, and vaulting, gradually transformed the

basilican into the Italian Romanesque and (iothic styles.
SYRIA AND THE EAST. In Syria, particularly the central

portion, the Christian architecture of the third and eighth cen-

turies produced a number of very interesting monuments. The
churches built by Constantino in Syria the Church of the Nativ-

ity in Bethlehem (nominally built by his mother), of the Ascension

u6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

at Jerusalem, the magnificent octagonal church on the site of the

Temple, and finally the somewhat similar church at Antioch

were the most notable Christian monuments in Syria. The first
three on the list, still extant in part at least, have been so altered by
later additions and restorations that their original forms are only

approximately known from early descriptions. They were all of

large size, and the octagonal church on the Temple platform was
of exceptional magnificence. The columns and a part of the
marble incrustations of the
early design are still visible in

the "Mosque of Omar," but

most of the old work is con-
cealed by the decoration of
tiles applied by the Moslems,
and the whole interior aspect

altered by the wood-and-

plaster dome with which they

replaced the simpler roof of

the original.

FIG. 69. CHURCH AT KALB LOUZEH. Christian architecture in

Syria soon, however, diverged

from Roman traditions. The abundance of hard stone, the

total lack of clay or brick, the remoteness from Rome, led to a

peculiar independence and originality in the forms and details of
the ecclesiastical as well as of the domestic architecture of cen-
tral Syria. These innovations upon Roman models resulted
in the development of distinct types which, but for the arrest
of progress by the Mohammedan conquest in the seventh cen-
tury, would doubtless have inaugurated a new and independ-
ent style of architecture. Piers of masonry came to replace the
classic column, as at Tafkha (third or fourth century), Rouhciha

and Kalb Lou/eh (fifth century? Fig. 6<)); the ceilings in the
smaller churches were often formed with stone slabs; the apse
was at first confined within the main rectangle of the plan, and
 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 117

was sometimes square. The exterior assumed a striking and pic-

turesque variety of forms by means of turrets, porches, and gables.
Singularly enough, vaulting hardly appears at all, though the
arch is used with fine effect. Conventional and monastic groups
of buildings appear early in Syria, and that of St. Simeon Stylites
at Kelat Seman is an
impressive and interesting monument.
Four three-aisled wings form the arms of a cross, meeting in a
central octagonal open court, in the midst of which stood the
column of the saint. The
eastern arm of the cross forms a com-

plete basilica of itself,and the whole cross measures 330 x 300

feet. Chapels, cloisters, and cells adjoin the main edifice.
Circular and polygonal plans appear in a number of Syrian

examples of the early sixth century. Their most striking feature

is the inscribing of the circle of

polygon in a square which forms

the exterior outline, and the use of
four niches to fill out the corners.
This occurs at Kelat Seman in a
small double church, perhaps the
tomb and chapel of a martyr; in
the cathedral at Bozrah (Fig. 70),
and in the small domical church of
St. George at Ezra. These were
probably the prototypes of many
Byzantine churches like St. Sergius

at Constantinople, and San Vitale FIG. 70. CATHEDRAL AT BOZRAH.

at Ravenna though the
(Fig. 74),
exact dates of the Syrian churches are not known. The one
at Ezra
the only one of the three which has a dome, the others
is

having been roofed with wood.

The interesting domestic architecture of this period is pre-
served in whole towns and villages in the Hauran, which, de-
serted at the Arab conquest, have never been reoccupied and re-
main almost intact but for the decay of their wooden roofs. They
IlS HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

are marked by dignity and simplicity of design, and by the same

picturesque massing of gables and roofs and porches which has
already been remarked of the churches. The arches are broad,
the columns rather heavy, the mouldings few and simple, and the

scanty carving vigorous and effective, often strongly Byzantine

in type.

Elsewhere in the Eastern world are many early churches of

which even the enumeration would exceed the limits of this work.

Salonica counts a number of basilicas and several domical

churches. The church of St. George, now a mosque, is of early
date and thoroughly Roman in plan and section, of the same

class with the Pantheon and the tomb of Helena, in both of which
a massive circular wall lightened by eight niches.
is At Angora
(Ancyra), Hierapolis, Pergamus, and other points in Asia Minor;
in Egypt, Nubia, and Algiers, are many examples of both circular

and basilican edifices of the early centuries of Christianity. In

Constantinople there remains but a single representative of the

basilican type, the church of St. John Studius, now the Emir
Akhor mosque.

MONUMENTS: ROME: Sta. Costanza,

4th century; St. Peter's,
330?; Baptistery of St. Pudentiana. 335
John Lateran, 330; Sta.
(rebuilt 1598); tomb of St. Helena; St. Paul's beyond the Walls,
386 (burned 18.23. rebuilt late Hjth century); St. John Lateran
(wholly remodelled in modern times). 5th century: Sta. Sabina,
425; Sta. Maria Maggiore, 432; S. Pietro in Vincoli. 44J (greatly
altered in modern times); San Stefano Rotondo. 6th century: S.
Loren/o, 580 (the older portion in two stories) SS. Cosmo c Dami- ;

.1110. 7th century: Sta. Agncse, 625; S. (!iorio in Velabro, 68j. 8th
century: Sta. Maria in Cosmedin ; S. Criso^ono. <;th century: S.

Nereo ed Achilleo; Sta. Pra>sede Maria in Dominica, uth

; Sta.
and I3th centuries: S. Clemcntc. iioS; Sla. Maria in rasteverc S. I ;

Lorenzo (nave) Sta. Maria in Ara Cdeli. RAVKNNA: Baptistery of

;

S. John, 400 (?); S. Francesco S. (iiovanni Kvan.uelista. 4^5;

;

Sta. Ak'ata, 430; S. (iiovanni 430; tomb of (ialla Pla-

Hattista.
eidia, 450; S. Apollinarc Nuovo, 5oo-5_'o; S. Apollinnrc in C'lasse,
 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 1
19

538; St. Victor; Sta. Maria in Cosmcdin (the Arian Baptist-

ery) tomb of Theodoric (Sta. Maria della Rotonda, a decagonal
;

two-storied mausoleum, with a low dome cut from a single stone

36 feet in diameter), 530-540. ITALY IN GENERAL, including
ISTRIA: basilica at Parenzo, 540 and Pola (Istria); at Grado,
580; cathedral and Sta. Fosca at Torcello, 640-700; at Naples,
Sta. Restituta, perhaps Sti. Augeli, Perugia, 7th century;
others, mostly of ioth-i3th centuries, at Murano near Ven-
ice, at Florence (S. Miniato), Spoleto, Toscanella, etc.; bap-
tisteries at Asti, Florence, Nocera dci Pagani, and other
places. In SYRIA AND THE EAST: basilicas of the Nativity
at Bethlehem, of the Sepulchre and of the Ascension at
Jerusalem ;
also polygonal church on Temple platform these ;

all of the 4th century. Bakouzah, llass, Kelat Se-

Basilicas at
man, Kalb Louzeh, Rouheiha, Tourmanin, etc. circular churches, ;

tombs, and baptisteries at Bozrah, Ezra, Hass, Kelat Seman,

Rouheiha, etc. all these 4th-8th centuries.
;
Golden church at
Antioch 6th century. Churches at Constantinople (,Holy Wis-
dom, St. John Studius, etc.), Hierapolis, Pergamus, and Thes-
"
salonica (St. Demetrius, St. George, Eski Djuma"); in Egypt
and Nubia (Djemla, Announa, Ibreem, Siotti, etc.); at Orleans-
ville in Algeria. (For churches, etc., of the 8th-ioth centuries in
the West, see Chapter XIII.)
 CHAPTER XI.

BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Essenwein, Hiibsch, Von

Quast. Also, Bayet, L'Art Byzantin. Choisy, UArt dc bdtir
chez les Byzantins. Couchaud, CY/0/.v d'eglises byzantines en
Grccc. Gayet, L'Art byzantin d'apres les monuments en Italic.
Holtzinger, Die Sophienkirche iind vcru'andte Baittcn. Lethaby
and Swainson, Sancta Sophia^ Ongania, La Basilica di San
Marco. Pulgher, Ancicnncs Eglises Byzantines de Constanti-
nople. Salzenbcrg, Altchristliche Baudenkmale i'on Constanti-
nopcl. Texier and Pullan, Byzantine Architecture.

ORIGIN AND CHARACTER. The decline and fall of Rome

arrested the development of the basilican style in the West, as
did the Arab conquest later in Syria. It was otherwise in the new

Eastern capital founded by Constantinc in the ancient Byzan-

tium, which was rising in power and wealth while Rome lay in
ruins. Situated at the strategic point of the natural highway of
commerce between East and West, salubrious and enchantingly
beautiful in its surroundings, the new capital grew rapidly from

provincial insignificance to metropolitan importance. Its

founder had embellished it with an extraordinary wealth of

buildings, in which, owing to the scarcity of trained architects,

quantity and cost doubtless outran quality. But at least the

tameness of blindly followed precedent was avoided, and this

departure from traditional tenets contributed undoubtedly to the
originality of Byzantine architecture. A large part of the artisans

employed building were then, as now, from Asia Minor and the
in

/Kgean Islands, Greek in race if not in name. An ( )riental taste

for brilliant and harmonious color and for minute decoration
 BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 121

spread over broad surfaces must have been stimulated by trade

with the Far East and by constant contact with Oriental peoples,
costumes, andarts. An Asiatic origin may also be assigned to
the methods of vaulting employed, far more varied than the

Roman, not only in form but also in materials and processes.

From Roman architecture, however, the Byzantines borrowed
the fundamental notion of their structural art; that, namely, of
distributing the weights and strains of their vaulted structures

upon isolated and massive points of support, strengthened by deep

buttresses, internal or external, as the case might be. Roman,
likewise, was the use of polished monolithic columns, and the in-

crustation of the piers and walls with panels of variegated mar-

ble, as well as the decoration of plastered surfaces by fresco and

mosaic, and the use of opus sectile and opus Alexandrinum for the
production of sumptuous marble pavements. In the first of
these processes the color-figures of the pattern are formed each of
a single piece of marble cut to the shape required; in the second
the pattern is
compounded of minute squares, triangles, and
curved pieces of uniform size. Under these combined influences
the artists of Constantinople wrought out new problems in con-
struction and decoration, giving to all that they touched a new
and striking character.
There is no absolute line of demarcation,
chronological, geo-
graphical, or structural, between Early Christian and Byzantine
architecture. But the former was especially characterized by the
basilica with three or five aisles, and the use of wooden roofs even
in its circular edifices; the vault being exceedingly rare, and the
dome used only for small circular tombs and baptisteries. By-
zantine architecture, on the other hand, rarely produced the

simple three-aisled or five-aisled basilica. Nearly all its monu-

ments were vaulted or domed, or both, and Byzantine archi-
tecture achieved its highest triumphs in the use of the penile H fire,
as the triangular spherical surfaces are called, by the aid of which
a dome can be supported on the summits of four arches spanning
122 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

the four sides of a square, as explained later. There is as little

uniformity in the plans of Byzantine buildings as in the forms of

the vaulting. A few types of church-plan, however, predom-

inated locally in one or another centre; but the controlling feature
of the style was the dome and the constructive system with which
it wasassociated. The dome, it is true, had long been used by
the Romans, but always on a circular plan, as in the Pantheon.*
It is also a fact that pendentives have been found in Syria and

Asia Minor older than the oldest Byzantine examples. But the
special feature characterizing the Byzantine dome on penden-
tiveswas its almost exclusive association with plans having piers
and columns or aisles, with the dome as the central and dominant
feature of the complex design (see plans, Figs. 74, 75, 76, 79).
Another strictly Byzantine practice was the piercing of the
lower portion of the dome with windows forming a circle or
crown, and the final development of this feature into a high drum.

CONSTRUCTION. Still another divergence from Roman

methods was in the substitution of brick and stone masonry for
concrete. Brick was used for the mass as well as the facing of
walls and piers, and for the vaulting in many buildings mainly
built of stone. Stone was used either alone or in combination
with brick, the latter appearing in bands of four or five courses at
intervals of three or four feet. In later work a regular alternation
of the two materials, course for course, was not uncommon. In

piers intended to support unusually heavy loads the stone was

very carefully cut and fitted, and sometimes tied and clamped
with iron.
Vaults were built sometimes of brick, sometimes of cut stone;
in a few cases even of earthenware jars fitting into each other, and
laidup in a continuous contracting spiral from the base to the
crown of a dome, as in San Yitale at Ravenna. Ingenious pro-
cesses for building vaults without centrings were made use of
* With tlit- single exception of the Baths of Gallienus (" Min-
erva Medica"), j68 A.D.
 BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 123

processes inherited from the drain-builders of ancient Assyria, and

still invogue in Armenia, Persia, and Asia Minor. The groined
vault was common, but always approximated the form of a dome,
by a longitudinal convexity upward in the intersecting vaults.
The aisles of Hagia Sophia* display a remarkable variety of
forms in the vaulting.
DOMES. The dome, as we
have seen, early became the
most characteristic feature of

Byzantine architecture; and

especially the dome on pen-
dentives. If a hemisphere
be cut by five planes, four
perpendicular to its base and
bounding a square inscribed
therein, and the fifth plane
parallel to the base and tan-

gent to the semicircular inter-

sections made by the first

four, there will remain of the

original surface only four FIG. 71. DIAGRAM OF PENDENTIVES.

triangular spaces bounded
by arcs or circles. These are called pendcntives (Fig. 71 a).
When these are built up of masonry, each course forms a species
of arch, by virtue of its convexity. At the crown of the four
arches on which they rest, these courses meet and form a com-
plete circle, perfectly stable and capable of sustaining any super-
structure that does not by excessive weight disrupt the whole
fabric by overthrowing the four arches which support it. Upon
these pendentives, then, a new dome may be started of any de-
"
Sophia," the common name of tin's church, is a mis-
1
St.
nomer. Itwas not dedicated to a saint at all. hut to the Divine
Wisdom (Hagia Sophia), which name the Turks have retained
"
in the softened form Ava Sofia."
124 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

sired curvature, or even a cylindrical drum to support a still loftier

dome, as in the later churches (Fig. 71 &). This method of cov-

ering a square is simpler than the groined vault, having no sharp
edges or intersections; it is at least as effective architecturally, by
reason of its greater height in the centre; and is equally applica-
ble to successive bays of an oblong, cruciform, and even columnar
building. In the great cisterns at Constantinople vast areas are
covered by rows of small domes supported on ranges of columns.
The earlier domes were commonly pierced with windows at the
base, this apparent weakening of the vault being compensated
forby strongly buttressing the piers between the windows, as in
Hagia Sophia. Here forty windows form a crown of light at the
spring of the dome, producing an effect almost as striking as that
of the simple oculus of the Pantheon, and celebrated by ancient
writers in the most extravagant terms. In later and smaller
churches a high drum was introduced beneath the dome, in order
to secure, by means of longer windows, more light than could be

obtained by merely piercing the diminutive domes.

Buttressing was well understood by the Byzantines, whose
plans were skilfully devised to provide internal abutments, which
were often continued above the roofs of the side-aisles to prop the
main vaults, was done by the Romans in their
precisely as
thermce and similar But the Byzantines, while adhering
halls.

less strictly than the Romans to traditional forms and processes,

and displaying much more ready contrivance and special adapta-
tion of means to ends, never worked out this pregnant structural

principle to its logical conclusion as did the Gothic architects of

Western Europe a few centuries later.

DECORATION. The exteriors of Byzantine buildings (except

insome of the small churches of late date) were generally bare and
lacking in beauty. The interiors, on the contrary, were richly
decorated, color playing a much larger part than carving in the
designs. Printing was resorted to only in the smaller buildings,
the more durable and splendid medium of mosaic being usually
 BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 125

preferred. This was, as a rule, confined to the vaults and to

those portions of the wall-surfaces embraced by the vaults above
their springing. The colors were brilliant, the background being
usually of gold, though sometimes of blue or a delicate green.
Biblical scenes, symbolic and allegorical figures and groups of
saints adorned the larger areas, particularly the half-dome of the
apse, as in the basilicas. The smaller vaults, the soffits of arches,
borders of pictures, and
other minor surfaces, re-
ceived a more conven-
tional decoration of

crosses, monograms, and

set patterns.

The walls throughout

were sheathed with slabs
of rare marble in panels
so disposed that the vein-

ing should produce sym-

metrical figures. The
panels were framed in

billet-mouldings, derived
perhaps from classic

dentils; the billets or pro- PIG. 72. SPANIJRIL. HAGIA SOPHIA.

jections on one side the

moulding coming opposite the spaces on the other. This seems

to have been a purely Byzantine feature.

CARVED DETAILS. Internally the different stories were

marked by horizontal bands and cornices of white or inlaid marble

richly carved. The arch-soffits, the archivolts or bands around

the arches, and the spandrils between them were covered with
minute and intricate incised carving. The motives used, though
based on the acanthus and anthemion, were given a wholly new
aspect. The relief was low and Hat, the leaves sharp and
crowded, and the effect rich and lacelike, rather than vigorous.
 126 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

It was, however, well adapted to the covering of large areas

where general effect was more important tlfen detail. Even the
capitals were treated in the same spirit. The impost-block was
almost universal, except where use was rendered unnecessary
its

by massive
giving to the capital itself the pyramidal form required
to receive properly the spring of the arch or vault. In such cases

(more frequent in Constantinople than elsewhere) the surface of

the capital was simply covered with incised carving of foliage,

basketwork, monograms, etc.; rudimentary volutes in a few cases

recalling classic traditions (Figs. 72, 73). The mouldings were
weak and poorly executed, and the vigorous profiles of classic
cornices were only re-

motely suggested by the

characterless aggregations
of mouldings which took
their place.

PLANS. The remains

of Byzantine architecture
are almost exclusively
of churches and baptis-
teries, but the plans of
these are exceedingly
varied. The first radical
departure from the basil-
ica-type seems to have
been the adoption of cir-
cular or polygonal plans,

CAPITAL WITH IMI'i

such as had usually
.-J.

S. VITAI.E. served only for tombs and

baptisteries. The Bap-

tistery of St. John at Ravenna
century) is classed
(early fifth

by many authorities as a Byzantine monument. In the early

years of the sixth century the adoption of this model had
become quite general, and with it the of domical development
 BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 127

design began to advance. The church of St. Sergius at Con-

stantinople (Fig. 74), originally joined to a short basilica dedi-
cated to St. Bacchus (afterward destroyed by the Turks), as in
the double church at Kelat Seman, was built about 520; that of
San Vitale at Ravenna was begun a
few years later; both are domical
churches on an octagonal plan, with
an exterior aisle. Semicircular niches
four in St. Sergius and eight in San
Yitale projecting into the aisle, en-
largesomewhat the area of the central
space and give variety to the internal
effect. The origin of this character-
istic
may be traced to the eight
feature
niches of the Pantheon, through such
FIG. 74. ST. SERGIUS, CON-
intermediate examples as the temple STANTINOPLE.
of Minerva Medica at Rome.* The
true pendentive does not appear in the two churches mentioned
above. Timidly employed up to that time in small structures,
it received a remarkable
development in the mag-
nificent church of Hagia

Sophia, built by Anthemius

of Tralles and Isodorus of

Miletus, under Justinian,

532-538 A.D. In the plan
of this marvelous edifice

(Fig. 76) the dome rests

upon four mighty arches

FI<;. 75. -PLAN OF s. VITALB. RAVENNA. bounding a scjuarc, into two

*
The churches of St. George at F./ra and the Cathedral of
Bozrah, both Syria (sec p. 117 and Figure 70) belong also to
in
this group and time; as also San Loren/o at Milan, and the ad-

joining baptistery and Chapel of St. Aquilin.

128 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

of which open the half-domes of semicircular apses. These

apses are penetrated and extended each by two smaller niches
and a central arch, and the whole
vast nave, measuring over 200 X
100 feet, is Hanked by enormously
wide aislesconnecting at the front
with a majestic narthex. Huge
transverse buttresses, as in the Ba-

Jf^'r-vif'-Hl /ijftfr^'H silica of Constantine (with whose

]r
i
~y i!
,'ijp y' n
fa'--'-'^ \n[j\

^J.....V_^r:
'

^f
j!

:jyL:.'.:.-Jj
i
structural design this building
shows striking affinities), divide
the aisles each into three sections.
The plan suggests that of St. Ser-

gius cut in two, with a lofty dome

on pendentives over a square plan
PIG. 76. I'LAN OF HAGIA SOPHIA. inserted between the halves. Thus
was secured a noble and unob-
structed hall of unrivalled beauty, covered by a combination of
half-domes increasing in span and height as they lead up suc-
cessively to the stupendous central vault, which rises 180 feet
into the air and fitly crowns the whole. The imposing effect of

this low-curved but loftily poised dome, resting upon a crown

of windows, its summit visible from every point of the nave (as

FIG. 77. SUCTION OF IIAGIA bUl'HIA.

 BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 131

may be easily seen from an examination of the section, Fig.

77), is not surpassed in any interior ever erected.
The two lateral arches under the dome are
filled by clearstory

walls pierced by twelve windows, and resting on arcades in two

stories carried by magnificent columns taken from ancient ruins.

These separate the nave from the two-storied side-aisles, which

are vaulted with a remarkable variety of groined vaults. All
the masses are disposed with studied reference to the complex
thrusts exerted by the dome and other vaults. That the earth-
quakes of nearly fourteen centuries have not destroyed the
church is the best evidence of the sufficiency of these precautions.
Not less remarkable than the noble planning and construction
of this church was the treatment of scale and decoration in its
interior design. It is as conspicuously the masterpiece of

Byzantine architecture as the Parthenon was of the classic Greek.

With little external beauty, it is internally one of the most per-
fectly composed and beautifully decorated halls of worship ever
erected. Instead of the simplicity of the Pantheon it
displays
the complexity of an organism of admirably related parts. The
division of the interior height into two stories below the spring of
the four arches reduces the component parts of the design to mod-
erate dimensions, so that the scale of the whole is more easily
grasped and its vast size emphasized by the contrast. The walls
are incrusted with precious marbles up to the spring of the vault-

ing; the capitals, spandrils, and soffits are richly and minutely
carved with incised ornament, and all the vaults covered with
splendid mosaics. Dimmed by the lapse of centuries and disfig-
ured by the vandalism of the Moslems, this noble interior, by the
harmony of its coloring and
its impressive grandeur, is one of the
masterpieces of time (Fig. 78).
all

LATER CHURCHES. After the sixth century no monuments

were built at all rivalling in scale the creations of the former

period. The later churches were, with few exceptions, relatively

small and trivial. Neither the plan nor the general aspect of
132 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Hagia Sophia seems to have been imitated in these later works.

The crown of dome-windows was replaced by a cylindrical drum
under the dome, which was usually of insignificant size. The ex-
terior was treated more decoratively than before, by means of

bands and incrustations of colored marble, or alternations of

stone and brick; and internally mosaic continued to be executed
with great skill and of great beauty until the tenth century, when
the art rapidly declined. These later churches, of which a num-
ber were spared by the Turks, are, therefore, generally pleasing
and elegant rather than striking or imposing. The most note-
worthy is the Kahire Djami
(formerly Mone tes Choras),of the
tenth century, with remarkable mosaics in the narthex-vaults.
FOREIGN MONUMENTS. The influence of Byzantine art
was wide-spread, both in Europe and Asia. The leading city of
civilizationthrough the Dark Ages, Constantinople influenced
Italy through her political and commercial relations with Ra-
venna, Genoa, and Venice. The church of St. Mark in the
latter city was one result of this in-

fluence (Figs. 79, 80). Begun in

976 to replace an earlier church

destroyed by fire, and largely re-
built between and
1071, it
1047
received through several centuries
additions not always Byzantine in
character. Yet it was mainly the
work Byzantine builders, who
of

copied most probably the church of

the Apostles at Constantinople,
built by Justinian. The pictur-
79. PLAN OF ST. MARK
VENICE. esque but wholly unstructured use
of columns in the entrance porches,
the upper parts of the facade, the wooden cupolas over tin- five

domes, and the pointed arches in the narthex, are deviations

from Byzantine traditions dating in part from the later Middle
 BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 133

Ages. Nothing could well be conceived more irrational, from

a structural point of view, than the accumulation of columns in
the entrance-arches; but the total effect is so picturesque and so
rich in color, that its architectural defects are easily overlooked.
The external veneering of white and colored marble occurs rarely

FIO. 80. INTERIOR OF ST. MARK'S.

in the East, but became a favorite practice in Venice, where it

continued in use for five hundred years. The interior of St.

Mark's, in some respects better preserved than that of Hagia

Sophia, is
especially fine in color, though not equal in scale and
grandeur to the latter church. With its five domes it has less

unity of effect than Hagia Sophia, but more of the charm of pic-
turesqueness, and its less brilliant and simpler lighting enhances
the impressiveness of its more modest dimensions. The church
of San Lorenzo at Milan, though greatly altered in various re-
134 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

buildings, may be classed as Byzantine, with its octagonal ro-

tunda, foi.ir
apses, and surrounding aisle.
In Russia and Greece the Byzantine style has continued to be
the official style of the Greek Church. The Russian monuments
are for the most part of a somewhat fantastic aspect, the Muscov-
having introduced many innovations in the form of bul-
ite taste

bous domes and other eccentric details. In Greece there are few
large churches, and some of the most interesting, like the old Ca-
thedral at Athens, are almost toy-like in their diminutiveness.
On Mt. Athos is an ancient monastery which still retains its By-
zantine character and traditions. In Armenia (as at Ani, Etch-
miadzin, etc.) are also interesting examples of late Armeno-
Byzantine architecture, showing applications to exterior carved
detail of elaborate interlaced ornament looking like a re-echo of
Celtic MSS.
illumination, itself, no doubt, originating in Byzan-
tine traditions. But the greatest and most prolific offspring of
Byzantine architecture appeared after the fall of Constantinople

(1453) in the new mosque-architecture of the victorious Turks.

MONUMENTS. CONSTANTINOPLE: St. Sergius, 520; Hagia

Sophia, 532-538; Holy Apostles by Justinian (demolished) ;

Holy Peace by Constantine, rebuilt by Justinian, and

(St. Irene),
again in the 8th century by Leo the Isaurian Hagia Tbeotokos, ;

I2th century (also called St. Theodore) Mone tes Choras (" Kahire
;

"
Djami"), loth century; Pantokrator Fetiyeh Djami." Cisterns,
;

" "
the "Bin Dir Direck (1,001 columns) and Yere Batan Serai";
great ball of the Blachernre palace. SAI.ONICA: Churches of
Divine Wisdom ("Aya Sofia"), St. Bardias, St. Elins. RAVENNA:
San Vitale. 527-540; part of faqade of palace of Tbeodoric. VENICE:
"
St. Mark's, 1047-15111 century; Fondaco dei Turchi." now Civic
Museum, I2th century. MILAN: San Lorenzo, 6th century. Other
churches at Athens and Mt. Athos ;
at Dapbni, Misitra, Myra. An-
cyra, Epbesus, etc.; Monastery of St. Luke at Stiris; in Cyprus at
St. Barnabas, Peristeroma, etc. in ; Armenia
at Ala-Werdi, Ani,

Dighour, Etchmiadzin, Koutbais, Pitzounda, Usunlar, etc. tombs ;

at Ani, Var/hahan, etc.; in Russia at Kieff (St. Basil), Kostroma,

Moscow (Assumption, Vasili Blagliennoi, etc.), Novgorod, Tcher-

nigoff ;
at Kurtea Darghish in Wullachia, and many others.
 CHAPTER XII.

SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.

(ARABIAN, MORESQUE, PERSIAN, INDIAN, AND TURKISH.)

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bourgoin, Les Arts Arabes. Coste,

Monuments du Caire; Monuments modernes de la Perse, Cun-
ningham, Archaeological Surrey 0} India. Fergusson, Indian and
Eastern Architecture. De Forest, Indian Architecture and Orna-
ment. Flandin et Coste, Voyage en Perse. Franz-Pasha, Die
Baukunst des Islam. Gayet, L'Art Arabe; UAH
Persan. Gi-
rault de Prangey, Essai sur V architecture des Arabes en Espagne,
etc. Goury and Jones, The Alhambra. Jacob, Jeypore Port/olio
of Architectural Details. Lane Poole, Saracenic Art. Le Bon,
IM, civilisation des Arabes ; Les monuments de I'Inde. Migeon,
Le Caire (Series of Villes d'Art). Montani, L''Architecture Otto-
mane. OwenJones, Grammar o) Ornament. Parvillee, Archi-
tecture et decoration turques. Prisse d'Avennes, L'Art Arabe.
Saladin et Migeon, Manuel d'art mussulman. Texier, Descrip-
tion de 1'Armenic, la Perse, etc.

GENERAL SURVEY. While the Byzantine Empire was at

its zenith, the new faith ofIslam was conquering Western Asia
and the Mediterranean lands with a fiery rapidity which is one of
the marvels of history. The new architectural styles which grew
up in the wake of these conquests, though differing widely in con-
ception and detail in the several countries, were yet marked by
common which set them quite apart from the con-
characteristics

temporary Christian styles. The predominance of decorative

over structural considerations, a predilection for minute surface-
ornament, the absence of pictures and sculpture, are found alike
136 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Indian buildings, though in

varying degree. These new styles, however, were at first almost

entirely the handiwork of artisans from the conquered races, and

many traces of Byzantine, and even after the Crusades, of Nor-
man and Gothic design, are recognizable in Moslem architecture.

But the Orientalism of the conquerors and their common faith,

tinged with the poetry and philosophic mysticism of the Arab,

stamped these works of Copts, Syrians, and Greeks with an un-
mistakable character of their own, neither Byzantine nor Early
Christian.
ARABIC ARCHITECTURE. In the building of mosques
and tombs, especially at Cairo, this architecture reached a re-
markable degree of decorative elegance, and sometimes of dig-
nity. It developed slowly, the Arabs not being at the outset a

race of builders; the sacred Kaabah at Mecca and the original

mosque at Medina hardly deserved to be called architectural

monuments at all. The most important early works were the
mosques of 'Amrou at Cairo (642, rebuilt and enlarged early in
the eighth century), of El Aksah on the Temple platform at

Jerusalem (691, by Abd-el-Melek), and of El Walid at Damas-

cus (705-732, rebuilt since the fire of 1893). All these were

simple one-storied structures, with flat wooden roofs carried on

parallel ranges of columns supporting pointed arches, the arcades

either closing one side of a square court, or surrounding it com-
pletely. The long perspectives of the aisles and the minute
decoration of the archivolts and ceilings alone gave them archi-
tectural character. The beautiful Dome of the Rock (Kubbet-
es-Sakhrah, miscalled the Mosque of Omar) on the Temple plat-
form at Jerusalem possibly recalls a Constantinian edifice, though
its present form is that given by Soliman the Magnifu ent in 1520-

66, preserving the original plan but with decorations of the re-
storer's time. Its plan resembles that of San Stcfano Rotondo at

Rome, and is
dearly of Christian origin (see p. 1 16).
The splendid mosque of Ibn Touloun (876-885) was built
 SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. 137

on the same plan as that of Amrou, but with cantoned piers in-
stead of columns and a corresponding increase in variety of per-

spective and richness of effect. With the incoming of the Fatim-

itedynasty, however,
and the foundation of
the present city of Cairo

(971), vaulting began

to take the place of
wooden ceilings, and
then appeared the

germs of those extraor-

dinary applications of
geometry to decorative

design which were

henceforth to be the
most striking feature
of Arabic ornament.
Under the Ayub dy-
nasty, which began
with Salah-ed-din (Sal-

adin) in 1172, these

elements developed
slowly in the domical
tombs of the Kara/ah
at Cairo, and prepared
the way for the in- FIG. 8l. MOSrH'K OP Sl'LTAM HASSAN', CAIRO:
richness and SANCTUARY.
creasing
of a
+Uikr**: Wimkr.
splendor long
mosques, among which those of Kalaoun (1284-1318),
series of

Sultan Hassan (1356), El Mu'ayyad (1415), and Kait Bey

(1465), were the most conspicuous examples (Fig. Si). They
mark, indeed, successive advances in complexity of planning,
ingenuity of construction, and elegance of decoration. Together
they constitute an epoch in Arabic architecture, which coincides
138 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

closely with the development of Gothic vaulted architecture in

Europe, both and the duration of its advances.
in the stages
The larger mosques of these three centuries are, like the mediae-
val monasteries, complex groups of buildings of various sorts
about a central court of ablutions. The tomb of the founder,
residences for the imams, or priests, schools (medresseh), and hos-

pitals (mdristdn) rival in importance the prayer-chamber. This

last is, however, the real focus of interest and splendor; in some
cases, as in Sultan Hassan, it is a simple barrel-vaulted chamber
open to the court; in others an oblong arcaded hall with many
small domes; or again a square hall covered with a high pointed
dome on pendentives of intricately beautiful stalactite-work (see
below). The ceremonial requirements of the mosque were simple.
The court must have its fountain of ablutions in the centre. The
prayer-hall, or mosque proper, must have its miJirdb, or niche,
to indicate the kibleh, the direction of Mecca; and its number, or
high, slender pulpit for the reading of the Kc'min. These were
the only absolutely indispensable features of a mosque, but as

early as the ninth century the minaret was added, from which the
call toprayer could be sounded over the city by the mueddln.
Not Ayubite period, however, did it begin to assume
until the
those forms of varied and picturesque grace which lend to Cairo
so much of its architectural charm.
ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS. While Arabic architecture, in

Syria and Egypt alike, possesses more decorative than construc-

tive originality, the beautiful forms of its domes, pendentives, and

minarets, the simple majesty of the great pointed barrel-vaults of

the Hassan mosque and similar monuments, and the graceful
lines of the universally used pointed arch, prove the Coptic build-
ers and their later Arabic successors to have been architects of
great ability. The Arabic domes, as seen both in the mosques
and in the remarkable group of tombs commonly called "tombs
of the Khalifs," are peculiar not only in their pointed outlines and
their rich external decoration of interlaced geometric motives, but
 SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. '39

still more in the external and internal treatment of the penden-

tives, exquisitely decorated with stalactite ornament.

This orna-
ment, derived, apparently, from a combination of minute corbels
with rows of small niches, and presumably of Persian
origin,
was finally developed
into a system of extraor-

dinary intricacy, ap-

plicable alike to the top-
ping of a niche or panel,
as in the great doorways
of the mosques, and to
the bracketing out of
minaret galleries (Figs.
82,83). Its applications
show a bewildering va-
riety of forms and an

extraordinary aptitude
for intricate geometrical

design.
DECORATION. Geom-
etry, indeed, vied with
the love of color in

its hold on the Arabic FIG. 82. MOSQUE OF KAiY BEY, CAIRO
taste. Ceiling-beams
were carved into highly ornamental forms before receiving their
rich color-decoration of red, green, blue, and gold. The doors
and the mimber were framed in geometric patterns with slender
intersecting bars forming complicated star-panelling. The vous-
soirs of arches were cut into curious interlocking forms; door-
ways and niches were capped with stalactite corbelling, and
pavements and wall-incrustations, whether of marble or tiling,
combined brilliancy and harmony of color with the perplexing
beauty of interlaced star-and-polygon patterns of marvellous
intricacy. Stained glass added to the interior color-effect, the
140 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

patterns being perforated in plaster, with a bit of colored glass

set into each perforation a device not very durable, perhaps,
but singularly decorative.
OTHER WORKS. Few of the mediaeval Arabic palaces have
remained to our time. That they were adorned with a splendid
prodigality appears from contemporary accounts. This splendor
was internal rather than external; the palace, like all the larger
and richer dwellings in the East, surrounded one or more courts,
and presented externally an almost unbroken wall. The fountain
in the chief court, the diu'dn (a great, vaulted
reception-chamber
opening upon the court and raised slightly above it), the dar, or
men's court, rigidly separated from the hareem for the women,
were and are universal elements in these great dwellings. The
more common city-houses show as their most striking features
successively corbelled-out stories and broad wooden eaves with
lattice-screens covering single windows, or almost a whole facade,
composed of spindle work (mousliarabiye), in designs of great
beauty.
The and minor works of the Arabs display the
fountains, gates,
same beauty decoration and color, the same general forms and
in

details which characterize the larger works, but it is impossible

here to particularize further with regard to them.

MORESQUE. Elsewhere in Northern Africa the Arabs pro-

duced important works in less abundance than in Egypt, and
these are not so well preserved nor so well known. Constructive

design would appear tohave been there even more completely

subordinated to decoration; tiling and plaster-relief took the
place of more architectural elements and materials, while horse-
shoe and cusped arches were substituted for the simpler and more
architectural pointed arch (I'ig. ^4). The dome never found
favor in Xorth Africa, the great mosques of Kairouan, Tlemcen,

Sfax, and Algiers showing the primitive plan of Ibn Touloun,

with occasional small domes over the centre or at the ends. The
courts of palaces and public buildings were surrounded by
 SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. 141

ranges of horseshoe arches on slender columns; these last being

provided with capitals of a form rarely seen in Cairo. It is note-

worthy that the decora-

tion of these mosques
and palaces is. less elab-

orate than that of the

derived style in Spain.
Towers were built of
much more massive de-
sign than the Cairo min-
arets, usually with a

square, almost solid

shaft and a more open
lantern at the top, some-
times in several dimin-

ishing stories; they are

strikingly effective
works.
HISPANO-MORESQUE.
The most ornate phase
of this branch of Arabic
architecture is found not
in Africa but in Spain,
which was overrun in

710-713 by the Moors,

who established there ill/
the independent Khali- mr -_L

fate of Cordova. This FIO. 83. MOORISH DETAIL, AI.HAMBUA.

was stalactitf <i>K/ work,
later up into
split
Shunting f>i-rf<>ruteii
itiirii/t ,-HS/>I'</ t> /;. llis(>ano-M(irfsquc caf>
petty kingdoms, of which n/x, am/ </i-ct>raftTf inscriptions.
the most important were

(iranada, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia.. This dismemberment

of the Khalifate led in time to the loss of these cities, which were
one by one recovered by the Christians during the fourteenth
142 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

and fifteenth centuries; the capture of Granada, in 1492, finally

destroying the Moorish rule.
The dominion of the Moors in Spain was marked by a high
civilizationand an extraordinary activity in building. The style
they introduced became the national style in the regions they oc-
cupied, and even after the expulsion of the Moors was used in
buildings erected by Christians and by Jews. The "House of
Pilate," at Seville, is an example of this, and the general use
of the Moorish style in

Jewish synagogues, down

to our own day, both
in Spain and abroad, or-
iginated in the erection
of synagogues for the

Jews inSpain by Moor-

ish artisans and in Moor-

ish style, both during and

after the period of Mos-

lem supremacy.
Besides innumerable
mosques, castles, bridges,

aqueducts, gates, and

fountains, the Moors
erected several monu-
ments of remarkable size

and magnificence. Spe-

worthy
cially of notice
4. INTERIOR OF THE GREAT MOSQUE AT
CORDOVA. among them are the
(ireat Mosque at Cor-
dova, the Alcazars of Seville and Malaga, the Giralda at Seville,
and the Alhambra at Granada.
The Mosque at Cordova, begun in 786 by 'Abd-cr-Rah-
man, enlarged in 876, and again by Kl Mansour in 976, is a vast
arcaded hall 375 feet X 420 feet in extent, but only 30 feet high
 SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. 143

(Fig. 84). The rich wooden

ceiling rests upon seventeen rows of

thirty to thirty-three columns each, and two intersecting rows of

piers, all carrying horseshoe arches in two superposed ranges, a
large portion of those about the sanctuary being cusped, the
others plain, except for the alternation of color in the voussoirs.
The mihrab niche is
particularly rich in its minutely carved in-

crustations and mosaics, and a dome ingeniously formed by inter-

secting ribs covers the sanctuary before it. This form of dome
occurs frequently in Spain.
The Alcazars at Seville and Malaga, which have been re-

stored in recent years, present to-day a fairly correct counterpart

of the castle-palaces of the thirteenth century. They display the
same general conceptions and decorative features as the Alham-
bra, which they antedate. The Giralda at Seville is, on the
other hand, unique among Spanish monuments, though resem-

bling many Moroccan towers. It is a lofty rectangular tower, its

exterior panelled and covered with a species of quarry-ornament

in relief; it terminated originally in two or three diminishing

stages or lanterns, which were replaced in the sixteenth century

by the present Renaissance belfry.
The Alhambra universally considered to be the master-
is

piece of Hispano-Moresque art, partly no doubt on account of its

excellent preservation. It is most interesting as an example of the

splendid citadel-palaces built by the Moorish conquerors, as well

as for its gorgeous color-decoration of minute quarry-ornament

stamped or moulded in the wet plaster wherever the walls are not
wainscoted with was begun in 1248 by Mohammed-
tiles. It

ben-Al-Hamar, enlarged in 1279 by his successor, and again in

1306, when its moscjue was built. Its plan (Fig. 85) shows two

large courts and a smaller one next the mosque, with three great
square chambers and many of minor importance. Light arcades
surround the Court of the Lions with its fountain, and adorn tin-
ends of the other chief court; and the stalactite pendentive, rare
in Moorish work, appears in the "Hall of Ambassadors" and
144 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

some other parts of the edifice. But its chief glory is its ornamen-
tation, less durable, less architectural than that of the Cairene
buildings, but making up for this in delicacy and richness. Mi-
nute vine-patterns and Arabic inscriptions are interwoven with
waving intersecting
lines, forming a net-
like framework, to
all of which deep
red, blue, black, and
gold give an inde-
scribable richness of
effect.

The Moors also

overran Sicily in the
ninth century, but
while their architec-

FIG. 85. PLAN OF THE ALHAMBRA. ture there profound-

A Half of A inbcissadors; a, Mosque:

, I',Court of ly influenced that of
Mosque; c, Sitf.i dflla Rarca: </, d, liatlis; e, Hall the Christians who,
of the Tu o Sisters f, f, f, Hall of t lie Tribunal; g,
i

Hall of the Abenccrrages. after recovering

Sicily in 1090, copied
the style of the conquered Moslems, the only examples of the

original Moorish architecture sufficiently important to claim

mention in so brief a notice arc the two buildings called la Ziza
and la Cuba, small Moorish palaces at Palermo remodelled in
the twelfth century by the Norman counts.
SASSANIAN. The Sassanian empire, which during the four
centuries from 226 to 641 A.D. had withstood Rome and extended
itsown sway almost to India, left on Persian soil a number of in-
teresting monuments which powerfully influenced the Mohamme-
dan style of that region. The Sassanian buildings appear to have
been principally palaces, and were all vaulted. With their long
barrel-vaulted halls, combined with square domical chambers,
as in Firouz-Abad and Serbistan, they exhibit reminiscences of
 SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. 145

antique Assyrian tradition. The ancient Persian use of columns

was almost entirely abandoned, but doors and windows were still
banded frames and cavetto-cornices of Persepolis
treated with the
and Susa. The
Sassanians employed with these exterior details
others derived perhaps from Syrian and Byzantine sources.
A sort of engaged buttress-column and blind arches repeated
somewhat aimlessly over a whole facade were characteristic
features; still more so the huge arches, elliptical or horse-
shoe shaped, which formed the entrances to these palaces, as in
the Tak-Kesra at Ctesiphon, and from which Moorish architec-
ture perhaps derived its preference for the horse-shoe arch. Or-
namental details of a debased Roman type appear, mingled with
more gracefully flowing leaf-patterns resembling early Christian
Syrian carving. The last great monument of this style was the
palace at Mashita in Moab, begun by the last Chosroes (627), but
never finished, an imposing and richly ornamental structure about

500X170 feet, occupying the centre of a great court.

PERSIAN-MOSLEM ARCHITECTURE. These Sassanian pal-
acesmust have strongly influenced Persian architecture after the
Arab conquest in 641. For although the architecture of the first
six centuries after that date suffered almost absolute extinction at
the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan, the traces of Sas-
sanian influence are still perceptible in the monuments that rose
in the following centuries. The dome and vault, the colossal

portal-arches, and the use of brick and tile are evidences of this

influence, bearing no resemblance to Byzantine or Arabic types.

The Moslem monuments of Persia proper, so far as their dates
can be ascertained, are all subsequent to 1200, except a number
of ruined tombs, some of them near Bagdad with singular py-
ramidal roofs. The ruined mosque at Tabriz (1300) and the beau-
tiful domical Tomb at Sultaniyeh (1313) belong to the Mogul
period. They show all the essential features of the later architec-

ture of the Sufis (1499-1694), during whose dynastic period were

built the still more splendid and more celebrated Meidan or
146 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

square, the great mosque of Mesjid Shah, the Bazaar

and the
or Medress of Hussein Shah, all at Ispahan, and many
College
other important monuments at Ispahan, Bagdad, and Teheran.
In these structures four elements especially claim attention; the
pointed bulbous dome, the round minaret, the portal-arch rising
above the adjacent portions of the building, and the use of en-
amelled terra-cotta tiles as an external decoration. To these may
be added the ogee arch (ogee= double-reversed curve), as an oc-
casional feature. The vaulting is most ingenious and beautiful,
and its forms, whether executed in brick or in plaster, are suffi-
ciently varied without resort to the perplexing complications of
stalactite work, although the stalactite is freely used in interior

decoration. In Persian decoration the most striking qualities

are the harmony of blended color, broken up into minute pat-
terns and more subdued in tone than in the Hispano-Moresque,
and the preference of flowing lines and floral ornament to the
geometric puzzles of Arabic design. Persian architecture influ-
enced both Turkish and Indo-Moslem art, which owe to it a large
part of their decorative charm.
Persian architecture is by no means confined to modern Persia;
some of most striking productions are to be seen
its in Bagdad,
Mosul, Bokhara, Merv, and Samarkhand.
INDO-MOSLEM. The Mohammedan architecture of India is

so distinct from all the native Indian styles and so related to the
art of Persia,if not to that of the Arabs, that it properly belongs

here rather than in the later chapter on Oriental styles. It was in

the eleventh century that the states of India first began to fall be-
fore Mohammedan invaders, but not until the end of the fifteenth
century that the great Mogul dynasty was established in Hindo-
stan as the dominant power. During the intervening period local
schools of Moslem architecture were developing in the Pathan
country of Northern India (1193-1 554), in Jaunpore andGujerat
(1396-1572), in Scinde, where Persian influence predominated;
in Kalburgah and Bidar (1347-1426). These schools differed
 SASSAXIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. 147

considerably in spirit and detail; but under the Moguls (1494-

1706) there was less diversity, and to this dynasty we owe many
of the most magnificent mosques and tombs of India, among
which those of Bijapur retain a marked and distinct style of their
own.
The Mohammedan monuments of India are characterized by
a grandeur and amplitude of disposition, a symmetry and monu-
mental dignity of design
which distinguish them
widely from the pictur-
esque but sometimes
trivial buildings of the
Arabs and Moors. Less
dependent on color than
the Moorish or Persian

structures, they are usually

built of marble, or of
marble and sandstone,
giving them an air of per-
manence and solidity
PIG. 86. TOMB OP MAHMUD, BIJAPUR.
wanting in other Moslem SECTION.

styles except the Turkish.

The dome, the round minaret, the pointed arch, and the colossal

portal-arch are universal, as in Persia, and enamelled tiles are

also used, but chiefly for interior decoration. Externally the
more dignified if less resplendent decoration of surface carving
is used, in patterns of minute and graceful scrolls, leaf forms,
and Arabic inscriptions covering large surfaces. The Arabic
stalactite pendentive, star-panelling and geometrical interlace
are less frequent. The dome on the square plan is common, but
neither the Byzantine nor the Arabic pendentive is used, strik-

ing and original combinations of vaulting surfaces, of corner

squinches, of corbelling and ribs, being used in its place.
Many of the Pathan domes and arches at Delhi, Ajmir, Ahmeda-
148 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

bad, Shepree, etc., are built in horizontal or corbelled courses

supported on slender columns, and exert no thrust at all, so

that they are vaults only in form, like the dome of the Tholos
of Atreus (Fig. 24). The most imposing and original of all
Indian domes are those of the Jumma Musjid and of the Tomb
ofMahmud, both at Bijapur, the latter 137 feet in span (Fig. 86).
These two monuments, indeed, with the Mogul Taj Mahal at
Agra, not only deserve the first rank among Indian monuments,
but in constructive science combined with noble proportions and

exquisite beauty are hardly, if at all, surpassed by the greatest

triumphs of western art. The Indo-Moslem architects, moreover,
especially those of the Mogul period, excelled in providing artistic
settings for their monuments. Immense platforms, superb
courts, imposing flights of steps, noble gateways, minarets to
mark the angles of enclosures, and landscape gardening of a high

order, enhance greatly the effect of the great mosques, tombs, and
palaces of Agra, Delhi, Futtehpore Sikhri, Allahabad, Secundra,
etc.

The most notable monuments of the Moguls are the Mosque

of Akbar (1556-1605) at Futtehpore Sikhri, the tomb of that
sultan at Secundra, and his palace at Allahabad; the Pearl

Mosque at Agra and the Jumma Musjid at Delhi, one of the

largest of Indian mosques, both built by Shah Jehan
and noblest
about 1650; immense palace group in the same city; and
his

finally the unrivalled mausoleum, the Taj Mahal at Agra,

built during his lifetime as a festal hall, to serve as his tomb after

death (Fig. 87). This last is the pearl of Indian architecture,

though it is said to have been designed by a luiropean architect,

French or Italian. It is a white marble structure 185 feet square,
centred in a court 313 feet square, forming a platform 18 feet

high. The corners of this court are marked by elegant minarets,

and the whole is dominated by the exquisite white marble dome,
58 feet in diameter, 80 feet high, internally rising over four domi-
cal corner chapels, and covered externally by a lofty marble bulb-
 SASSAXIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. 149

dome on a high drum. The rich materials, beautiful execution,

and exquisite inlaying of this mausoleum are worthy of its majes-

tic design. On the whole, in the architecture of the Moguls in

Bijapur, Agra, and Delhi, Mohammedan architecture reaches its

highest expression in the totality and balance of its qualities of

FIT,. 87. TAJ MAHAL, AT.RA.

construction, composition, detail, ornament, and settings. The

later monuments show the decline of the style and, though often
rich and imposing, are lacking in refinement and originality.
TURKISH. Turkish art begins with the establishment of
the Seljuk Sultanate of Iconium in Asia Minor in the twelfth cen-

tury. The mosques and khans erected in this period at Konieh

(Iconium) and Sivas are all in ruins, but exhibit a splendid

wealth of design in stone, borrowing largely but not wholly from
Persian sources.
I5O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

In 1299 the Ottoman Turks overran the Seljuk empire, already

crushed by the Mongols, and established a new capital in Bi-
thynia under Osman I. at Brusa, where they built many mosques
and tombs, partly with the help of Persian artists. They had
already for a century been occupying the fairest portions of the
Byzantine empire when, in 1453, they became masters of Con-
stantinople. Hagia Sophia was at once occupied as their chief
mosque, and such of the other churches as were spared were
divided between the victors and the vanquished. The con-

queror, Mehmet II., at the same time set about the building of a
new mosque, entrusting the design to a Byzantine, Christodoulos,
whom he directed to reproduce, with some modifications, the
design of the "Great Church" Hagia Sophia. The type thus
adopted has ever since remained the controlling model of
officially
Turkish mosque design, so far, at least, as general plan and con-
structive principles are concerned. Thus the conquering Turks,
educated by a century of study and imitation of Byzantine models
in Brusa, Nicomedia, Smyrna, Adrianople, and other cities earlier
subjugated, did what the Byzantines had, during nine centuries,
failed to do. They grasped the possibilities of the Hagia Sophia
type, and developed therefrom a style of architecture of great no-
bility and dignity. The low-curved dome with its crown of but-
tressed windows, the plain spherical pendentives, the great apses at
each end, covered by half-domes and penetrated by smaller niches,
the four massive piers with their projecting buttress-masses ex-

tending across the broad lateral aisles, the narthex and the arcaded
atrium in front all these appear in the great Turkish mosques
of Constantinople. In the Conqueror's mosque, however, two

apses with half-domes replace the lateral galleries and clearstory

of Hagia Sophia, making a perfectly quadripartite plan, destitute
of the emphasis and significance of a plan drawn on one main
axis (Fig. 88). The same treatment occurs in the mosque of
Ahmed I., the Ahmediyeh (1608; Fig. 89), and he Yeni

Djami ("New Mosque") at the port (1665). In the mosque of

 SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. 151

Osman III. (1755) the reverse change was effected; the mosque
has no great apses, four clearstories filling the four arches under
the dome, as also in several of the later and smaller mosques.
The noble mosque of Selim and Soliman at Adrianople carries
its dome upon eight piers, with alternate half-domes and clear-

stories, four of each. The greatest and finest of the Turkish

mosques, the Suleimaniyeh, built in 1553 by Soliman the Mag-
nificent, returned to
the Byzantine com-
bination of two
half-domes and two
clearstories (Fig. 90).
In none of these
monuments is there
the internal magnifi-
cence of marble and
mosaic of the Byzan-
tine churches. These
are only in a measure FIG MOSQUE OF MEHMET II., CONSTANTINOPLE.
PLAN.
replaced by Persian
tile- wainscoting (The dimensions figured in metres.)

and stained-glass
windows of the Arabic type. The division into stories and the
the treatment of scale are less well managed than in Hagia
Sophia; on the other hand, the proportion of height to width is
generally admirable. The exterior treatment is unique and
effective; the massing of domes and half-domes and roofs is

artistically arranged; and while there is little of that minute

carved detail found in Egypt and India, the composition of the

lateral arcades, the domical peristyles of the courts, and the grace-
ful forms of the pointed arches, with alternating voussoirs of
white and black marble, are artistic in a high degree. The mina-
rets are, however, inferior to those of Indian, Persian, and Arabic
art, though graceful in their proportions.
152 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Nearly all the great mosques are accompanied by the domical

tombs (turbeli) of their imperial founders. Some of these are of
noble size and great beauty of proportion and decoration. The
Tomb of Roxelana (Khourrem), the favorite wife of Soliman
the Magnificent (1553), is the most beautiful of all, and perhaps
the most perfect gem of Turkish architecture, with its elegant

FIG. 89. EXTERIOR AHMEDIYKH MOSQUE.

arcade surrounding the octagonal mausoleum-chamber. The

monumental fountains of Constantinople also deserve men-
tion. Of these, the one erected by Ahmet III. (1710), near Hagia

Sophia, is the most beautiful. They usually consist of a rec-

tangular marble reservoir with pagoda-like roof and broad eaves,
the four faces of the fountain adorned each with a niche and
basin, and covered with relief carving and gilded inscriptions.
 SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. 153

PALACES. In this department the Turks have done little

of importance. The buildings in the Seraglio gardens are low

and insignificant. The
Tchinli Kiosque, now
the Imperial Museum,
is however, a simple
but graceful two-
storied edifice, consist-

ing of four vaulted

chambers in the angles

of a fine cruciform

hall, with domes

treated like those of

Bijapur on a small

scale; the tiling and

the veranda in front
are particularly ele-

gant; the design sug-

gests Persian handi-

work. The later
palaces, by
designed
FIR. 90. INTERIOR OF SULEIMANIYEH,
Armenians, are pictur- CONSTANTINOPLE.
esque white marble
and stucco buildings on the water's edge; they possess richly
decorated halls, but the details are of a debased European
rococo style, quite unworthy of an Oriental monarch.

MONUMENTS. ARABIAN: "Mosque of Omar," or Dome of the

Rock, 638; El Aksah, by 'Abd-el-Melek, 691, both at Jerusalem;
Mosque of 'Amrou at Cairo, 642; mosques at Kairouan, 665; great
mosque of El Walid, Damascus, 705-717. Bagdad built, 755. Great
mosque at Kairouan, 737. At Cairo, Ibu Touloun, 876; Gama-El-
A/har, 971; "Tombs of Khalifs" (Karafah), 1250-1400; Moristau
Kalaotin, 1284; Medresseb Sultan Hassan, 1350; Burkouk, 1382;
El Azhar enlarged; El Miiayyad, 1415; Kait Hoy, 1463; Sinan
Pacha at Boulak, 1568; El Bordeiny, 1638; "Tombs of Mamelukes,"
154 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

i6th century. Also palaces, baths, fountains, mosques, and tombs.

MORESQUE: Mosques at Tunis, Fez, Algiers, Tlemcen; mosque at
Saragossa, 713; mosque and arsenal at Tunis, 742; great mosque at
Cordova, 786, 876, 975 sanctuary, i-jth century. Mosques, baths,
;

etc.,at Cordova, Tarragona, Segovia, Toledo, 960-980; mosque of

Sobeiha at Cordova, 981. Palaces and mosques at Fez; great
mosque at Seville, 1172. Extensive building in Morocco close of
12th century. Giralda at Seville, 1160; Alcazars in Malaga and
Seville, Alhambra and Generalife at Granada, 1248,
1225-1300;
1279, 1306; also
mosques, baths, etc. Yussuf builds palace at
Malaga, 1348; palaces at Granada. PERSIAN: Tombs near Bagdad,
786 (?); mosque at Tabriz, 1300; tomb of Khodabendeh at Sul-
taniyeh, 1313; Meidan Shah (square) and Mesjid Shah (mosque)
at Ispahan, I7th century; Medresseh (school) of Sultan Hussein,
i8th century; palaces of Chehil Soutoun (forty columns) and
Aineh Khaneh (Palace of Mirrors). Baths, tombs, bazaars, etc.,
at Cashan, Koum, Kasmin, etc. Aminabad Caravanserai between
Shiraz and Ispahan bazaar at Ispahan.
; Mosques and tombs at
Bokhara and Samarkhand, Mosul, Ardebil, etc.
"
INDIAN: Mosque and Kutub Minar" (tower) dr. 1200; Tomb
of Altumsh, 1236; mosque at Ajmir, 1211-1236; tomb at Old
Delhi; Adina Mosque, Maldah, 1358. Mosques Jumma Musjid and
Lai Durwaza at Jaunpore, first half of I5th century. Mosque and
bazaar, Kalburgah, 1435 (?). Mosques at Ahmcdabad and Sir-
kedj, middle iSth century. Mosque Jumma Musjid and Tomb of
Mahmud, Bijapur, dr. 1550. Tomb of Humayun, Delhi ;
of Mo-
hammed Ghaus, Gwalior mosque at Futtehpore Sikhri palace at
; ;

Allahabad; tomb of Akbar at Secundra, all by Akbar, 1556-1605.

Palace and Jumma Musjid at Delhi; Muti Musjid (Pearl mosque)
and Taj Mahal at Agra, by Shah Jehan, 1628-1658.
TURKISH: Scljuk ruins at Konieh and Sivas. Tomb of Osman,
Brusa, 1326; Green Mosque (Yeshil Djami) Brusa, dr. 1350.
Mosque at Isnik (Nica?a), 1376. Mehmediyeh (mosque Mehmet
II.) Constantinople, 1453; mosque at Eyoub ; Tchinli Kiosque, by
Mehmet II., 1450-60; mosque Bayazid, 1500; Selim I., 1520;
Mosque of Selim at Suleimaniyeh, by Sinan, 1553;
Adrianoplc ;

Ahmediyeh, by Ahmet I., 1608; Yeni Djami, 1665; Nouri Osman,

by Osman III., 1755; mosque .Mohammed .Mi in Cairn, 1824. Khans,
cloistered courts for public business and commercial lodgers, various
dates, inth and i/th centuries ( Valide Khan, Vizir Khan), vaulted
bazaars, fountains, Seraskierat Tower, all at Constantinople.
 CHAPTER XIII.

EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE.

IN ITALY AND FRANCE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As for Chapter X, Corroyer, Cum-

mings, Dehio. Also, Boito, Architettura del media evo in Italia.
Cattaneo, U
'Architecture en Italic. Chapuy, Le moyen age mo-
numental. De Dartein, Etudes sur I'architecture lombarde. En-
lart, Manuel d'archeologie franfaise. Hiibsch, Monuments de
rarchitecture chretienne. Knight, Churches 0} Northern Italy.
Lenoir, Architecture monastique. Mothes, Baukunst des Mittcl-
alters in Italien. Osten, Bauwerke in der Lombardei. Porter,
Medueval Architecture. Quicherat, Melanges d'histoire el d'archc-
ologie. Reber, History of Mediceval Architecture. Revoil, Archi-
tectureromane du midi de la France, Rohault de Fleury, Mo-
numents de Pise. Sharpe, Churches of Charente. De Verneilh,
L 1
Architecture byzantine en France. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnairc
raisonne de rarchitecture }ranc,aise (especially in Vol. I., Archi-
tecture religieuse) Discourses on Architecture.
;

EARLY MEDLEY AL EUROPE. The partition of the Roman

Empire in the West in the fifth century A.D., and the ruin of

capital under successive assaults (Alaric 410, Attila, Genseric,

its

Odoacer 476) marked the beginning of a new era in Western

architecture. The so-called Dark Ages which followed these
events constituted the formative period of the new Western
civilization, during which the Celtic and Germanic races were

being Christianized and subjected to the authority and to the

educative influences of the Church. Under these conditions a
new architecture was developed, founded upon the traditions
of the early Christian builders, modified in different regions
I
56 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

by Roman or Byzantine influences. For Rome, even ruined,

never wholly lost her antique prestige, and Roman monuments
covering the soil of Southern Europe were a constant object
lesson to the builders of that time. To this new architecture of
the West, which in the tenth and eleventh centuries first began
to achieve worthy and monumental results, the generic name of

Romanesque has been commonly given, in spite of the great

diversity of its manifestations in different countries.
CHARACTER OF THE ARCHITECTURE. Romanesque archi-
was pre-eminently ecclesiastical. Civilization and culture
tecture
emanated from the Church, and her requirements and discipline
gave form to the builder's art. But the basilican style, which
had so well served her purposes in the earlier centuries and on
classic soil, was ill-suited to the new conditions. Corinthian col-
umns, marble incrustations, and splendid mosaics were not to be
had for the asking in the forests of Gaul or Germany, nor could the
Lombards and Ostrogoths in Italy or their descendants reproduce
them. The basilican style was complete in itself, possessing no
seeds of further growth. The priests and monks of Italy and
Western Europe sought to rear with unskilled labor churches of
stone in which the general dispositions of the basilica should ap-

pear in simpler, more massive dress, and, as far as possible, in a

fireproof construction with vaults of stone. This problem under-
lies all the varied phases of Romanesque architecture; its final

solution was
not, however, reached until the Gothic period, to
which the Romanesque forms the transition and stepping-stone.
MEDLEVAL ITALY. Italy in the early Middle Ages stood mid-
way between the civilization of the Eastern Empire and the semi-
barbarism of the West. Rome, Ravenna, and Venice early be-
came centres of culture and maintained continuous commercial
relations with the East. Architecture did not lack either the in-

spiration or the means for advancing on new lines. But its ad-
vance was by no means the same everywhere. The unifying in-
fluence of the church was counterbalanced by the provincialism
 EARLY MEDLEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 157

and the local diversities of the various Italian states, resulting in a

wide variety of styles. These, however, may be broadly grouped

in four divisions: the Lombard, the Tuscan-Romanesque,
the Italo-Byzantine, and the unchanged Basilican or Early

Christian, which last, as was shown in Chapter X., continued to

be practised in Rome throughout the Middle Ages.
LOMBARD STYLE.
Owing to the general rebuilding of
ancient churches under the more settled social conditions of the

TK':. 91. INTERIOR OP SAN AMBROT.IO, MILAN*.

eleventh and twelfth centuries, little remains to us of the archi-

tecture of the three preceding centuries in Italy, except the

Roman basilicas and a few baptisteries and circular churches,
already mentioned in Chapter X. The so-called Lombard mon-
uments belong mainly to the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
though a few churches and many fragmentary portions of others
belong to earlier dates. They are found not only in Loinbardy,
but also in Yenetia and the /Emilia. Milan, Pavia, Piaccn/a,
Bologna, and Yerona were important centres of development of
this style. The churches were frequently vaulted, but the plans
158 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

were basilican, with such variations as resulted from efforts to

meet the exigencies of vaulted construction. The nave was nar-
rowed, and instead of rows of columns carrying a thin clearstory
wall, a few massive piers of masonry, connected by broad pier-

arches, supported the heavy ribs of the groined vaulting, as in S.

Ambrogio, Milan (Fig. 91), which, in spite of the rebuilding of its

vaults in 1507 (but on the original design), is now regarded as the

earliest complete example of the style,
and in San Michele, Pavia (Fig. 92). To
resist the thrust of the main vault, the

clearstory was sometimes suppressed, the

side-aisle carried up in two stories form-
ing galleries, and rows of chapels added
at the sides, their partitions forming
buttresses. The piers were often of
clustered section, the better to receive
the various arches and ribs they sup-
ported. This reveals the introduction of
a new principle as well as of a new form
>). PLAN OF SAN
92.
MICHELE, PAVIA. into architectural design: the substitu-
tion of scientific logic for tradition in

the adaptation of each structural member to its particular func-

tion. This principle is

only dimly perceived in Byzantine and
basilican architecture; in these Lombard piers and vaults it is

frankly and vigorously applied. It is the germinant principle of

all Gothic design. The vaulting was in square divisions or
vaulting-bays, each embracing two pier-arches which met upon
an intermediate pier lighter than the others. Thus the whole
aspect of the interior was revolutionized. The spaciousness and
decorative elegance of the basilicas were here exchanged for a
severe and massive dignity; their lightness of construction on a
simple system incapable of further development, for a heavy
vaulted system destined to a scientific evolution extending through
centuries of progress. The choir was sometimes raised a few
 EARLY MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 159

feet above the nave, to allow of a crypt and conjessio beneath,

reached by broad flights of steps from the
nave. Sta. Maria della Pieve at Arezzo (ninth-
eleventh century), S. Ambrogio at Milan
(tenth-eleventh centuries), S. Michele at Pa-
via (late eleventh century), the Cathedral of
Piacenza (1122), andS. Zeno at Verona

monuments of this style.

(1139) are notable
LOMBARD EXTERIORS. The simple ex-
teriors of the Lombard churches were usually

effective and well composed. Slender colon-

nettes or long pilasters, blind arcades, and
open arcaded galleries
under the eaves gave
light and shade to

these exteriors. The

facades were mere
frontispieces with usu-
ally a single broad
gable, the three aisles
of the church being
merely suggested by
flator round pilasters

dividing the front

(Fig. 93). Gabled

porches, with columns
resting on the backs
of lions or monsters,
adorned the door-

ways. The carving

JM(i 93.--WEST FRONT AVI) CAMPANILE OF CATHE- , /

URAL, IMACEN/.A. WaS flen f a ' ieITe

and grotesque char-

acter. Detached bell-towers or I'aitipanilcs ad joined many of
these churches; square and simple in mass, but with well-dis-
i6o HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

tributed openings and well-proportioned belfries (Piacenza,

Fig. 93 ;
S. Zeno at Verona, etc.).
THE TUSCAN ROMANESQUE. The churches of this style

(sometimes called the Pisan) vigorous but more elegant

were less

in design than the Lombard. They were basilicas in plan, with

timber ceilings and high clearstories on columnar arcades. In

FIT,. 94 BAPTISTKRY, CAT!! TOV.'ER, PISA.

their external decoration they betray the influence of Byzantine

traditions, especially in the use of white and colored marble in

alternating bands or in
panelled veneering. striking Still more
are the external wall-arcades sometimes occupying the whole

height of the wall and carried on flat pilasters, sometimes in super-

posed stages of small arches on slender columns standing free of

the wall. In general the decorative element prevailed over the

constructive in the design of these picturesquely beautiful churches.

 EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 161

some of which arc of noble size. The Duomo (cathedral) of

Pisa, built 1063-1118, is the finest monument of the style (Figs.
94, 95). It is 312 feet long and 118 wide, with long transepts
and an elliptical dome of later date over the crossing (the inter-
section of nave and transepts). Its richly arcaded front and
banded flanks strikingly exemplify the illogical and unconstruc-
tive but highly decorative methods of the Tuscan Romanesque

PIC. 95. INTKRIOR OP PISA CATHEDRAL.

builders. The circular Baptistery (1153), with its

lofty dom-
ical central hall surrounded by an aisle in two stories, and the
famous Leaning Tower (1174), both designed with external
arcading, combine with the Duomo to form the most remark-
able group of ecclesiastical buildings in Italy, if not in Europe

(Fig. 94)-
The same style appears in more flamboyant shape in some of

the churches of Lucca. The cathedral S. Martino (1060; fa-

cade, 1204; nave altered in fourteenth century) is the finest and

largest of these; S. Michele (facade, uSS) and S. Frediano

l62 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

(twelfth century) have the most elaborately decorated facades.

The same and several
principles of design appear in the cathedral
other churches in Pistoia and Prato; but these belong, for the
most part, to the Gothic period.
FLORENCE. The church of S. Miniato, near Florence

(1013-60), shows a modification of the Pisan style. It is in plan

a basilica with the nave divided into three parts by two transverse
arches, carrying a richly painted timber roof, resembling that of
Messina Cathedral.* The interior is embellished with encrusted

patterns in black and white marble. The exterior is adorned

with wall-arches and with panelled veneering in white and dark
marble, instead of the horizontal bands of the Pisan churches, a
blending of Pisan and Italo-Byzantine methods. The Baptist-
ery of Florence, originally the cathedral, an imposing polygonal
domical edifice of the tenth century, presents externally one of
the most admirable examples of this practice. Its marble veneer-
ing in black and white, with pilasters and arches of excellent
design, attributed by Vasari to Arnolfo di Cambio, is
by many
considered to be much older, although restored by that archi-
tect in 1294.

Suggestions of the Pisan arcade system are found in widely

and south of Italy, mingled with
scattered examples in the east
features of Lombard and Byzantine design. In Apulia, as at
Bari, Caserta Vecchia (noo), Molfetta (1192), and in Sicily, the
Byzantine influence is
conspicuous in the use of domes and in
many of the decorative details. Particularly is this the case at

Palermo and Monreale, where the churches erected after the

Norman conquest some of them domical, some basilican show
a strange but picturesque and beautiful mixture of Romanesque,

Byzantine, and Arabic forms. The Cathedrals of Monreale

and Palermo (1185) and the churches of the Eremiti and La
Martorana at Palermo are the most important. The beautiful
cloisters of the two cathedrals should be mentioned ;
also the
*
Destroyed by the earthquake of December J<S, HjoH.
 EARLY MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 163

shameful disfigurement of the interior of Palermo Cathedral by

Fuga in the eighteenth century.

The Italo-Byzantine style has already been treated in the

latter part of Chapter XI.
CAMPANILES. The medieval bell-towers of Italy are

among the most striking features of the architecture of their

period. They were invariably isolated structures, usually

square plan and without spires. The earliest appear to be
in

those adjoining the two churches of San Apollinare in and near

Ravenna (see p. 115), and date presumably from the sixth cen-
tury. They are plain circular towers with few and small open-
ings, except in the uppermost story, where larger arched openings

permit the issue of the sound of the bells. It was at Rome, and
not till the ninth or tenth century, that the campanile became a

recognized feature of church architecture. The Roman cam-

panile was built of brick upon a square plan, rising with little or
no architectural adornment to a height usually of a hundred feet
or more, and furnished with but a few small openings below the

belfry stage, where a pair of coupled arched windows separated

by a simple column opened from each face of the tower. Above
these windows a low pyramidal roof terminated the tower. The
towers of Sta. Maria in Cosmedin, Sta. Maria in Trastevere, and
S. Giorgio in Velabro are examples of this type. Most of the
Roman examples date from the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
In other cities, the campanile was treated with some variety of
form and decoration, as well as of material. In Lombardy and
Venetia the square red-brick shaft of the tower is often adorned
with long, narrow pilaster strips and an arcaded cornice, as at
Piacenza (p. 159, Fig. 93) and Venice. The openings at the top
may be three or four in number on each face, and the plan is

sometimes octagonal. The brick octagonal campanile of S.

Gottardo at Milan is one of the finest Lombard church towers.
At Verona the brick tower on the Piazza dell' Frbe and that of S.
Zeno are conspicuous and at Pomposa, Torcello, Milan (S. Am-
164 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

brogio, S. Satiro), Padua, Modena, and Como are other interest-

ing examples; but every important town of northern Italy pos-

sesses one or more examples of these structures dating from the

eleventh, twelfth, or thirteenth century.

Undoubtedly the three most noted bell-towers in Italy are those
of Venice, Pisa, and Florence. The great Campanile of St.
Mark at Venice, first begun in 874, carried higher in the twelfth
and fourteenth centuries, and finally completed in the sixteenth
century with the marble belvedere and wooden spire so familiar
in pictures of Venice, was formerly the highest in Italy, measuring

approximately 325 feet to the summit. This superb historic

monument which fell in sudden ruin in 1902 is now being slowly
rebuilt on the original design. The Leaning Tower of Pisa (see

p. 1 60, Fig. 94) dates from 1174, and is

unique in its plan and its

exterior treatment with superposed arcades. Begun apparently

as a leaning tower, it seems to have increased this lean toadanger-
ous point, by the settling of its foundations during construction,
as its upper stages were made to deviate slightly towards the ver-
tical from the inclination of the lower portion. It has always
served rather as a watch-tower and belvedere than as a bell-tower.
The Campanile adjoining the Duomo at Florence and other
notable towers of the Gothic period are described in Chapter
XIX.
WESTERN ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. In Western Eu-

rope the unrest and lawlessness which attended the unsettled

relations of society under the feudal system long retarded the
establishment of that social order without which architectural

progress is
impossible. With the eleventh century there began,
however, a great activity in building, principally among the mon-
asteries, which represented all that there was of culture and sta-

bility amid the prevailing Undisturbed by war, the

disorder.

only abodes of peaceful labor, learning, and piety, they had become
rich and powerful, both in men and land. Probably the more or
less general apprehension of the supposed impending end of the
 EARLY MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 165

world in the year 1000 contributed to this result by driving un-

quiet consciences to seek refuge in the monasteries, or to endov

them richly.
The monastic builders, with little technical training, but with

plenty of willing hands, sought out new architectural paths to meet

their special needs. Remote from classic and Byzantine models,
and mainly dependent on their own resources, they often failed to
realize the intended results. But skill came with experience, and
with advancing civilization and a surer mastery of construction
came a finer taste and greater elegance of design. Meanwhile
military architecture developed a new science of building, and
covered Europe with imposing castles, admirably constructed
and often artistic in design as far as military exigencies would
permit.
CHARACTER OF THE STYLE. The Romanesque architec-
ture of the eleventh and twelfth centuries
Western Europe
in

(sometimes called the Round-Arched Gothic) was thus predomi-

nantly though not exclusively monastic. This gave it a certain

unity of character in spite of national and local variations. The
problem which the wealthy orders set themselves was, like that
of the Lombard church-builders in Italy, to adapt the basilica

plan to the exigencies of vaulted construction. Massive walls,

round arches stepped or recessed to lighten their appearance,
heavy mouldings richly carved, clustered piers and jamb-shafts,
capitals either of the cushion type or imitated from the Corin-
thian,and strong and effective carving in which the influence of
Byzantine ivories and MSS. illuminations is clearly discernible
all these are features alike of French, German, English, and Span-
ish architecture.
Romanesque
THE FRENCH ROMANESQUE. Though monasticism pro-
duced remarkable results in France, architecture there did not

wholly depend upon the monasteries. Southern Gaul (Prov-

ence) was full of classic remains and classic traditions, while at the
same time it maintained close trade relations with Venice and the
i66 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

East.* The domical cathedral of Cahors (1050-1100), an ob-

vious imitation of S. Irene at Constantinople, and the later Cathe-
dral of Angouleme (1119) display a notable advance in archi-
tectural skill outside of the monasteries. The church of St.
Front at Perigueux, built in 1120, reproduced the plan of St.
Mark's without its rich decoration, and with pointed instead of
round arches (Figs. 96, 97). Among the abbeys, Fontevrault
(1101-1119) closely resembles Angouleme, but surpasses it in the

elegance of its choir and chapels.

In these and a number of other
domical churches of the same
Franco-Byzantine type in Aqui-
i
i|i- -ij --.- tania, the substitution of the Latin
cross in the plan for the Greek
1m "
^B'i' B^3 cross used in St. Front, evinces the
Gallic tendency to work out to

their logical end new ideas or new

applications of old ones. These
striking variations on Byzantine
themes might have developed into
an independent local style but
for the overwhelming tide of
PLAN OF
Gothic influence which later
FIG. 96. ST. FRONT.
poured in from the North.
Meanwhile, farther south (at Aries, Avignon, etc.), classic
models strongly influenced the details, if not the plans, of an in-
teresting series of churches remarkable especially for their porches
rich with figure sculpture and for their elaborately carved details.

The Corinthian capital, the Roman forms

classic archivolt, the

of enriched mouldings, are evident at a glance in the porches of

Notre Dame des Doms at Avignon, of the church of St. Gilles
* See Viollct-le-Duc, Dictionnairc raisonnc, article ARCHITECT-
URE, vol. i., pp. 66 ct scq.; also Enlart, Manuel d'archco logic fran-
<;aisc, i., pp. 210-212, 284-286.
 EARLY MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 67

and of St. Trophime at

Aries.
DEVELOPMENT OF
VAULTING. It was in

Central France, and

mainly along the Loire,
that the systematic devel-

opment of vaulted church

architecture began.
Naves covered with bar-
rel-vaults, sometimes of
pointed section, appear
in a number of large
churches built during
the eleventh and twelfth
centuries, with apsidal
and transeptal chapels Fir,. 97. INTERIOR OP ST. PROMT, PERIGUEUX.
and aisles carried around In its original form.
the apse, as in St. Etienne,

Nevers, Notre Dame du Port at Clermont-Ferrand (Figs. 98,

99), St. Paul at Issoire, and imposing church of St.

in the

Sernin at Toulouse, in Provence (Fig. 100).

The thrust of these ponderous vaults was
clumsily resisted by half-barrel vaults over
the side-aisles, transmitting the strain to
massive side-walls (Fig. 99), or by high
side-aisles with transverse barrel or groined

vaults over each bay. In either case the

clearstorywas suppressed a fact which

mattered little in the sunny southern prov-
inces. In the more cloudy North, in Nor-

mandy, Picardy, and the Royal Domain, the

PIG. 9 8. PLAN f.p
nave vault was raised higher to admit of
NOTHK DAMP. 111! I'OKT,
CLF.RMONT. clearstory windows. But these eleventh-
1 68 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

century vaults nearly all fell

in, and had to be recon-

structed on new principles.

In this work the Clunisians
seem to have led the way, as
at Cluny (1089) and Veze-
lay (noo). In the latter

church, one of the finest

and most interesting French

edifices of the twelfth cen-

tury, a groined vault re-

placed the barrel-vault,

FIG. 99. SECTION OP NOTRE DAME DU PORT,
though the oblong plan of CLERMONT.
the vaulting-bays, due to the
nave being wider than the pier-arches, led to somewhat awk-
ward twisted surfaces in the

vaulting. But even here the

vaults had insufficient lateral

buttressing, and began to crack

and settle; so that in the great

ante-chapel, built thirty years

later, the side-aisles were made
in two stories, the better to resist
the thrust, and the groined
vaults themselves were con-
structed of pointed section.
These seem to be the earliest

pointed groined vaults in France.

It was not till the second half of
that century, however, that the

flying buttress was combined

with such vaults, so as to permit
of high clearstories for the better
flG 100. PLAN OF ST. SERNIN,
TOULOUSE. lighting of the nave; and the
 EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 169

problem of satisfactorily vaulting an oblong space with a groined

vault was not solved until the following century.*
ONE-AISLED CHURCHES. In the Franco-Byzantine churches
already described (p. 166) this difficulty of the oblong vaulting-
bay did not occur, owing to the absence of side-aisles and pier-
arches. Following this conception of church-planning, a number
of interesting parish churches and a few cathedrals were built
in various parts of France in which side-recesses or chapels
took the place of side-
aisles. The partitions
separating them served
as abutments for the

groined or barrel-vaults
of the nave. The cathe-
drals of Autun (1150)
and Langres (1160), and
in the fourteenth century
that of Alby, employed
this arrangement, com-
mon in many earlier Pro-
FIG. 101. A SIX-PART RIBBED VAULT, SHOWING
vencal churches which TWO COMPARTMENTS WITH THE FILLINGS
have disappeared. COMPLETE.
a, a, Transverse ribs (doiibleaux); 6, Wall-
SIX-PART VAULTING. ribs (formerets);
/>,

Groin-ribs (tiiagonaux).
c, c,

In the Royal Domain (All the ribs are semicircles.)

great architectural activ-

itydoes not appear to have begun until the beginning of the
Gothic period in the middle of the twelfth century. But in
Normandy, and Caen and Mont St. Michel, there
especially at
were produced, 1046 and 1120, some remarkable
between
churches, in which a high clearstory was secured in conjunction
with a vaulted nave, by the use of "six-part" vaulting (Fig. 101).
This was an awkward expedient, by which a square vaulting-bay
was divided into six parts by the groins and by a middle trans-
* Sec Introduction to Chapter XV.
I7O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

verse rib, necessitating t\vo narrow skew vaults meeting at the

centre. Two of these relatively narrow side-aisle bays were thus

grouped under one vaulting-bay, avoiding the oblong vault-bay
occurring at Vezelay. This unsatisfactory device was retained for
over a century, occuring frequently in early Gothic churches in
France, and occasionally in Great Britain. It made it possible to

resist the thrust by high side-aisles, and yet to open windows above
these under the cross-vaults. The abbey churches of St. Etienne
(the Abbaye aux Hommes) and Ste. Trinite (Abbaye aux

Dames), Caen, built in the time of William the Conqueror,

at
were among the most magnificent churches of their time, both
in size and and ingenuity of their construction.
in the excellence

The great abbey church of Mont

St. Michel (much altered in

later times) should also be mentioned here. At the same time

these and other Norman churches showed a great advance in
their internal composition. A well-developed triforium or sub-
ordinate gallery was introduced between the pier-arches and

clearstory, and all the structural membering of the edifice was

better proportioned and more logically expressed than in most
contemporary work.
ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS. The details of French Roman-
esque architecture varied considerably in the several provinces,
according as classic, Byzantine, or local influences prevailed. Fx-
cept in a few of the Aquitanian churches, the round arch was uni-
versal. The walls were heavy and built of rubble between fac-

ings of stones of moderate si/e dressed with the axe. Windows

and doors were widely splayed to diminish the obstruction of the
massive walls, and were treated with jamb-shafts and recessed
arches. These were usually formed with large cylindrical
mouldings, richly carved with leaf ornaments, /ig/ags, billets,
and grotesques. Figure-sculpture was more generally used in
the South than in the Xortli. The interior piers were sometimes
cylindrical, but more often clustered, and where square bays of

four-part or six-part vaulting were employed, the piers were alter-

 EARLY MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 171

nately lighter and heavier. Each shaft nacl its independent capi-
tal either of the block type or of a form resembling somewhat that

of the Corinthian order. During the eleventh century it became

customary to carry up main vaulting one or more shafts of
to the
the compound pier to support the vaulting ribs. Thus the di-
vision of thenave into bays was accentuated, while at the same
time the horizontal three-fold division of the height by a well-
defined triforium between the pier-arches and clearstory began
to be likewise emphasized.

VAULTING. The vaulting was also divided into bays by trans-

and where it was groined the groins themselves began in
verse ribs,
the twelfth century to be marked by groin-ribs.* These were
constructed independently of the vaulting, and the four or six com-

partments of each vaulting-bay were then built in, the ribs serv-

ing, in part at least, to support the centrings for this purpose.

This far-reaching principle, already applied by the Romans in

their concrete vaults (see p. 84), appears as a re-discovery, or

rather an independent invention, of the builders of Normandy at
the close of the eleventh century. The flying buttress was a later
invention; in the round-arched buildings of the eleventh and
twelfth centuries the buttressing was mainly internal, and was
incomplete and timid in its
arrangement.
EXTERIORS. The exteriors were on this account plain and
flat. The windows were small, the mouldings simple, and towers
were rarely combined with the body of the church until after the
beginning of the twelfth century. Then they appeared as mere
belfries of moderate height, with pyramidal roofs and effectively

arranged openings, the germs of the noble (iothic spires of later

times. Externally the western porches and portals were the most
important features of the design, producing an imposing effect
by their massive arches, clustered piers, richly carved mould-
ings, and dee]) shadows.
*
As had been earlier done in Lombard architecture in S. Am-
brogio, Milan.
1/2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

CLOISTERS, ETC. Mention should be made of the other monas-

tic buildings which were grouped around the abbey churches of
this period. These comprised refectories, chapter-halls, cloistered

courts surrounded by the conventual cells, and a large number of

accessory structures for kitchens, infirmaries, stores, etc. The

whole formed an elaborate and complex aggregation of con-
nected buildings, often of great size and beauty, especially the
refectories and cloisters. Most of these conventual buildings
have disappeared, many of them having been demolished during
the Gothic period to make way for more elegant structures in the
new style. There remain, however, a number of fine cloistered
courts in their original form, especially in Southern France.

Among the most remarkable of these are those of Moissac, Elne,

and Montmajour.

MONUMENTS. and domical churches of

ITALY. (For basilicas
6th-i2th centuries see pp. Before nth century: Sta.
118, 119.)
Maria at Toscanella, altered 1206; S. Donato, Zara chapel at Fri- ;

uli baptisteries at Biella, Albenga, Asti, Galliano

; Rotonclo at ;

Brescia; S. Michele in Monte, Pola, 997. nth century: S. Ab-

bondio, Como, 1013; SS. Pietro e Paolo, Bologna, 1014; Duomo at
Xovara, 1020; S. Giovanni, Viterbo; Sta. Maria della Pieve, Arez-
zo ; S. Antonio, Piacenza, 1014; S. Ambrogio, Milan, 9tb-iitb cen-
tury; Duomo at Bari, 1027 (much altered) ;
Duomo and baptistery,
Novara, 1030; Duomo at Parma, begun 1058; Duomo at Pisa,
1063-1118; S. Miniato, Florence, 1063-12111 century; S. Michele
at Pavia, loth-nth century, vault rebuilt i6tb century; Duomo
at Modena, late iitb century. I2th century: in Calabria and
Apulia, cathedrals of Traiii, noo; Caserta Veccbia, 1100-1153; Mol-
fctta, 1162; Benevento; churches S. Giovanni at Brindisi, S. Nic-
colo at Bari, 1139. In Sicily, Kremiti. 1132, and La Martorana,
1143, both at Palermo; Duomo at Monreale; Duomo at Palermo,

1174-1189; Duomo at Messina; Duomo at Cefalii, 1131-48. In

Northern Italy, S. Tomaso in I.imine, Bergamo, 1 100 ( ?) ; Duomo at

Cremona, 1107-90; Parma, in/; Sta. Giulia, Brescia ; S. Lorenzo,

Milan, rebuilt 1119; Duomo at Piacenza. 1122; S. Zeno
at Verona,

1139; baptistery at Pisa, 1153-1278; Leaning Tower, Pisa, 1174;

S. Michele, Lucca, 1188; S. Giovanni and S. Frediano, Lucca. In
 EARLY MEDI/EVAL ARCHITECTURE. 173

Dalmatia, cathedral at Zara, 1192-1204. Many castles and early

town-halls, as at Bari, Brescia, Lucca, etc.
FRANCE: Previous to nth century: Bapt. St. Jean, Poitiers,

Chapel St. Laurent, Grenoble; Crypts at Jouarre and Poitiers, all

7th century; St. Germiny-des-Pres, 806; Chapel of the Trinity, St.
Honorat-dcs-Lerins Ste. Croix de Montniajour.
;
iith century:
St.Germain-des-Pres, Paris, 1014; vault, choir later; St. Philibcrt,
Tournus, 1009-19; Conques, 1035; Cerisy-la-Foret and abbey church
of Mont St. Michel, 1020 (the latter altered in I2th and i6th cen-
turies; Vignory ;
St. Genoti ; Jumieges ; Montierender ; porch of
St. Benoit-sur-Loire, 1030; St. Sepulchre at Neuvy, 1045; Ste. Trin-
ite (Abbaye aux Dames) at Caen, 1046, vaulted 1140; St. Etienne
(Abbaye aux Hommes) at Caen, same date; St. Etienne, Nevers,
1063; Ste. Croix at Quimperle, 1081 cathedral, Cahors, 1119; ab-
;

bey churches of Cluny (demolished) and Vezelay, 1089-1100; cir-

cular church of Rieux-Merinville, church of St. Savin in Auvergne,
the churches of St. Paul Issoire and Notre-Dame-du-Port at
at

Clermont, St. Ililaire, Ste. Radegonde and Notrc-Dame-la-Grande

at Poitiers, all at close of nth and beginning of I2th century.
Many under later churches. I2th century: Cath. Autun,
crypts
1120-32; domical churches of Aquitania and vicinity; Solignac and
Fontevrault, 1120; St. Front at Perigueux, 1120; St. Etienne
(Perigueux), St. Avit-Senieur
Angoulemc, 1105-28; Souillac,
;

Broussac, etc., early I2th century.

St. Trophimc at Aries, 1 10, 1

cloisters later; St. Gilles, 1116; cliurcli of Vaison abbeys and ;

cloisters at Montmajour, Tarascon, Moissac (with fragments of a

loth-century cloister built into present arcades) St. Paul-du-Mau- ;

solce Puy-en-Velay, with fine church; St. Maurice, Angers; La

;

Trinite, Laval; Paray-le-Monial Notre Dame de la Coulture;

;

Notre Dame des Doms, Avignon St. Eutrope, Saintes St. Ours, ; ;

Lochcs, 1165; St. Saturnin (Sernin) at Toulouse (original church,

1060-96; rebuilt I2th century; nave rebuilt I4th century on old de-
sign). Many other abbeys, parish churches, and a few cathedrals
in Central and Northern France especially.
 CHAPTER XIV.

EARLY MEDL-EVAL ARCHITECTURE. Continued.

IN GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN, AND SPAIN.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Htibsch and Reber. Also

Bond, Gothic Architecture in England. Brandon, Analysis 0}
Gothic Architecture. Boisscree, Nieder Riicin. Ditchfield, The
Cathedrals of England. Forster, Denkmalcr dcutscher Bau-
kimst. Hasak, Die romanische und die gofische Baukunst (in
Handbuch d. Arch.). Liibke, Die Mittcldltcrliche Kunst in
Westfalen. Mollcr, Denkmalcr der dcutschen Baukunst. Otte,
Geschichte dcr romanischen Baukunst in Dcutschland. Puttrich,
Baukunst des Mittclalters in Sachsen. Rickman, An Attempt to
Discriminate the Styles of Architecture. Ross and McGibbon,
Ecclesiastical Architecture of Scotland. Scott, English Church
Architecture. Van Renssclaer, English Cathedrals.

MEDLEVAL GERMANY. Architecture developed less rapidly

and symmetrically in Germany than in France. The unwieldy
dominion known us the "Holy Roman Empire" was ruled over
successively by the Saxon, Franconian and Suabian lines, but
without establishing real political unity in its vast territory. Only
in the Rhine valley were the conditions early favorable to progress
in the arts. The early churches were of wood, and the substitu-
tion of stone for wood proceeded slowly. During the Carolingian
epoch (800-0.10.), however, a few important buildings had been
erected, embodying By/untine and classic traditions. Among
these the most notable was the Minster or palatine chapel of
Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, an obvious imitation of San
Vilale at Ravenna. It consisted of an octagonal domed hall sur
 EARLY MEDI/EVAL ARCHITECTURE. 175

rounded by a vaulted aisle in two stories, but without the eight

niches of the Ravenna was preceded by a porch flanked
plan. It

by turrets. The Byzantine type thus introduced was repeated in

later churches, as in the Nuns' Choir at Essen (947) and at Ott-

marsheim (1050). In the great monastery at Eulda a basilica

with transepts and with an apsidal choir at either end was built in

803. These choirs were raised above the level of the nave, to
admit of crypts beneath them, as in many Lombard churches;
a practice which, with the reduplication of the choir and apse just

mentioned, became very common in German Romanesque archi-

tecture.
EARLY CHURCHES. It was in Saxony that this architecture

firstentered upon a truly national development. The early

churches of this province and of Hildesheim (where architecture
flourished under the favor of the bishops, as elsewhere under the

royal influence) were of basilican plan and destitute of vaulting,

except in the crypts. They were built with massive piers, some-
times rectangular, sometimes clustered, the two kinds often alter-

nating in the same nave. Short columns were,

-however, sometimes used instead of piers, either
alone, as at Paulinzclle and Limburg-on-the-
Hardt (1024-39), or alternating with piers, as
at Hecklingen, Gernrode (958-1050), and St.

Godehard at Hildesheim (1033). A triple east-

ern apse, with apsidal chapels projecting cast-
ward from the transepts were common elements
in the plans, and a second apse, choir, and crypt
at the west end were not infrequent. Externally
the most striking feature was the association of

two, four, or even six square or circular towers

with the mass of the church, and the elevation . 10.'. PLAN OF
of square or polygonal turrets or cupolas over M 1 S.' S 1 KK A I

WOK MS.
the crossing. These gave a very picturesque
aspect to edifices otherwise somewhat wanting in artistic interest.
 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

RHENISH CHURCHES. It was in the Rhine provinces that

vaulting was first applied to the naves of German churches, nearly
a half century after its general adoption in France. Cologne pos-
sesses an interesting trio of churches in which the Lombard dome
on squinches or on pendentives, with three apses or niches opening
into the central area,was associated with a long three-aisled nave
(St. Mary-in-the-Capitol, begun in ninth century; Great St.

Martin's, 1150-70; Apostles' Church, 1160-99: the naves

vaulted later). The double chapel at Schwarz-Rheindorf , near
Bonn (1151), also has the crossing covered by a dome on penden-
tives. The Lombard influence is

also clearly manifest in many ex-

ternal details of these Rhenish
churches.
The vaulting of the nave itself

was developed in another series of

edifices of imposing size, the ca-

thedrals ofMayence (1036) Spires
(Speyer), the cathedral-mausoleum
of the Franconian, Hohenstaufen
and earlier Hapsburg emperors,
and Worms, and the Abbey of
Laach, all built in the eleventh
century and vaulted early in the
twelfth. In the first three the main
vaulting is in square bays, each
covering two bays of the nave, the
piers of which are alternately lighter
and heavier (Figs. 102, 103). There
was no triforium gallery, and sta-
Fit;. IOJ. ONK BAY OF CATHEDRAL,
AT SPIKES. bilitywas secured only by excessive
thickness in the piers and clear-

story walls, and by bringing down the main vault as near to the

side-aisle roofs as possible.

 EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE.

RHENISH EXTERIORS. These great churches, together with

those of Bonn and Limburg-on-the-Lahn and the cathedral of
Treves (Trier, 1047), are interesting, not only by their size and
dignity of plan and the
somewhat rude massive- &/ . i

ness of their construction,

but even more so by the
picturesqueness of their
external design (Fig. 104).

Especially successful is
the massing of the large
and small turrets with the

lofty nave-roof and with

the apses at one or both
ends. The arcading upon
the exterior walls, and the
open arcaded dwarf gal-
leries under the cornices

of the apses, gables, and

dome-turrets gave to these
Rhenish churches an ex-
ternal beauty hardly
Fir,. 104. EAST i:NI> OF CIIL'KCH OK TUB APOS-
equalled in other con- TLES, COLOGNE.

temporary edifices. This

method and the system of vaulting in square
of exterior design,

bays over double bays of the nave, were probably derived from
the Lombard churches of Northern Italy, with which the ( Ger-
man emperors had many political relations.
The Italian influence is also encountered in a number of circu-
lar churches of early date, as at Fulda (ninth-eleventh century),
Driigelte, Bonn (baptistery, demolished), and in facades like that
at Kosheim, which is a copy in little of San Zeno at Verona.
Klsewhere in Germany architecture was in a backward state,

especially in the southern duchies. Outside of Saxony, Franco-

I~S HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

nia, and the Rhine provinces, very few works of importance were
erected until the thirteenth century.
SECULAR ARCHITECTURE. Little remains to us of the

secular architecture of this period in Germany, if we except the

great feudal castles, especially those of the Rhine, which were,

after all, rather works of military engineering than of architectural
art. The palace of Charlemagne at Aix (the chapel of which was
mentioned on p. 174) is known to have been a vast and splendid

group of buildings, partly, at least of marble; but hardly a ves-

tige of it remains. Of the extensive Kaiserburg at Goslar
there remain well-defined ruins of an imposing hall of assembly
in two aisles with triple-arched windows. At Brunswick the east
wing of the Burg Dankwarderode displays, in spite of modern
alterations, the arrangement of the chapel, great hall, two fortified

towers, and part of the residence of Henry the Lion. The Wart-
burg palace of Duke Ludwig III. (dr. 1150) is more generally
known a three-storied hall with windows effectively grouped
toform arcades (upper part modern); while at Gelnhausen and
Miinzenberg are ruins of somewhat similar buildings. A few
of the Romanesque monasteries of Germany have left partial
remains, as at Maulbronn, which was almost entirely rebuilt in
the Gothic period, and isolated buildings in Cologne and else-
where. There remain also in Cologne a number of Romanesque

private houses with coupled windows and stepped gables.

GREAT BRITAIN. Previous to the Norman conquest (1066)
there was in the British Isles little or no architecture worthy of
mention. The few
extant remains of Saxon and Celtic buildings
reveal a singular poverty of ideas and want of technical skill.
These scanty remains are mostly of towers (those in Ireland nearly
all round and
tapering, with conical tops, their use and date being
the subjects of much controversy) and crypts. The tower of
Marl's Barton the most important and best preserved of those in
is

Kngland. With the Norman conquest, however, began an ex-

traordinary activity in the building of churches and abbeys.
 EARLY MEDI/EVAL ARCHITECTURE. 179

William the Conqueror himself founded a number of these, and

his Norman ecclesiastics endeavored to surpass on British soil the

contemporary churches of Normandy. The new churches dif-

fered somewhat from their French prototypes; they were nar-
rower and lower, but much longer, especially as to the choir and
transepts. The cathedrals ofDur-
ham (1096-1133) and Norwich
(same date) are i
nportant examples
(Fig. 105). They also differed from
the French churches in two impor-
tant particulars externally; a huge
tower rose usually over the cross-
ing, and the western portals were
small and insignificant. Lateral
entrances near the west end were

given greater importance and called

Galilees. At Durham a Galilee
chapel (not shown in the plan)
takes the place of a porch at the
west end, like the ante-churches
of St. Benoit-sur-Loire and Vcze-
lay.
THE NORMAN STYLE. The
Anglo-Norman builders employed
the same general features as the
105. PLAN' (IP DURHAM
Romanesque builders of Normandy, CATHKUKAL.*
but with more of picturesqueness
and less of refinement and technical elegance. Heavy walls,
recessed arches, round mouldings, cubic cushion-caps, clustered

piers, and in doorways a jamb-shaft for each stepping of the

arch were common to both styles. But in Kngland the (\>r-

*
The transept-like eastern termination, known as the Nine Al-
tars, is a Gothic addition of 1.24..'. The original east end was a
plain apse.
 i8o HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

inthian form of capital is rare, its place being taken by simpler

forms.
NORMAN INTERIORS. The interior design of the larger
churches of this period shows a close general analogy to contem-
poraneous French Norman churches, as ap-
pears by comparing the nave of Waltham or
Peterboro' with that of Cerisy-la-Foret, in

Normandy. Although the massiveness of

the Anglo-Norman piers and walls plainly

suggests the intention of vaulting the nave,

this intention seems never to have been car-

ried out except in small churches and crypts.

All the existing abbeys and cathedrals of
this period had wooden ceilings or were, like

Tewkesbury, Norwich, and Gloucester, vault-

ed at a later date. Completed as they were
with wooden nave-roofs, the clearstory was,
without danger, made quite lofty and fur-
nished with windows of considerable size.

These were placed near the outside of the

thick wall, and a passage was left between
them and a triple arch on the inner face of
the wall a device imitated from the abbeys

FIG. I 06. ONE BAY OP at Caen. The vaulted side-aisles were low,
TRANSEPT, WINCHESTER with heavy ribs and wide pier-arches, above
CATHEDRAL.
which was a high Iriforium gallery under the
side-roofs. Thus a nearly equal height was assigned to each of the
three stories of the bay, disregarding that subordination of minor to

major parts which gives interest to an architectural composition.

The piers were quite often round, as at Gloucester, Hereford,
Southwell, and Bristol cathedrals and Shrewsbury Abbey. Some-
times round piers alternated with clustered piers, as at Durham and

Waltham; and in some cases clustered piers alone were employed,

as at Peterboro', Xorwich, and Winchester transepts (Fig. 106).
 EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 181

FACADES AND DOORWAYS. All the details were of the

simplest character, except in the doorways. These were

richly
adorned with clustered jamb-shafts and elaborately carved mould-
ings, but there was little variety in the details of this carving. The
zigzag was the most common feature, though birds' heads with the
beaks pointing toward the centre of the arch were not uncommon.
In the smaller chuches (Fig. 107) the doorways were better pro-

portioned to the whole facade

than in the larger ones, in

which they appear as relatively

insignificant features.
Very
few examples remain of im-
portant Norman facades in
their original form, nearly all

of these having been altered

after the round arch was dis-

placed by the pointed arch in

the latter part of the twelfth

century. Ifiley church (Fig.

107) is a good example of the

style.
SCOTLAND possesses many
churches of this period, but
nearly all were ruined or in- FIG. 107. FRONT OF IFFLF.Y CHURCH.

jured in the Border wars, and

few of these rebuilt. They exhibit a provincial character, many
years behind the English developments, but are often extremely
picturesque. Jedburgh Abbey is the finest of them; Kelso and
lona may also be mentioned.
SPAIN. The capture of Toledo, in 1062, from the Moors,
began the gradual emancipation of the country from Moslem rule,
and in the northern provinces a number of important churches
were erected under the influence of French Romanesque models.
The use of domical pendentives (as in the Panteon of S. Isi-
182 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

doro, at Leon, and in the cimborio or dome over the choir at the
Salamanca cathedral) was probably derived from
crossing in old
the domical churches of Aquitania and Anjou. Elsewhere the
northern Romanesque type prevailed under various modifica-
tions, with long nave and transepts, a short choir, and a complete
chevet with apsidal chapels. The church of St. lago at Compos-
tella (1078) is the finest
example of this class. These churches
nearly all had groined vaulting over the side-aisles and barrel-
vaults over the nave, the constructive system being substantially
that of the churches of Auvergne and the Loire Valley (p. 167).

They differed, however, in the treatment of the crossing of nave

and transepts, over which was usually erected a dome or cupola
on pendentives or squinches, covered externally by an imposing
square lantern or tower, as in the Old Cathedral at Salamanca,
already mentioned (1120-78) and the Collegiate Church at Toro.
Occasional exceptions to these types are met with, as in the basil-
ican wooden-roofed church of S. Millan at Segovia; in S. Isidore
at Leon, with chapels and a later-added square eastern end, and
the circular church of the Templars at Segovia.
The architectural details of these Spanish churches did not
differ radicallyfrom contemporary French work. As in France
and England, the doorways were the most ornate parts of the
design, the mouldings being carved with extreme richness and the
jambs frequently adorned with statues, as in S. Vincente at Avila.
There was no such logical and reasoned-out system of external
design as in France, and there is consequently greater variety in
the facades. Perhaps the most remarkable thing about the archi-
tecture of this periodis its
apparent exemption from the influence
of the Moorish monuments which abounded on every hand.
This may be explained by the hatred which was felt by the Chris-
tians for the Moslems and all their works.

MONUMENTS. DKRMANY: Previous to nth century: Circular

churches of Holy Cross nt Minister, and of Fnlda ; palace chapel
 EARLY MEDI/KVAL ARCHITECTURE. 183

of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, 804; St. Stephen, Mayencc,

990; primitive nave and crypt of St. Gereon, Cologne, loth century;
Lorsch. nth century: Churches of Gcrnrode, Goslar, and Mersc-
burg in Saxony cathedral of Bremen first restoration of cathedral
; ;

of Treves (Trier), 1010, west front, 1047; Limburg-on-IIardt, 1024;

St. Willibrod, Echternach, 1031; St. Godehard, Ilildesheini, 1033;
east end of Mayence Cathedral, 1036; Church of Apostles and nave
of St. Mary-in-Capitol at Cologne, 1036; Minster at llersfeld. 1038;
cathedral of Spires (Speyer) begun 1040; Cathedral Hildesheim,
1061 St. Michael, Hildesheim, 1062; St. James, Cologne, 1067; St.
;

Joseph, Rambcrg, 1073; Abbey of Laach, 1093-1156; round churches

of Bonn, Drugclte, Nimeguen; cathedrals of Paderborn and Min-
dcn. i2th century: Churches of Klus, Paulinzelle, Hamersleben,
lioo-nio; Johannisberg, 1130; Worms, the Minster, 1118-83;
Jerichau, 1144-60; Abbey Maulbroun, 1146-73; Great St. Martin's,
Cologne, 1150-1200; Schwarz-Rheindorf, 1151; Cathedral Bruns-
wick, 1172-94; Liibeck, 1172; also churches of Gaudersheim, Hcck-
lingen, Wiirzburg, St. Matthew at Treves, Limburg-on-Lahn, Sin-
zig, St. Castor at Coblentz, Dicsdorf, Rosheim round churches of ;

Ottmarsheim and Rippen (Denmark) ;

cathedral of Basle, cathedral
and cloister of Zurich (Switzerland).
ENGLAND: Previous to nth century: Scanty vestiges of Saxon
church architecture, as tower of Karl's Barton, nave of lligh-
am Ferrers, round towers and small chapels in Ireland.
nth century: of
Canterbury Cathedral, 1070; chapel
Crypt
St. John in Tower
London, 1070; Winchester Cathedral,
of
1076-93 (nave and choir rebuilt later); St. Alban's Abbey, 1077-
1115 (partly remodelled later); Shrewsbury Abbey, 1083; Tcwkcs-
hiiry Abbey, 1087-1123 (vaulted later); Gloucester Cathedral
nave, 1089-1100 (vaulted later); Rochester Cathedral nave, west
front, and chapter-house, 1090-1130; Chichester Cathe-
cloisters,
dral, 1091-1148 (vaulting, transept, cloisters, spires, later); Car-
lisle Cathedral nave, transepts, 1093-1130; Durham Cathedral, 1095-
"
1133 (Galilee and chapter-house, 1133-53; Xine Altars," 1242);
Norwich Cathedral, 1096, largely rebuilt 1118-93; Hereford Cathe-
dral,nave and choir. irxj9-mo (vaulted later ). I2th century: Kly
Cathedral, nave, 1107-33; Southwell Cathedral. 1108-35 (choir re-
built later); Pcterboro' Cathedral, 1117-45; \\althain Abbey, early
12th century; Church of Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge, 1130-35;
Worcester Cathedral chapter-house, 11401?); Oxford Cathedral
1
84 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

(Christ Church), 1150-80; Bristol Cathedral chapter-house (square),

1155; Canterbury Cathedral, choir of present structure by William
of Sens, 1175; Romsey Abbey, late I2th century; St. Cross Hos-
pital near Winchester, iipo(?). Many more or less important
parish churches in various parts of England.
SPAIN. For principal monuments of 9th-i2th centuries, see text,
latter part of this chapter.
 CHAPTER XV.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Adamy, Architektonik des gotischen

Stils. Corroyer, L Architecture
1

gothique. Enlart, Manuel

d'archeologie }ranc,aise. Gonse, L'Art gothique. Hasak, Dcr
Kirchenbau; Einzelheitcn des Kirchenbaues; der Wohnbau. (in
Hdbufh d.Arch.). Moore, Dei'clopment and Character oj
Gothic Architecture. Parker, Introduction to Gothic Architecture;
Glossary oj Terms used in Gothic Architecture. Porter, A fed iccval
Architecture, Vol. II. Scott, Mediarcal Architecture. Viollet-le-

Duc, Discourses on Architecture; Dictiomiaire raisonne de ^archi-

tecture jranfaise.

INTRODUCTORY. The architectural styles which were de-

veloped in Western Europe during the period extending from
about 1150 to 1450 or 1500 received in an unscientific age the
wholly erroneous name of Gothic. This has, however, become
so fixed in common usage that it is
hardly possible to substitute
for it
any more scientific designation. In reality the architecture
to which it is applied was nothing more than the sequel and out-
growth of the Romanesque, which we have already studied. Its
fundamental principles were the same; it was concerned with the
same problems. These it took up where the Romanesque build-
ers left them, and worked out their solution under new conditions,
until it had developed out of the simple and massive models of the

early twelfth century the splendid cathedrals of the thirteenth and

fourteenth centuries in England, France, Germany, the Low
Countries and Spain.
THE CHURCH AND ARCHITECTURE. The twelfth century
was an era of widespread intellectual awakening, and of profound
1 86 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

economic, social and political changes. The revival of law and

jurisprudence, the rise of vernacular literature, the growth of
commerce and of the use of money, the beginnings of physical
science based upon the Aristotelian philosophy, and the power
and greatness attained by the church, mark the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries as one of the great periods in the history of human

progress. The ideas of Church and State were becoming more

clearly defined in the common mind. The claims of human right
were beginning to present themselves alongside of those of human
might. The struggle for ascendency between the crown, the
feudal barons, the pope, bishops, and abbots, in France, Ger-

many, England, and other countries, presented itself in varied

aspects, but the gen-

eral outcome was es-

sentially the same.

The church began to

appear as something
behind and above ab-
bots, bishops, kings,
and barons. The su-

premacy of the papal

authority gained in-

creasing recognition,
and the episcopacy
began to overshadow
the monastic institu-
tions. The preroga-
tives of the crown be-
came more iin.ily es-
tablished, and thus the
Church and the State emerged from the social confusion as the
two institutions divinely appointed for the government of men.
I'nder these influences ecclesiastical architecture advanced with

rapid strides. Xo longer hampered by monastic restrictions, it

 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. I8 7

called into its service the laity, whose guilds of masons and build-
ers carried from one diocese to another their constantly increasing
stores of constructive knowledge. By a wise division of labor
each man wrought only such parts as he was specially trained to
undertake. The master-builder bishop,

abbot, or mason seems to have planned

only the general arrangement and scheme
of the building, leaving the details to be
worked out by each craftsman accord-
ing to his own fancy, the traditions of
his craft, or the special exigencies of
each case. Thus was produced that re-
markable variety in unity of the Gothic
cathedrals; thus, also, those singular
and makeshifts, those dis-
irregularities

crepancies and alterations in the design,

which are found in every great work of
mediaeval architecture. Gothic archi-
tecture was constantly changing, at-

tacking new problems or devising new

solutions of old ones. In this character
of constant flux and development it con-
trasts strongly with the classic styles, in FIG. tog. PLAN OF SAINTK
which the scheme and the principles CHAPELLK, PARIS.
SHOWING; SUPPRESSION
were early fixed and remained substan- OP SIDE-WALLS.
tially unchanged for centuries.

STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES. The pointed arch, so com-

monly regarded as the most characteristic feature of the Gothic
styles, was merely an incidental feature of their development. It

had long been used in the Orient, and occurs repeatedly in French
Romanesque buildings. What was really distinctive of the
Gothic architecture was the systematic application of two princi-
ples partially recognized by the Romin and Byzantine builders,
but which seem to have been afterward forgotten until they were
1 88 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

revived by the later Romanesque architects. The first of these

was the concentration o) strains upon isolated points of support,
made possible by the substitution of groined for barrel vaults.
This led to a corresponding concentration of the masses of ma-

sonry at these points; the building was constructed as if upon

legs (Fig. 108). The wall became a mere filling-in between the
piers or buttresses, and in time was, indeed, practically sup-
pressed, immense windows filled with stained glass taking its
place. This is well illustrated in the Sainte Chapelle at Paris,
built 1242-47 (Figs. 109, 124). In this remarkable edifice, a
series of groined vaults spring from slender shafts built against

deep buttresses which receive and resist all the thrusts. The
wall-spaces between them are
wholly occupied by superb win-
dows filled with stone tracery
and stained glass. It would be
impossible to combine the ma-
terialsused more scientifically
or effectively. The cathedrals
of Gerona (Spain) and of Alby
(France; Fig. 126) illustrate the
same principle, though in them
the buttresses are internal and
serve to separate the flanking

chapels.
The second distinctive prin-

ciple of Gothic architecture was

that of transmitted Hi rusts. In
Roman buildings the thrust of
FIG. HO. RARLV GOTHIC FLYING the vaulting was resisted wholly
BUTTRESS. mass
by the inertia of in the
abutments. In Gothic archi-
tecture thrusts were as far as possible resisted by counter-

thrusts, and the final resultant pressure was transmitted by ily-

 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 189

ing half-arches across the intervening portions of the structure

to external buttresses placed at convenient points. This com-
bination of flying half-arches and buttresses is called the flying-
buttress (Fig.
no). It reached
highest development in the
its

thirteenthand fourteenth centuries in the cathedrals of central

and northern France, and is the one absolutely novel and dis-
tinctive feature of the style.
RIBBED VAULTING. These two principles formed the
structural basis of the Gothic styles. Their application led to the
introduction of two other elements,
second only to them in importance,
ribbed vaulting and the pointed arch.
The first of these resulted from the
effort to overcome certain practical
difficulties encountered in the building
of large groined vaults. As ordinarily
constructed, a groined vault like that
in Fig. 47 must be built as one struct- PI0 . Iir ._ RIBBED VAULT ,

ENGLISH TYPE WITH m-

ure, upon wooden centrings supporting VIDEO GROIN-RIBS AND
,,.

its whole extent. 1 he Romanesque

RIDGE-KIDS.
architects conceived the idea of con-

structing an independent skeleton of ribs.* Two of these were

built against the wall (wall-ribs), two across the nave (trans-
verse ribs); and two others were made to coincide with the

groins (Figs. 101, in). The groin-ribs, intersecting at the centre

of the vault, divided each bay into four triangular portions,
or compartments, each of which was really an independent vault
which could be separately constructed upon light centrings sup-
ported by the groin-ribs themselves. This principle, though
identical in essence with the Roman system of brick skeleton-ribs
for concrete vaults, was, in application and detail, superior to it,

both from the scientific and artistic point of view. The ribs,
* It is
now generally believed that the earliest medieval vault thus
constructed is the nave vault of S. Ambrogio at Milan (Fig. <ji).
190 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

richly moulded, became, in the hands of the Gothic architects,

important decorative features. In practice the builder gave to

each set of ribs independently the curvature he desired. The
vaulting-surfaces were then easily twisted or warped so as to fit the
various ribs, which, being
already in place, served as

guides for their construction.

THE POINTED ARCH was
adopted to remedy the diffi-
culties encountered in the

construction of oblong vaults.

It is obvious that where a

narrow semi-cylindrical vault

intersects a wide one, it pro-
duces either what are called
penetrations, as at a (Fig.
FIG. 112 PENETRATIONS AND INTERSEC- 1 1
2), or intersections like that
TIONS OF VAULTS.
at b, both of which are awk-
a, a.Penetrations by small semi-
circular vaults sprung from same level,
ward in aspect and hard to
Intersection by small semicircular
b.
vault sprung from higher level; groins
construct. If, however, one
f.-r>n wavy lines. c, Intersection by or both vaults be given a
narrow pointed vault sfrurg from same
level; groins are plane curves. pointed section, the narrow
vault may be made as high
as the wide one. It is then possible, with but little warping
of the vaulting surfaces, to make them intersect in groins c,

which are vertical plane curves instead of wavy loops like a

and b.

The Gothic architects availed themselves to the full of these

two devices. The groin-ribs were commonly semicircular, but
the wall-ribs and the transverse without exception,
ribs were,

pointed arches, with the apex of each nearly or quite at the level
of the groin intersection. The pointed arch, thus introduced as
the most convenient form for these ribs, was soon applied to other
parts of the structure, especially the windows and pier-arches,
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

which would not otherwise fit well the wall-spaces under the
wall-ribs of the nave and aisle vaulting.

This entire system of vaulting constituted the inner roof or

stone ceiling of the church. But since it was impossible to make
a vault of stone wholly weather proof, the exterior surface provid-
ing numerous pockets in which water, snow and ice were sure to
gather, an external protective roof of wood, covered with tile,
slate, copper or lead was always built over the vaulting, forming
the externally visible high-peaked roof of the church.
TRACERY AND GLASS. With the growth in the size of the
windows and the progressive suppression of the lateral walls of
vaulted structures, stained glass came more and more generally
into use. Its introduction not only resulted in a notable heighten-

ing and enriching of the colors and scheme of the interior decora-

tion, but reacted on the architecture, intensifying the very causes

which led to its introduction.
It stimulated the increase in the
size of windows, and the suppres-
sion of the walls, and contributed
greatly to development of
the

tracery. This latter feature was

an absolute necessity
for the sup-

port of the glass. Its evolution

can be traced (Figs. 113, 114,

115) from the simple coupling
of twin windows under a single
hood-mould or discharging arch,
to the florid net-work of the fif-
FIG. 113. PLATE-TRACERY. CHARL-
teenth century. In' its earlier TON-ON-OXMORE.
forms it consisted merely of dec-
orative openings, circles, and quatrefoils, designed as if
pierced
through slabs of stone (plate-tracery}, filling the window-heads
over coupled windows. Later attention was bestowed upon the
form of the stonework, which was made lighter and richly
 192 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

moulded (bar-tracery}, rather than upon that of the openings

(Fig. 114). Then the circular and geometric patterns employed
were abandoned for more flowing and capricious designs (Flam-
boyant tracery, Fig. 115) or (in England) for more rigid and
It is cus-
rectangular arrangements (Perpendicular, Fig. 138).
tomary to distinguish the

periods and styles of

Gothic architecture by the
character of the tracery.
CHURCH PLANS. The
original basilica-plan un-
derwent radical modifica-
tions during the twelfth
and fifteenth centuries.
These resulted in part
from the changes in con-
struction which have been

described, and in part

from altered ecclesiastical
conditions and require-
ments. Gothic church
architecturewas based on
FIG. 114. BAR-TRACERY, ST. MICHAEL'S,
WARFIELD. cathedral design; and the

requirements of the cathe-

dral differed in many respects from those of the monastic
churches of the preceding period.
The most important alterations in the plan were in the choir
and transepts. The choir was greatly lengthened, the transepts
often shortened. The choir was provided with two and often four

side-aisles, and one or both of these was commonly carried en-

tirelyaround the apsidal termination of the choir forming a single
or double ambulatory. This combination of choir, apse, and am-
bulatory was called, in French churches, the chci'ct.

Another advance upon Romanesque models was the multipli-

 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 193

cation of chapels a natural consequence of the more popular

character of the cathedral as compared with the abbey. Fre-

quently lateral chapels were built at each bay

of the side-aisles,

filling up the space between the deep buttresses, flanging the nave
as well as the choir. They were also carried around the chart in

most of the French cathedrals (Paris, Bourges, Reims, Amiens,

Beauvais, and many others); in many of those in Germany
(Magdeburg, Cologne, Frauenkirche at Treves), Spain (Toledo,
Leon, Barcelona, Sego-
via, etc.), and Belgium

(Tournay, Antwerp). In
England the choir had
more commonly a square
eastward termination.

Secondary transepts oc-

cur frequently, and these

peculiarities, together
with the narrowness and

great length of most of

the plans, make of the

English cathedrals a
class by themselves.
FIG. 115. ROSE WINDOW. CHURCH OF ST. ol'KN.
PROPORTIONS AND ROUEN.
COMPOSITION. Along
with these modifications of the basilican plan should be noticed
a great increase in the height and slenderness of all parts of the
structure. The lofty clearstory, the arcaded triforium-passage
or gallery beneath it, the high pointed pier-arches, the multiplica-
tion of slender clustered shafts, and the reduction in the area of

the piers, gave to the (lothic churches an interior aspect wholly

different from that of the simpler, lower, and more massive Ro-

manesque edifices. The perspective effects of the plans thus

modified, especially of the complex choir and chart with their
lateral and radial chapels, were remarkably enriched and varied.
194 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The was even more radically transformed by these

exterior

changes, and by the addition of towers and spires to the fronts,

and sometimes to the transepts and to their intersection with the
nave. The deep buttresses,

terminating in pinnacles,
the rich traceries of the

great lateral windows, the

triple portals profusely
sculptured, rose windows of
great size under the front
and transept gables, com-
bined to produce effects of
marvellously varied light
and shadow, and of com-
plex and elaborate struct-
ural beauty, totally unlike
the broad simplicity of the

Romanesque exteriors.

DECORATIVE DETAIL.
The medieval designers
aimed to enrich every con-

structive feature with the

most effective play of lights

and shades, and to em-

body in the decorative de-

tail the greatest possible

amount of allegory and
FIG. I if).- FLAMBOYANT DK.TAIL FROM PUL-
PIT IN STKASIirKi: fATIIKUUAI.. symbolism, and sometimes
of humor besides. The
deep doorways and pier-arches were moulded with a rich suc-
cession of hollow and convex members; and carvings of saints,

apostles, martyrs, and angels, virtues and vices, allegories of

reward and punishment, and an extraordinary world of mon-
strous and grotesque beasts, devils, and goblins filled the cnpi-
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. IQ5

tals and door-arches, peeped over tower-parapets, or leered

and grinned from gargoyles and corbels. Another source of

decorative detail was the application of tracery like that of the
windows to wall-panelling, to balustrades, to openwork gables,
to spires, to choir-screens, and other features, especially in the
late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (cathedrals of York,

Rouen, Cologne; Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster). And

finally the carving of capitals and the ornamentation of
in

mouldings the artists of the thirteenth century and their successors

abandoned completely the classic models and traditions which
still survived in the early
twelfth century. The
later monastic builders
began to look directly to
nature for suggestions of
decorative form. The
lay builders who sculp-
tured the capitals and
crockets and finials of

the early Gothic cathe- PIG. n-. EARLY GOTHIC CARVING.

drals adopted and fol-

lowed to its finality this principle of recourse to

nature, espe-
cially to plant life. At the budding shoots of early spring
first

were freely imitated or skilfully conventionalized, as being by their

thick and vigorous forms the best adapted for translation into
stone (Fig. 117). During the thirteenth century the more ad-
vanced stages of plant growth, and leaves more complex and de-
tailed, furnished the models for the carver, who displayed his skill
in a closer and more literal imitation of their minute veinings and
indentations. (Fig. 1
18). This artistic adaptation of natural forms
to architectural decoration degenerated later into a minutely
realistic copying of natural foliage, in which cleverness of execu-
tion took the place of original invention. The spirit of display is
characteristic of all late Gothic work. Slenderness, minuteness
196 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

of detail, extreme complexity and intricacy of design, an unre-

strained profusion of decoration covering every surface, a lack of

largeness and vigor in the conceptions, are conspicuous traits of

Gothic design in the fifteenth century, alike in France, England,
Germany, Spain, and the Low Having worked out to
Countries.
their conclusion the structural principles bequeathed to them by
the preceding centuries, the authors of these later works seemed
to have devoted them-
selves to the elabora-
tion of mere decorative
detail, and in technical

finish surpassed all that

had gone before (Fig.

116).
CHARACTERISTICS
SUMMARIZED. In the
light of the preceding

explanations Gothic
architecture may be
defined as that system
of structural design
FIG. 11$. CAKV1NT,,DECORATED PERIOD, FH
SOUTHWELL MINSTER. and decoration which
grew up out of the
effort to combine, in one harmonious and organic conception,
the basilican plan with a complete and systematic construction of
groined vaulting. Its development was controlled throughout by

considerations of stability and structural propriety, but in the ap-

plication of these considerations the artistic spirit was allowed

full scope for its exercise. Refinement, good taste, and great fer-

tility of imagination characterize the details and ornaments of

Gothic structures. While the Greeks, in harmonizing the re-
quirements of utility and beauty in architecture, approached the

problem from the a-sthetic side, the Gothic architects did the same
from the structural side. Their admirably reasoned structures
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 197

express as perfectly the idea of vastness, mystery, and complexity

as do the Greek temples that of simplicity and monumental

repose.
The excellence of Gothic architecture lay not so much in its
individual details as in its perfect adaptation to the purposes for

which it was developed its triumphs were achieved in the build-

ing of cathedrals and large churches. In the domain of civil and

domestic architecture it produced nothing comparable with its
ecclesiastical edifices, because it was the requirements of the
cathedral and not of the palace, town-hall, or dwelling, that gave
it its form and character.
PERIODS. The history of Gothic architecture is commonly
divided into three periods, chiefly distinguished by the character
of the window-tracery. It must, however, be admitted that this

division, like all efforts to cut the history of architectural develop-

ment is a purely arbitrary pro-
into definite slices called periods,
cess. The
various recognizable phases even of tracery-design
were not reached at the same time in different parts even of one
country, nor did the movement in this field of design coincide
exactly with that in any other. It is, nevertheless, often conveni-
ent to group the works of the style into broadly indicated periods
in which certain characteristics dominate; and the commonly

recognized periods are therefore here given, with a summary of

the characteristics of each.
EARLY POINTED PERIOD. [Early French; Early English or
Lancet Period in England; Early German, etc.] Simple ribbed
vaults; general simplicity and vigor of design and detail; conven-
tionalized foliage of small plants; plate- tracery, and narrow win-
dows coupled under pointed arch with circular foiled openings in
the window-head. (In Erance, 1160 to 1275.)
MIDDLE POINTED PERIOD. [Kavonnaul in Erance; Decorated
or Geometric in England.] Vaults more perfect; in England mul-

tiple ribs and liernes; greater slenderness and loftiness of propor-

tions; decoration much richer, less vigorous; more naturalistic

198 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

carving of mature foliage; walls nearly suppressed, windows of

great size, bar-tracery with slender moulded mullions and geo-
metric combinations (circles and cusps) in window-heads, circu-
lar (rose) windows. (In France, 1275 to 1375.)
FLORID GOTHIC PERIOD. [Flamboyant in France; Perpendicu-
lar in England.] Vaults of varied and richly decorated design;
fan-vaulting and pendants in Fngland, vault-ribs curved into
fanciful patterns in Germany and Spain; profuse and minute
decoration and cleverness of technical execution substituted for

dignity of design; highly realistic carving and sculpture, flowing

or flamboyant tracery in France; perpendicular bars with horizon-
tal transoms and four-centred arches in England: "branch-

tracery" in Germany. (In France, 1375 to 1525.)

 CHAPTER XVI.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Adamy, Corroyer, Knlart,

Hasak, Moore, Porter, Reber, Viollet-le-Duc.* Also Archives de
la commission des monuments. Chapuy, Le moycn age monu-
mental. Chateau, Histoire el caracteres dt ^architecture Jranfaise.
Davies, Architectural Studies in France. Gonse, L'Art Gothique.
Huss, Rational Building (tr. from V.-le-Duc). Johnson, Early
French Architecture. King, The Study book of Medicwal Archi-
tecture and Art. Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc, Notre Dame de
Paris. Nesfield, Specimens 0} Mediarjal Architecture. Pettit,
Architectural Studies in France.

CATHEDRAL-BUILDING IN FRANCE. In the development

of the principles outlined in the foregoing chapter the church
builders of France led the \vay. They surpassed all their contem-
poraries in readiness of invention, in quickness and directness
of reasoning, and in artistic refinement. These qualities were
especially manifested in the extraordinary architectural activity
which marked the second half of the twelfth century and the first
half of the thirteenth. This was the great age of cathedral-build-
ing in France. The adhesion of the bishops to the royal cause,
and their position in popular estimation as the champions of jus-
tice and human rights, led to the rapid recovery by the episcopacy
of its ancient power and influence. The cathedral, as the throne-
church of the bishop, became a truly popular institution. New
cathedrals were founded on every side, especially in the Royal

* Consult
especially articles AKCHITKCTCKK, CATHDRALE, CHAP-
ELLE, CONSTRICTION, Kl.I.ISK, M.MSON, VoUTK.
200 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Domain and the adjoining provinces of Normandy, Burgundy,

and Champagne, and their construction was warmly seconded by
the people, the communes, and the municipalities. "Nothing
"
to-day," says Viollet-le-Duc,* unless it be the commercial move-
ment which has covered Europe with railway lines, can give an
idea of the zeal with which the urban populations set about build-

ing cathedrals; a necessity at the end of the twelfth cen-

. . .

tury because it was an energetic protest against feudalism." The

collapse of the unscientific Romanesque vaulting of some of the
earlier cathedrals and the destruction by fire of others stimulated
this movement by the necessity for their immediate rebuilding.
The entire reconstruction of the cathedrals of Baycux, Bayonne,

Cambray, Evreux, Laon, Lisieux, Le Mans, Noyon, Poitiers,

Senlis, Soissons, and Troyes was begun between 1130 and 1200. f
The cathedrals of Bourges, Chartres, Paris, and Tours, and the
royal abbey of St. Denis, all of the first importance, were begun
during the same period, and during the next quarter-century those
of Amiens, Auxerre, Rouen, Reims, Scez, and many others.
After 1250 the movement slackened and finally ceased. Few
important cathedrals were erected during the latter half of the
thirteenth century, the chief among them being at Beauvais (ac-

tuallybegun 1247), Clermont, Coutances, Limoges, Narbonne,

and Rodez. During this period, and through the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, French architecture was concerned rather with
the completion and remodelling of existing cathedrals than the
founding of new ones. There were, however, many important
parish churches and civil or domestic edifices erected within this

period.
STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT: VAULTING. By the middle of
the twelfth century the use of barrel-vaulting over tin- nave had
been generally abandoned and groined vaulting with its isolated

* dc ['architecture fnin^iiisc,
Diclinnnairc rtiisoiuii' vol. ii., pp. jSo,
281.
t See I'Yrree, Chronology of Cathedral Churches of ITUIICC.
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 2O I

points of support and resistance had taken its place. The timid
experiments of the Clunisian architects at Vezelay in the use of
the pointed arch and vault-ribs also led, in the second half of
the twelfth century, to far-reaching results. The builders of the
great Abbey Church of St. Denis, near Paris, begun in 1140
by the Abbot Suger, appear to have been the first to develop these
tentative devices intoa system. In the original choir of this
noble church all the arches, alike of the
vault-ribs (except the groin-ribs, which
were semicircles) and of the openings,
were pointed and the vaults were through-
out constructed with cross-ribs, wall-ribs,
and groin-ribs. Of this early work only
the chapels remain. In other contempor-

ary monuments, as for instance in the ca-

thedral of Sens, the adoption of these
devices was only partial and hesitating.
NOTRE DAME AT PARIS. The next
great step in advance was taken in the
cathedral of Notre Dame * at Paris (Figs.

119, 1 20, 128). This was begun under

Maurice de Sully on the site of the
in 1163,
twin cathedrals of Ste. Marie and St.

Ktienne, and the choir was, as usual, the

first portion erected. By 1196 the choir, PIG. 119. PLAN OP NOTRK
transepts, and one or two bays of the nave, DAMK, PARIS.
and by 1235 the entire nave and west
front, were finished. The
completeness, harmony, and vigor
of conception of this remarkable church contrast strikingly with
the makeshifts and hesitancy displayed in many contemporary
* This cathedral be hereafter referred for the sake of
will to,

brevity, by the. name of Xutrc Datnc. Other cathedrals having the

same name will be distinguished by the addition of the name of the
"
city, as Notre Dame at Chalons-sur-Marne."
202 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

monuments in other provinces. The difficult vaulting over

the radiating bays of the double ambulatory was here treated
with great elegance. By increasing the number of supports
successively in the exterior circuit of each aisle (Fig. 119) each
trapezoidal bay of the vaulting was divided into three or five
easilymanaged triangular compartments. Circular shafts were
used between the central and side aisles. The side aisles were
doubled and those next the centre were built in two stories, pro-

ne. 120. 1NTKRIOR OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.

viding ample galleries behind a very open triforium. The nave

was unusually lofty and covered with six-part vaults of admirable
execution. The vault-ribs were vigorously moulded and made to

spring from distinct vaulting-shafts, of which three rested upon the

cap of each of the massive piers below (Fig. 120). The Cathedral
ofBourges, begun 1
190, closely resembled that of Paris in plan.
Both were designed to accommodate vast throngs in their excep-

tionally broad central aisles and double side aisles, but Bourges
has no side-aisle galleries, though the inner aisles are much loftier
than the outer ones. Though later in date the vaulting of
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 203

Bourges is inferior to that of Notre Dame, especially in the treat-

ment of the trapezoidal bays of the ambulatory.

The masterly examples set by the vault-builders of St. Denis
and Notre Dame were not at once generally followed. Noyon,
Senlis, and Soissons, contemporary with these, are far less com-

pletely Gothic in style. At Le Mans the groined vaulting of the

cathedral, erected in 1158, is

singularly primitive and heavy,
although nearly con-

temporary with that

of Notre Dame (Fig.
121).
DOMICAL GROINED
VAULTING. The builders
of the South and West,
influenced by Aquitanian
models, adhered to the
square plan and domical
form of vaulting-bay, even
after they had begun to

employ groin-ribs. The

latter, as at first used by
them in imitation of

Northern examples, had FIG. 121. LE MANS CATHEDRAL. NAVE.

no organic function in
the vault, which was still built like a About 1145-1160
dome.
the cathedral of St. Maurice at
Angers was vaulted with

square, groin-ribbed vaults, domical in form but not in con-

struction. The
joints no longer described horizontal circles as
in a dome, but oblique lines perpendicular to the groins and
meeting in zig-zag lines at the ridge (Fig. 122). This method
became common in the West and was afterward generally
adopted by the English architects. The Cathedrals of Poitiers

'(1162) and Laval (La Trinite", 1180-1185) are examples of

this system, which at Le Mans met with the Northern system
204 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

and produced in the cathedral the awkward compromise de-

scribed above.
THIRTEENTH-CENTURY VAULTING. Early in the thir-

teenth century the church-builders of Northern France abandoned

the use of square vaulting-bays and six-part vaults. By the
adoption of groin-ribs and the pointed arch, the building of
vaults in oblong bays was greatly simplified. Each bay of the
nave received its own complete vault, thus doing away with all
necessity for alternately
light and heavy piers.
It is not quite certain
when and where this

system was first adopted

for the complete vaulting
of a church. It is, how-
ever, probable that the
Cathedral of Chartres,
begun in 1 194* and com-
pleted before 1240, de-
FIG. 122. GROINED VAULT WITH ZIG-ZAG RIDGE- SCrVCS tlllS distinction,
JOINTS. it is
although possible
a shows a smallsection of filling with courses
that the vaults of Sois-
parallel to the ridjje, for comparison with the
other compartments. sons and
Noyon may
antedate it.
slightly
Troyes (1214-1267), Rouen (1202-1220), Reims (1212-1242),
Auxerre (1215-1234, nave fourteenth century), Amiens (1220-
1288), and nearly all the great churches and chapels begun after
1
200,employ the fully developed oblong vault.
BUTTRESSING. Meanwhile the increasing height of the
clearstories and the use of double aisles compelled the bestowal
of especial attention upon the buttressing. The nave and choir
of Chartres, the choirs of Notre Dame, Bourges, Rouen, and
*
Except W. front and S. W. tower, retained from earlier build-
ing of 1145-1170.
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 2O$

Reims, the chevct and later the choir of St. Denis, afford early ex-

amples of the flying-buttress (Fig. no). These were at first

simple and ofmoderate height. Single half-arches spanned the
side aisles; in Notre Dame they crossed the double aisles in a

single leap. Later the buttresses were given greater stability by

the added weight of lofty pinnacles. An intermediate range of
buttresses and pinnacles was built over the intermediate piers
where double aisles flanked the nave and choir, thus dividing the

single flying arch into two arches. At the same time a careful
observation of statical defects in the earlier examples led to the
introduction of double arches andof otherdevices to stiffen and to

beautify the whole system. At Reims and Amiens these

features received their highest development, though later exam-
much more ornate.
ples are frequently
INTERIOR DESIGN. The progressive change outlined in the
last chapter, by which the wall was practically suppressed, the
windows correspondingly enlarged, and every part of the struc-
ture made loftier and more slender, resulted in the evolution of a

system of interior design well represented by the nave of Amiens.

The second story or gallery over the side aisle disappeared, but
the aisle itself was very high. The triforium was no longer a gal-
lery, but a richly arcaded passage in the thickness of the wall, cor-
resj>onding to the roofing-space over the aisle, and generally
treated like a lower stage of the clearstory.Nearly the whole
space aljove it was occupied
each bay by the vast clearstory
in

window filled with simple but effective geometric tracery over

slender mullions. The side aisles were lighted by windows
which, like those in the clearstory, occupied nearly the whole

available wall-space under the vaulting. The piers and shafts

were all clustered and remarkably slender. The whole construc-
tion of this vast edifice, which covers nearly eighty thousand square
feet, is a marvel of lightness, of scientific combinations, and of line
execution. Its great vault rises to a height of one hundred and
forty feet. The nave of St. Denis, though less lofty, resembles it
2O6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

closely in style (Fig. 123). Earlier cathedrals show less of the

harmony working out of the relation of

of proportion, the perfect
all parts of the composition of each bay, so conspicuous in the

Amiens type, which was followed in most

of the later churches.
WINDOWS: TRACERY. The clearstory
windows of Noyon, Soissons, Sens, and
the choir of Vezelay (1200) were simple
arched openings arranged singly, in pairs,
or in threes.In the cathedral of Chartres

(1194-1220) they consist of two arched

windows with a circle above them, form-

ing a sort of plate tracery under a single

arch. In the chapel windows of the
choir at Reims (1215) the tracery of mul-
lions andcircles was moulded inside and

out, and the intermediate triangular

spaces all pierced and glazed. Rose win-

dows were early used in front and
transept facades. During the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries they were made
of vast size and great lightness of tracery,
FIG. 123. ON'E BAY, ABBEY
OF ST. DEMS. as in the transepts of Notre Dame (1257)
and the west front of Amiens (1288).
From the design of these windows is derived the name Ray-
onnant, often applied to the French Gothic style of the period
"7 S-137S-
THE SAINTE CHAPELLE. In this beautiful royal chapel at
Gothic design was admirably exemplified in
Paris, built 1242-47,
the noble windows 15 by 50 feet in size, which perhaps furnished
the models for those of Amiens and St. Denis. Each was divided
by slender mullions into four lancet-like gathered under the
lights
rich tracery of the window-Jiead.
They were filled with stained
glass of the most brilliant but harmonious hues. They occupy
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 207

the whole available wall-space, so that the ribbed vault internally

seems almost to rest on walls of glass, so slender are the visible
supports and so effaced by the glow of color in the windows.
Certainly lightness of construction and the suppression of the wall-
masonry could hardly be carried further than here (Fig. 124).
Among same type are those in the palace of
other chapels of the
St. Germain-en-Laye (1240), and a later example in the chateau
of Vincennes, begun by Charles VI., but not finished till 1525.
PLANS. The most radical change from the primitive basilican
type was, as already ex-
plained in the last chapter,
the continuation of the side-
aisles around the apse to

form an ambulatory, and

with the addition of chapels
between the radiating apse
buttresses, a chevet (Fig.

125). These may have

originated in the apsidal
chapels of Romanesque
churches in Auvergne and
the South, as at Issoire,

Clermont-Ferrand, LePuy,
and Toulouse. They gen-
erally superseded the tran-
sept-chapels of earlier
churches, and added
greatly to the beauty of
the interior perspective, es-

pecially when the encircling FIG. 124. 1 UK SA1NTE CH APKt.t.E. PARIS.

aisles of the chevet were

doubled. Notre Dame had double ambulatory, with-
at first a

out chapels, these being added later. Bourges has only five
Chartrcs (choir 1198) and Le
very small semicircular chapels.
208 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Mans, as reconstructed between 1217 and 1254, have double

After 1220 the second ambu-
ambulatories and radial chapels.
latory no longer appears. Noyon, Soissons, Reims, Amiens,
Troyes, and Beauvais, Tours, Bayeux, and Coutances, Cler-
mont, Limoges, and Narbonne all have the single ambulatory
and radiating chevet-chapels. The Lady-chapel in the axis ot
the church was often made longer and more important than the
other chapels, as at Amiens, Le Mans,
Rouen, Bayeux, and Coutances. Chap-
els also flanked the choir in most of the
cathedralsnamed above, and Notre
Dame, Alby, Laon, and Tours also
have side chapels to the nave. These
are of late date; those of Notre Dame,
1300-1320. The only cathedrals with
complete double side-aisles alike to
nave, choir, and chevet, were Notre
Dame and Bourges. It is somewhat

singular that the German cathedral of

Cologne is the only one in which all

these various characteristic French

features were united in one design (see

Fig. 146).
Local considerations had full sway
125. PLAN OP AMIENS
CATHEDRAL. in France, in spite of the tendency
toward unity of type. Thus Dol, Laon,
and have square eastward terminations; Chalons has
Poitiers
no ambulatory; Bourges no transept. In Notre Dame the
transept was almost suppressed. At Soissons one transept, at
Noyon both, had semicircular ends. Alby, a late cathedral
of brick, founded in 1
280, but mostly built during the four-
teenth century, has neither side-aisles nor transepts, its wide

nave being flanked by chapels separated by internal buttresses

(Fig. 126).
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 209

SCALE. The French

cathedrals were nearly all of imposing
dimensions. Noyon, one of the smallest, is 333 feet long; Sens
measures 354. Laon, Bourges, Troyes, Notre Dame, Le Mans,
Rouen, and Chartres vary from
396 to 437 feet in extreme length;
Reims measures 483, and Amiens,
the longest of all, 521 feet. Notre
Dame is 124 feet wide across the
five aisles of the nave; Bourges,
somewhat wider. The central
aisles of thesetwo cathedrals, and
of Laon, Amiens, and Beauvais,
have a span of not far from 40 feet
from centre to centre of the piers;

while the ridge of the vaulting,

which in NotreDame is 108 feet
above the pavement, and in
Bourges 125, reaches in Amiens a
PIC,. 126. PLAN OF CATHEDRAL
height of 140 feet, and of nearly OP ALBV.

1 60 in This emphasis
Beauvais.
of the height, from 3 to 3^ times the clear width of the nave or

choir, is one of the most striking features of the French cathe-

drals. It produces an impressive effect, but tends to dwarf the
great width of the central aisle.
EXTERIOR DESIGN. Here, as in the interior, every feature had
its constructive raison d'etre, and the total effect was determined
by the fundamental structural scheme. This was especially true
of the lateral elevations, in which the pinnacled buttresses, the
flying arches, and the traceried windows of the side-aisle and
were the principal ele-
clearstory, repeated uniformly at each bay,
ments of the design. The transept facades and main front al-
lowed greater scope for invention and fancy, but even here (he
interior membering gave the key to the composition. Strong
buttresses marked the division of the aisles and resisted the
210 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

thrust of the terminal pier arches, and rose windows filled the

greater part of the wall space

under the end of the lofty vaulting.
The whole structure was crowned by a steep-pitched roof of
wood, covered with lead, copper, or tiles, to protect the vault from
damage by snow and
moisture. This roof
occasioned the steep
gables which crowned
the transept facades.
The main front was
frequently adorned,
above the triple portal,
with a gallery of niches
or tabernacles filled

with statues of kings,

and the end of the roof
above masked by an
arcade. Different types
of composition are rep-
resentedby Chartres,
Notre Dame, Amiens,
Reims, and Rouen, of
which Notre Dame
(Fig. 127) and Reims
FIG. 127. - WEST FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS. tllC

Notre Dame is
espe-
cially remarkable for its stately simplicity and the even balanc-
ing of horizontal and vertical elements.
PORCHES. In most French church facades the porches were
the most striking features, with their dee]) shadows and sculptured
arches. The Romanesque porches were usually limited in depth
to the thickness of the front wall. The Gothic builders secured
increased depth by projecting the portals out beyond the wall, and
crowned them with elaborate gables. The wide central door was
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 211

divided in two by a pier adorned with a niche and statue. Over

this the tympanum of the arch was carved with scriptural re-

liefs; jambs and arches were profusely adorned with figures

the
and angels, under elaborate canopies.
of saints, apostles, martyrs,
The porches of Laon, Bourges, Amiens, and Reims are especially
deep and majestic in effect, the last-named (completed 1380) being

FIG. 128. WEST FRONT OF ST. MACLOU, ROUKN'.

the richest of all. Some of the transept facades also had imposing
portals. Those of Chartres (1210-1245) rank among the
finest works of (iothic decorative architecture. The portals of
the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries were remarkable for the

extraordinary richness of their decorative tracery, as at Abbe-

ville, Alencon, the cathedral and St. Maclou at Rouen (Kig. 128),

Tours, Troyes, Vendome, etc.

TOWERS AND SPIRES. The emphasi/ing of vertical ele-

ments reached its fullest expression in the towers and spires of the
212 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

churches. What had been at first merely a lofty belfry roof was
rapidly developed into the spire, rising three hundred feet or more
into the air. This development had already made progress in the
Romanesque period, and the south spire of Chartres is a notable
example of twelfth-century steeple design. The transition from
the square tower to the octagonal pyramid was skilfully effected

by means of corner pinnacles and dormers. After 1200 the de-

velopment was in the direction of richness and complexity of de-

tail, rather than of radical constructive modification. The north-
ern spire of Chartres (1515) and the spires of Bordeaux, Cou-

tances, Senlis, and the Flamboyant church of St. Maclou at

Rouen, illustrate this development. In Normandy central spires
were common, rising over the crossing of nave and transepts. In
some cases the designers of cathedrals contemplated a group of
towers; this is evident at Chartres, Coutances, Laon, and Reims.
This intention was, however, never realized; it demanded re-
sources beyond even the enthusiasm of the thirteenth century.

Only in rare instances were the spires of any of the towers com-
pleted, and the majority of the French towers have square termi-

nations, with low-pitched wooden roofs, generally invisible from

below. In general, French towers are marked by their strong

buttresses, solid lower stories, huge twin windows in each side of

the belfry proper, and a skilful management of the transition to an
octagonal plan for the belfry or the spire.
CARVING AND SCULPTURE. The general superiority of
French Gothic work was fully maintained in its decorative de-

tails. Especially fine is the figure sculpture, which in the thir-

teenth and fourteenth centuries attained true nobility of expres-

sion, combined with great truthfulness and delicacy of execution.

Some of its finest productions arc- found in the great doorway

jambs of the west portals of the cathedrals, and in the ranks of
throned and adoring angels which adorned their deep arches.
These reach their highest beauty in the portals of Reims (1:580).
The tabcrnadcs or carved niches in which such statues were set
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 213

were important elements in the decoration of the exteriors of

churches.

Foliage forms were used for nearly all the minor carved orna-
ments, though grotesque and human figures sometimes took their
place. The gargoyles through which the roofwater was dis-
charged clear of the building were almost always composed in
the forms of hideous monsters; and symbolic beasts, like the oxen
in the towers of Laon, or monsters like those which peer from the

a
FIG. 129. FRENCH GOTHIC CAPITALS.
a, From Sainte Chapcllc, Paris, i3th century. i>, 14th-century capital from transept

of Notre Dame, Paris, c, 15th-century capital from north spire of Chartres.

tower balustrades of Notre Dame, were employed with some

mystical significance in various parts of the building. But the
capitals, corbels, crockets, and finials were mostly composed of
floral or foliage forms. Those of the twelfth and early thirteenth
centuries were for the most part simple in mass, and crisp and

vigorous in design, imitating the strong shoots of early spring.

The capitals were tall and slender, concave in profile, with heavy
square or octagonal abaci. After the middle of the thirteenth
century the carving became more realistic; the leaves, larger and
more mature, were treated as if applied to the capital or moulding,
not as if they grew out of it. The execution and detail were finer
and more delicate, in harmony with the increasing slenderness and
214 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

lightness of the architecture (Fig. 129 a, b). Tracery forms

now began to be profusely applied to all manner of surfaces, and
open-work gables, wholly unnecessary from the structural point of
view, but highly effective as decorations, adorned the portals and
crowned the windows.
LATE GOTHIC MONUMENTS. So far our attention has been
mainly occupied with the master-
pieces erected previous to 1250.
Among the cathedrals, relatively
few in number, whose construction
is referable to the second half of
the century, that of Beauvais
stands first in importance. Be-
gun on a colossal scale in 1225,
the choir and chapels were not

completed until 1270. But the

collapse in 1284 of the central

tower and excessively lofty vault-

ing of this cathedral, which still
lacked the nave, compelled its en-
tire reconstruction, the number of
the piers being doubled and the

span of the pier arches corre-

spondingly reduced. As thus re-
built, the central aisle was 51
FIG. 130.OPEN'WOKK GABLE, FROM
FRONT OF ROUEN CATHEDRAL. feet wide from centre to centre
of opposite piers, and 163 feet

high to the top of the vault. Transepts were added after 1500.
Limoges and Narbonne, begun in 1272 on a large scale
(though not equal in si/e to Beauvais), were likewise never
completed. Both had choirs of admirable plan, with well-
designed chevet-chapels. Many oilier cathedrals begun during
this period were completed only after long delays, as, for in-

stance, Meaux, Rode/- ( i

277), Toulouse (1272), and Alby (i 282),
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 2I 5

finished in the sixteenth century, and Clermont (1248), com-

pleted under Napoleon III. But between 1260 or 1275 and
1350 work was actively prosecuted on many still incomplete
cathedrals. The choirs of Beauvais (rebuilding), Limoges,
and Narbonne were finished after 1330 ;
and towers, transept-

FIll. 131. -SOUTH PORCH OF CHARTKES CATHEDRAL.

facades, portals, and chapels added to many others of earlier

date.
The style of this period is sometimes designated as Rayon-
nant, from the characteristic wheel tracery of the rose windows,
and the prevalence of circular forms in the lateral arched windows
of the late thirteenthand early fourteenth centuries. The great
rose windows the transepts of Notre Dame, dating from 1257,
in

are typical examples of the style. Those of Rouen cathedral be-

long to the same category, though of later date. The facade of
Amiens, completed by i2cSX, is one of the finest works of this
2l6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

style, of which an early example is the elaborate parish church of

St. Urbain at Troyes.
THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE. The geometric treatment of
the traceryand the minute and profuse decoration of this period
gradually merged into the fantastic and unrestrained extrava-
gances of the Flamboyant style, which prevailed until the ad-
vent of the Renaissance say 1525. The continuous logical de-

velopment of forms ceased, and in its place caprice and display

controlled the arts of design. The finest monument of this long

period is the fifteenth-century nave and central tower of the

church of St. Ouen at Rouen, a parish church of the first rank,

begun in 1318, but not finished until 1515. The tracery of the
lateral windows is still chiefly geometric, but the western rose
window (Fig. 115) and the magnificent central tower or lantern
exhibit in their tracery the florid decoration and wavy, flame-like
lines of this style. Slenderness of supports and the suppression
of horizontal lines are here carried to an extreme; and the church,
in spite of its great elegance of detail, lacks the vital interest and

charm of the earlier Gothic churches. The cathedral of Alencon

and the church of St. Maclou at Rouen have portals with unusu-
ally elaborate detail of tracery and carving; while the unfinished
facade of Rouen cathedral (1509) surpasses all other examples in
the lace-like minuteness of its open-work and its profusion of

ornament. The churches of St. Jacques at Dieppe, and of St.

Wulfrand at Abbeville, the facades of Tours and Troyes, are

among the masterpieces of the style. The upper part of the fa-
cade of Reims (1380-1428) belongs to the translation from the
Rayonnant to the Flamboyant. While some works of this period
are conspicuous for the richness of their ornamentation, others are

noticeably bare and poor in design, like St. Merri and St. Severin
in Paris. The most successful examples of this period are rather
its minor than its major undertakings: altars, tombs, choir-
screens, portals and spires, choir-stalls and pulpits, often exe-
cuted in parish churches or chapels; e.g. the church of Brou at
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 217

Bourg-en-Bresse, the chapel of St. Esprit at Rue, Ste. Madeleine

at Troyes, etc.

SECULAR AND MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE. The building

of cathedrals did not absorb all the architectural activity of the
Trench during the Gothic period, nor did it by any means put an
end to monastic building. While there are few Gothic cloisters to
equal the Romanesque cloisters of Puy-en-Vclay, Montmajour,
Elne, and Moissac, many of the abbeys either rebuilt their
churches in the Gothic style after 1150, or extended and remod-
elled their conventual buildings. The cloisters of Fontfroide,

Chaise-Dieu, and the Mont St. Michel rival those of Romanesque

times, while many new refectories and chapels were built in the
same style with the cathedrals. The most complete of these
Gothic monastic establishments, that of the Mont St. Michel in
Normandy, presents a remarkable aggregation of buildings
clustering around the steep isolated rock on which stands the
abbey church, built in the eleventh century (choir and chapels
remodelled in the sixteenth). The
great refectory and dormi-
tory, the "Hall of the Knights," cloisters and chapels, built in
several vaulted stories against the cliffs, are admirable examples
of the vigorous pointed-arch design of the early thirteenth

century.
Hospitals like that of St. Jean at Angers (late twelfth century),
or those of Chartres, Ourscamps, Tonnerre, and Beaune, illus-
trate how skilfully the French could modify and adapt the de-
tails of their architecture to the special requirements of civil archi-

tecture. Great numbers of charitable institutions were built in

the middle ages, but few of those in France are now extant. Town
halls were built century in some places where a
in the fifteenth

certain amount of popular independence had been secured (e.g.

Compiegne). The florid sixteenth-century Palais de Justice at

Rouen (1499-1508) is an example of another branch of secular

Gothic architecture. In all monuments the adaptation of

these
means to ends is admirable. Wooden ceilings and roofs replaced
218 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

stone, wherever required by great width of span or economy of

construction. There was little' sculpture; the wall-spaces were
not suppressed in favor of stained glass and tracery; while the
roofs were usually emphasized and adorned with elaborate crest-

ings and finials in lead or terra-cotta.

DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. These same principles con-

trolled the designing of houses, farm buildings, barns, granaries,
and the like. The common closely-built French city house of
the twelfth and thirteenth century is illustrated
by many extant
examples at Cluny, Provins, and other towns. A shop opening
on the street by a large arch, a narrow stairway, and two or three
stories of rooms lighted by clustered, pointed-arched windows,

constituted the common The street front was usually

type.
gabled and the roofsteep. In the fourteenth or fifteenth century
half-timbered construction began to supersede stone for town

houses, as it
permitted of encroaching upon the street by pro-
jecting the upper stories. Many of the half-timbered houses
of the fifteenth century were of elaborate design. The heavy
oaken uprights were carved with slender colonnettes; the hori-
zontal sills, bracketed out over the street, were richly moulded;

picturesque dormers broke the sky-line, and the masonry filling

between the beams was frequently faced with enamelled tiles.

The more considerable houses or palaces of royalty, nobles, and

wealthy citizens rivalled, and in time surpassed, the monastic

buildings in richness and splendor. Their architecture is a
development from that of the earlier feudal castles, whose
enormously massive walls, round towers, corbelled and machico-
lated roof-galleries, drawbridges, barbicans and central donjon
or keep, were designed wholly from the military point of view.*

By 1250, the increasing ascendancy of the royal power and

more settled conditions permitted the erection of less frowning
and more comfortable residences for the nobility, especially in
* Sec articles ARCHITECTI'KK MIUTAIKE and CHATEAU, in Diction-
nairc raisunnc of Viollet-le-Duc.
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 219

the cities. The earlier examples, however, still retain the mili-

tary aspect, with moat and donjon, as in the Louvre of Charles

V., demolished in the sixteenth century. The chateau de

Pierrefonds, remodelled by V.le-Duc upon the ruins of a late
fourteenth century castle, is a modernized example of these

semi-military palaces. The finest palaces are of late date, and

FIG. 132. HOUSE OF JACQUES CCEUK, BOUROES

(After Viollet-le-Duc.)

the type is well represented by the Ducal Palace at Nancy

(1476), the Hotel de Cluny (1485), at Paris, the Hotel Jacques

Coeur at Bourges (Fig. 132), and the east wing of Blois (1498-
1515). These palaces are elaborately planned, with large halls,
many and handsome courts; they are also extremely
staircases,

picturesque with their square and circular towers, slender tur-

rets, elalx>rate dormers, and rich carved detail.

MONUMENTS: (C. = cathedral ; A. = abbey; trans. = transept ;

each edifice is given under the date of its commencement; subse-

220 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

quent alterations in parentheses.) Between 1130 and 1200: Vezelay

A., ante-chapel, 1130; St. Germer-de-Fly C., 1130-1150 (chapel
later) Denis A., choir, 1140 (choir rebuilt, nave and trans.,
; St.

1240); Sens C, 1140-68 (W. front, I3th century; chapels, spire,

I4th) Senlis C., 1145-83 (trans., spire, I3th century); Noyon C.,
;

1149-1200 (W. front, vaults, I3th century) St. Germain-des-Pres ;

A., Paris, choir, 1150 (Romanesque nave) Angers C., 1150 (choir,
;

trans., 1274); Langres, 1150-1200; Laon C, 1150-1200; Le Mans

C, nave, 1150-58 (choir, 1217-54) Soissons C., 1160-70 (choir,
;

1212; nave chapels, I4th century); Poitiers C., 1162-1204; Notre

Dame, Paris, choir, 1163-96 (nave, \V. front finished, 1235; trans,
fronts and chapels, 1257-75) ;
Chartres C., W. end, 1145-1170; rest,
mainly 1194-98 (trans, porches, W. rose, 1210-1260; N. spire, 1506) ;

Tours C, 1170 (rebuilt, 1267; trans, portals, 1375; W. portals,

chapels, I5th century; towers finished, 1507-47) ;

Laval C., 1180-85
(choir, i6th century); Mantes, church Notre Dame, 1180-1200;
Bourges C, 1190-95 (E. end, 1210; \V. end, 1275) ;
St. Nicholas at
Caen, 1190 (vaults, I5th century); Reims, church St. Remy, choir,
end of I2th century (Romanesque nave) church ; St. Leu d'Esser-
ent, choir late I2th Lyons C.. choir,
century (nave, I3th century) ;

end of I2th century (nave, I3th and I4th centuries) litampes, ;

church Notre Dame, I2th and I3th centuries. I3th century: Ev-
reux C., 1202-75 (trans., central tower, 1417; W. front rebuilt, i6th
century) ;
Rouen C., 1202-20 (trans, portals, 1280; W. front, 1507) ;

Nevcrs, 1211, N. portal, 1280 (chapels, S. portal, 15th century) ;

Reims C, 1212-42 (W. front, 1380; W. towers, 1420) Bayonne ;

C., 1213 (nave, vaults, W. portal, I4th century) ;

Troves C., choir,

1214 (central tower, nave, W.

and towers, i5th century);
portal,
Auxerre C., 1215-34 (nave, W.
end, trans., I4th century) Amiens ;

C., 1220-88; St. Etienne at Chalons-sur-Marne, 1230 (spire, 1520);

Scez C., 1230, rebuilt 1260 (remodelled I4th century) Notre Dame ;

de Dijon, 1230; Reims, Lady chapel of Archbishop's palace, 1230;

Chapel Royal at St. Germain-cn-Laye, 1240; Ste. Chapellc at Paris,
1242-47 (W. rose, I5th century); Coutances C., 1254-74; Reauvais
C., 1247-72 (rebuilt 1337-47; trans, portals, 1500-48); Notre Dame
de Grace at Clermont, 1248 (finished 1350); Dol C., I3th century;
St. Martin-des-Champs nave i^th century (choir Roman-
at Paris,

esque) Bordeaux C.,

; 1260; Narbonne
C., 1272-1320; Limoges,
1273 (finished i6th century); St. I'rbain, Troves, 1264; Rode/. C.,
1277-1385 (altered, completed l6th century); church St. Ouentin,
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IX FRANCE. 221

1280-1300; St. Bcnigne at Dijon, rebuilt 1280-91 ; Alby C, 1282 (nave,

Hth, choir, I5th century; S. portal, 1473-1500) ;
Meaux C., mainly
rebuilt 1284 (W. end much altered I5th, finished i6th century) ;

Cahors C, (W. front

rebuilt 1285-93 Orleans, 1287-
isth century) ;

1328 (burned, rebuilt 1601-1829). 141)1 century: St. Bertram! de

Comminges, 1304-50; St. Nazaire at Carcassonne, choir and trans,

on Romanesque nave; Montpellier C., 1364; St. Ouen at Rouen,
choir, 1318-39 (trans., 1400-39; nave, 1464-91; W. front, 1515);
Royal Chapel at Vincennes, 1385-1525. I5th and i6th century:
St. Nizier at Lyons rebuilt; St. Severin, St. Merri, St. Ger-
main 1'Auxerrois, all at Paris; Notre Dame de 1'Epine at Chalons-
sur-Marne; choir of St. Etienne at Beauvais Saintes C., rebuilt, ;

1450; St. Maclou at Rouen (finished i6th century) church at ;

Bourg-en-Bresse St. Wulfrand at Abbeville abbey of St. Riquier

; ;

these three all early i6th century.

HOUSES, CASTLES, AND PALACES :
Bishop's palace at Paris,
1160 (demolished); castle of Coucy, 1220-30; Louvre at Paris
(the original chateau), 1225-1350; Palais de Justice at Paris,
originally the royal residence, 1225-1400; Bishop's palace at Laon,
1245 (addition to Romanesque hall) ; castle Montargis, I3th century;
castle Pierrefonds, late I5th century, remodelled 1870; Bishop's
palace atNarbonne, palace of Popes at Avignon all i4th
century; donjon of palace at Poitiers, 1395; Pal. de Justice (Salle
de la Prevote, Salle des Comtes), Poitiers, I2th-I5th century; Hotel
des Ambassadeurs at Dijon, 1420; house of Jacques Coeur at
Bourges, 1443; Palace, Dijon, 1467; Ducal palace at Nancy, 1476;
Hotel Cluny at Paris, 1490; castle of Creil, late I5th century, fin-
ished in i6th E. wing palace of Blois, 1498-1515, for Louis XII.;
;

Palais de Justice at Rouen, 1499-1508.

 CHAPTER XVII.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Parker, Reber.

Also, Bell's Series of Handbooks of English Cathedrals. Billings,
The Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland. Bond,
Gothic Architecture in England. Brandon, Analysis 0} Gothic
Architecture. Britton, Cathedral Antiquities 0} Great Britain.
Ditchfield, The Cathedrals of England. Murray, Handbooks of
the English Cathedrals. Rickman, An Attempt to Discriminate
the Styles of English Architecture. Sharpe, Architectural Paral-
lels; The Seven Periods of English Architecture. Van Rensse-
laer, English Cathedrals. Winkles and Moule, Cathedral
Churches of England and Wales. Willis, Architectural History
of Canterbury Cathedral; ditto, of Winchester Cathedral; Treatise
on Vaults.

GENERAL CHARACTER. Gothic architecture was developed in

England under a strongly established royal power, with an epis-
copate in no sense hostile to the abbots or in arms against the
barons. Many of the cathedrals had monastic chapters, and not
infrequently abbots were invested with the episcopal rank.
Under Henry VIII. the monasteries were suppressed, and the
monastic cathedrals reconstituted under ''secular" clergy,
though the ex-abbot was sometimes retained as bishop. The
other cathedrals, governed originally by "secular" or non-
monastic clergy, were left undisturbed, and are known as of the
"old foundation ".*
* " "
The monastic cathedrals seculari/ed by Henry VIII. arc
often railed tile "new foundation." Some writers, however, prefer
to call them monastic and to use the term "new foundation" only
for cathedrals established since Henry VIII. 's time.
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 223

English Gothic architecture was thus by no means predom-

inantly an architecture of cathedrals. If architectural activity in
England was on this account less intense and widespread in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries than in France, it was not, on the
other hand, so soon exhausted. Fewer new cathedrals were
built, but the progressive rebuilding of those already existing
seems not to have ceased until the middle or end of the fifteenth

century. Architecture in England developed more slowly, but

more uniformly, than in France. It contented itself with simpler
problems; and if it failed to rival Amiens in boldness of construc-
tion and in lofty majesty, it at least never perpetrated a folly like
Beauvais. In richness of internal dec-
oration, especially in the mouldings and
ribbed vaulting, and in the picturesque

grouping of simple masses externally,

the British builders went far toward

atoning for their structural timidity.

EARLY GOTHIC BUILDINGS. The
pointed arch and ribbed vault were im-
portations from France. Early ex-
amples appear in the Cistercian abbeys
of Furness and Kirkstall, and in the
Temple Church at London (1185).
But it was in the Choir of Canter-
bury, as rebuilt by William of Sens,
after the destructionby fire in 1170 of
Ernulph's and Conrad's Norman choir, FIG. I.VV PLAN! OP SALIS-
that these French Gothic features were BURY CATUKDKAL.
first applied in a thoroughgoing man-
ner. In plan this choir resembled that of the cathedral of

Sens; and its

coupled round piers, foliated pointed
capitals,
arches, six-part vaulting, and duvet, were distinctly French.
The Gothic details thus introduced slowly supplanted the round
arch and other Norman features. For fifty years the styles were
224 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

more or less mingled in many buildings, though Lincoln

Cathedral, as rebuilt in 1192-1200, retained nothing of the
earlier round-arched style. But the first church to be designed
and built from the foundations in the new style was the cathedral
of Salisbury (1220-1258; Fig. 133). Contemporary with

Amiens, it is a homogeneous and typical example of the Early

English style. The predilection for great length observable in
the Anglo-Norman churches (as at Norwich and Durham) still

prevailed, as continued to do throughout the Gothic period;

it

Salisbury is 480 feet long. The double transepts, the long choir,
the square east end, the relatively low vault (84 feet to the ridge),
the narrow grouped windows, all are thoroughly English. Only
the simple four-part vaulting recalls French models. West-
minster Abbey (1245-1269),* on the other hand, betrays in a
marked manner the French influence in its internal loftiness (100
feet), its polygonal chcvet and chapels, and its strongly accented
exterior flying-buttresses (Fig. 142).
MIXTURE OF STYLES. Very few English cathedrals arc as
homogeneous as the two just mentioned, nearly all having under-
gone repeated remodellings in successive periods. Durham,
Norwich, and Oxford are wholly Norman but for their Gothic
vaults. Ely, Rochester, Gloucester, and Hereford have Norman
naves and Gothic choirs. f Peterborough has an early Gothic
facade and late Gothic retro-choir added to an otherwise com-

pletely Norman structure. Winchester is a Norman church re-

modelled with early Perpendicular details. The purely Gothic

churches and cathedrals -except parish churches, in which Eng-
land is very rich are not nearly as numerous in England as in

France.
PERIODS. The development of English Gothic architecture

* The western com-

part of the nave and the west front were not
pleted until 1500.
t Mut that of Gloucester is merely a rcclothing of the Xornian
choir with late Gothic details and vaulting.
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IX GREAT BRITAIN. 22$

followed the same general sequence as the French, and like it the

commonly characterized by the forms of the

successive stages are

tracery.
The EARLY ENGLISH or LANCET period extended roundly from

1175 to 1260, and was marked by simplicity, dignity, and purity

of design.
The DECORATED or GEOMETRIC period covered another cen-

tury, 1260 to 1360, and was

characterized by its decorative
richness and greater lightness
of construction.
The PERPENDICULAR period
extended from 1360, or there-
about, well into the sixteenth
century. Its salient features

were the use of fan-vaulting,

four-centred arches, and trac-

ery of predominantly vertical

and horizontal lines. The
tardy introduction of Renais-
sance forms finally put an end
to the Gothic style in Eng-

land, after a long period of

KIHHKI) V. \ri.TINc;, CHOIR
mixed and transitional archi- KXKTKK C VI HKllKAl..

tecture.

VAULTING. The richness and variety of English vaulting

contrast strikingly with the persistent uniformity of the French.
A few of the early Gothic vaults, as in the aisles of Peterborough,
and later the naves of ('hichesler, Salisbury, and Gloucester,
were simple four-part, ribbed vaults substantially like the- French.
But the English disliked and avoided the twisted and dome-like
surfaces of the French vaults, preferring horizontal ridges, and, in
the filling-masonry, straight courses meeting at the ridge in zig/ag

lines, as in southwest France (sec- p. 20. \). Tin's may be seen in

226 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Westminster Abbey. The idea of ribbed construction was then

seized upon and given a new application. By springing a large
number from each point of support, the vaulting-surfaces
of ribs
were divided into long, narrow triangles, the filling of which was
comparatively easy (Fig. 134). The ridge was itself furnished
with a straight rib, decorated with carved rosettes or bosses at each
intersection with a vaulting-rib. The naves and choirs of Lin-

coln, Lichfield, Exeter, and the nave of Westminster illustrate

FIG. 135. NET OR LIEKNE VAULTING, TEWKESBURY ABBKV.

this method. The logical corollary of this practice was the intro-

duction of minor ribs called licrncs, connecting the main ribs and

forming complex reticulated and star-shaped patterns. Vaults

of this description are among the most beautiful in England.
One of the richest is in the choir of Gloucester (1337-1377)- Less
correct construe-lively is that over the choir of Wells, while the
choir of Ely, the naves ofTewkesbury Abbey (Eig. 135), and of
Canterbury and Winchester cathedrals, all built between 1360
and 1400, illustrate the same system. Such vaults are called
lirrnc or star vaults. The furthest possible development of this
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 227

type is seen in the vaults of Norwich Cathedral (1463), of the nave

of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, and St. George's Chapel,
Windsor.
FAN-VAULTING. The later steps in the process may be ob-
served in the vaults of the nave of Sherborne church, the choir of
Oxford Cathedral, the Divinity School at Oxford, the retro-choir
of Peterborough, the cloisters of Gloucester, and many other
examples. The diverg-
ing ribs being made of
uniform curvature, the
severeys (the inverted

pyramidal vaulting-
masses springing from
each support) became
a species of concave
conoids, meeting at the
ridge in such a way as
to leave a series of flat

lozenge-shaped spaces
at the summit of the
vault (Fig. 141). The
ribs were multiplied FIG. 136. VAULT OF CHAPTER-]
and losing
indefinitely,
thus in individual and structural importance became a mere
decorative pattern of tracery on the severeys. To conceal the
awkward lozenges at the ridge, elaborate panelling was re-
flat

sorted to; or, in some cases, long stone pendants were inserted
at those points a device highly decorative but wholly uncon-
structive. At Cambridge, in the choir of
King's College Chapel,
and in the Chapel of Henry VII. (Fig. 141), at Westminster,
this sort of vaulting received its most elaborate development.
The Jan-vault, as it is called, illustrates the logical evolution of
a decorative element from a structural starting-point, leading
to results far removed from the original conception. Rich and
228 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

sumptuous as are these ceilings, they are with all their ornament
less satisfactorythan the ribbed vaults of the preceding period.
CHAPTER-HOUSES. One of the most beautiful forms of
ribbed vaulting was developed in the polygonal halls erected for
the deliberations of the cathedral chapters of Lincoln (1225),
Westminster (1250), Salisbury (1250), and Wells (1292), in which
the vault-ribs radiated from a central column to the sides and

angles of the polygon (Fig. 136). If these vaults were less majes-

ticthan domes of the same diameter, they were far more decora-
tive and picturesque, while the chapter-houses themselves were

the most original and striking products of English Gothic art.

Every feature was designed with strict regard for the structural
system determined by the admirable vaulting, and the Sainte
Chapelle was not more logical in its exemplification of Gothic
principles. To the four above-mentioned examples should be
added that York (1280-1330), which differs from them in hav-
of

ing no central column: by some critics it is esteemed the finest of

them all. Its ceiling is a Gothic dome, 57 feet in diameter, but
unfortunately executed in wood. Its geometrical window-tracery

and richly canopied stalls are admiral >le.

OCTAGON AT ELY. The Octagon of Ely Cathe-
magnificent
nave and transepts, belongs in the
dral, at the intersection of the
same category with these polygonal chapter-house vaults. It was
built by Alan of \Valsingham in 1337, after the fall of the central

tower and the destruction of the adjacent bays of the choir. It

occupies the full width of the three aisles, and covers the ample
space thus enclosed with a simple but beautiful groined and ribbed
vault of wood reaching to a central octagonal lantern, which
rises muchhigher and shows externally as well as internally.
Unfortunately, this vault is of wood, and would require important
modifications of detail if carried out in stone. But it is so noble
in general design and total effect, that one wonders the type was
not universally adopted for the crossing in all cathedrals, until
one observes that no cathedral of importance was built after
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 22Q

Walsingham's time, nor did any other central towers opportunely

fall to the ground.
WINDOWS AND TRACERY. In the Early English Period

(1200-1280 or 1300) the windows were at first tall and narrow

(lancet windows), and generally grouped by twos and threes,
though sometimes four'and even five are seen together (as the
" "
Five Sisters in the N. transept of York). In the nave of Salis-
bury and the retro-choir of Ely the side aisles are lighted
by
coupled windows and the clearstory by
triple windows, the central one higher
than the others a surviving Norman
practice. Plate-tracery was, as in

France, an intermediate step leading to

the development of bar-tracery (see Fig.

113). The English followed here the

same reasoning as the French. At first

the openings constituted the design, the

intervening stonework being of second-

ary importance. Later the forms of
the openings were subordinated to the FIG. 137. CLOISTERS, SALIS-
BURY CATHEDRAL (SHOWING
pattern of the stone framework of bars,
UPPER PART OF CHAPTER-
arches, circles, and cusps. Bar-tracery HOUSE).
of this description prevailed in England
through the greater part of the Decorated Period (1280-1380),
and somewhat resembled the contemporary French geometric
tracery, though more varied and less rigidly' constructive in de-

sign. An
early example of this tracery occurs in the cloisters of
Salisbury (1280; Fig. 137); others in the clearstories of the choirs
of Lichfield, Lincoln,and Ely, the nave of York, and the chapter-
houses mentioned above, where, indeed, it seems to have received
its earliest development. After the middle of the fourteenth

century lines of double curvature were introduced, producing

what is called flowing tracery, somewhat resembling the French

flamboyant, though simpler (Fig. 114). Examples of this style

230 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

are found in Wells, in the side aisles and triforium of the choir of

Ely, and in the S. transept rose-window of Lincoln.

THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE. Flowing tracery was, how-
ever,a transitional phase of design, and was soon superseded by
Perpendicular tracery, in which the mullions were carried through
to the top of the arch and intersected by horizontal transoms.
This formed a very rigid
and mechanically correct
system of stone framing,
but lacked the grace and
charm of the two preced-
ing periods. The earliest
examples are seen in the
work of Edington and of
Wykeham in the recon-

structed cathedral of
Winchester (1360-1394),
where the tracery was
thus made to harmonize
with the accentuated and

multiplied vertical lines

of the interior design. It

was at this late date that

the English seem first to

have fully appropriated
PIG. 138. PERPENDICULAR TRACERY, WEST
WINDOW OP ST. GEORGE'S, WINDSOR. the Gothic ideas of em-
phasized vertical ele-

ments and wall surfaces reduced to a minimum. The develop-

ment of fan-vaulting had led to the adoption of a new form of
arch, the four-centred or Tudor arch (Fig. 138), to fit under the
depressed apex of the vault. The whole
design internally and
externally was thenceforward controlled by the form of the vault-
ing and of the openings. The windows were made of enormous
size, especially at the east end of the choir, which was square in
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 231

nearly all English churches, and in the west windows over the
entrance. These windows had already reached, in the Decor-
ated Period, an enormous size, as at York; in the Perpendicular
Period the two ends of the church were as nearly as possible con-
verted into walls of glass. The East Window of Gloucester
reaches the prodigious dimensions of 38 by 72 feet. The most
complete examples of the Perpendicular tracery and of the style
in general are the three chapels already mentioned (p. 227);
those, namely, of King's College atCambridge, of St. George
at Windsor, and of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey.
CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN. The most striking peculiarity of
English Gothic design was its studious avoidance of temerity or
venturesomeness in construction. Both the height and width of
the nave were kept within very moderate bounds, and the supports
were never reduced to extreme slenderness. While much im-
pressiveness of effectwas undoubtedly lost thereby, there was
some gain freedom of design, and there was less obtrusion of
in

constructive elements in the exterior composition. The flying-

buttress became a feature of minor importance where the clear-

story was kept low, as in most English churches. In many cases

the flying arches were hidden under the aisle roofs. The English
cathedrals and larger churches are long and low, depending for
effect mainly upon the projecting masses of their transepts, the

imposing square central towers which commonly crown the cross-

ing, and the grouping of the main structure with chapter-houses,
cloisters, and Lady-chapels.
FRONTS. The sides and east ends were, in most cases, more
successful than the west fronts. In these the English displayed a

singular indifference or lack of creative power. They produced

nothing to rival the majestic facades of Notre Dame, Amiens, or
Reims, and their portals are almost ridiculously small. The
front of York Cathedral is the most notable in the list for its size
and clalx)rate decoration. Those of Lincoln and Peterbo-
rough are, however, more interesting in the picturesqueness and
232 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

singularity of their composition.

The first-named forms a vast
arcaded screen, masking the bases of the two western towers, and
pierced by three huge Norman arches, retained from the original

facade. The west front of Peterborough is likewise a mask or

screen, mainly composed of three colossal recessed arches, whose

vast scale completely
dwarfs the little porches
which give admittance to

the church. Salisbury

has a curiously illogical
and ineffective facade.
Those of Lichfield and
Wells are, on the other
hand, imposing and beau-
tiful designs, the first with

its twin spires and rich

arcading (Fig. 139), the
second with its unusual
wealth of figure-sculp-
ture, and massive square
towers.
CENTRAL TOWERS.
FIG. 139. WEST FRONT, LICHFIELD
CATHEDRAL. These are the most suc-
cessful features of Eng-
lish exterior design. Most of them form lanterns internally
over the crossing, giving to that point a considerable increase
of dignity. Externally they are usually massive and lofty square
towers, and having been for the most part completed during the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries they arc marked by great rich-
ness and elegance of detail. Durham, York, Ely, Canterbury,
Lincoln, and Gloucester may be mentioned as notable examples
of such square towers; that of Canterbury is the finest. Two or
three have lofty spires over the lantern. Among these, that of

Salisbury is chief, rising 424 feet from the ground, admirably

 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IX GRKAT 15RITAIN. 233

designed in every detail. It was not completed till the middle of

the fourteenth century, but most fortunately carries out with

great felicity the spirit of the earlier style in which it was begun.
Lichfield and Chichester have somewhat similar central spires,
but less happy in proportion and
detail than the beautiful Salisbury
example.
INTERIOR DESIGN. In the Nor-
man churches the pier-arches, tri-
forium, and clearstory were practi-
cally equal. In the Gothic churches
the pier-arches generally occupy
the lower half of the height, the

upper half being divided nearly

equally between the triforium and
clearstory, as in Lincoln, Lichfield
(nave), Ely (choir). In some cases,
however Salisbury, West-
(as at

minster, Winchester, choir of Lich-

field), the clearstory is magnified
at the expense of the triforium

(Fig. 140). Three peculiarities of

design sharply distinguish the Eng-

lish treatment of these features
FIT.. 140. ONE HAY OF CHOIR,
from the French. The first is LICHF1KI.I) CATHKDKAI..

the multiplicity of fine mouldings

in the pier-arches; the second is the decorative elaboration of

design in the triforium; the third, the variety in the treatment of

the clearstory. In general the English interiors arc- much more
ornate than the French. Black Purbeck marble is
frequently
used for the shafts clustered around the central core of the pier,
giving a striking and somewhat singular effect of contrasted color.
The rich vaulting, the highly decorated triforium, the moulded
pier-arches, and at the end of the vista the great east window,
234 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

produce an impression very different from the more simple and

lofty stateliness of the French cathedrals. The great length and
lowness of the English interiors combine with this decorative
richness to give the impression of repose and grace, rather than
of majesty and power. This tendency reached its highest expres-
sion in the Perpendicular churches and chapels, in which every
surfacewas covered with minute panelling.
CARVING. In the Early English Period the details were
carved with remarkable vigor. In the capitals and corbels,
crockets and finials, the foliage was crisp and fine, curling into
convex masses and seeming to spring from the surface which it
decorated. Mouldings were frequently ornamented in the hol-
lows with foliage of this character, or with the dog-tooth ornament
or the ball-flower, introducing repeated points of light into the
shadows of the mouldings. These were fine and complex, deep
hollows alternating with round mouldings (bowlels) sometimes
made pear-shaped in section by a fillet on one side. Cusping

the decoration of an arch or circle by triangular projections on its

inner edge was introduced during this period, and became an

important decorative resource, especially in tracery design. In

the Decorated Period the foliage was less crisp though sometimes
treated with extraordinary realism; sea-weed and oak-leaves,

closelyand confusedly bunched, were often used in the capitals,

while crockets were larger, double-curved, with leaves swelling
into convexities like oak-galls. Geometrical and flowing tracery
were developed, double curves began to be used in the profiles of
mouldings, and the hollows were less frequently adorned with
foliage.
In the Perpendicular Period nearly all Hat surfaces were pan-
elled in designs resembling the tracery of the windows. The cap-
itals were less important than those of the (receding periods, and
]

the mouldings weaker and less effective. The Tudor rose ap-
pears as an ornament in square panels and on Hal surfaces; and
moulded battlements, which first appeared in Decorated work,
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 235

now become a frequent crowning motive in place of a cornice.

There is less originality and variety in the ornament, but a great
increase in its amount (Fig. 141).
PLANS. English church plans underwent, during the Gothic
Period, but little change from the general types established pre-
vious to the thirteenth century. The Gothic cathedrals and

abbeys, like the Norman, were very long and narrow, with choirs
often nearly as long as the nave, and almost
invariably with square

FIG. 141. FAN VAULTING, HENRY VII. 'S CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

eastward terminations. There is no example of double side

aisles and side chapels, and apsidal chapels are very rare. Can-
terbury and Westminster (Fig. 142) are the chief exceptions to
this, and both show clearly the French influence. Another strik-
ing peculiarity of the English plans is the frequent occurrence of

secondary transepts, adding greatly to the external picturesque-

ness. These occur in rudimentary form in Canterbury, and at
Durham the Chapel of the Nine Altars, added 1242-1290 to the
eastern end, forms in reality a secondary transept. This feature
is most perfectly developed in the cathedral of Salisbury (Fig.
236 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

132), and appears also at Lincoln, Worcester, Wells, and Here-

ford. The
English cathedral plans are also distinguished by the
retention or incorporation of many conventual features, such as

cloisters, libraries, and halls, and by the grouping of chapter-

houses and Lady-chapels
with the main edifice.

Thus the English cathe-

dral plans and those of
the great abbey churches

present a marked con-

trast with those of France

and the Continent gener-

ally. \Vhile Amiens, the

greatest of French cathe-

drals, is 521 feet long,
and internally 140 feet
high, Ely measures 565
feet in length, and less

than 75 feet in height.

Notre Dame is 148 feet
wide; the English naves
are usually under 80 feet
in total width of the three

aisles. No cathedrals
FIC,. 142. EASTERN HALF OP WESTMINSTER ,, . .
-,. ,
were originally built

a. Henry VII : S chapel, with flVC aisles. There

are, however, a number
of parish churches with five aisles, and one of these, at Man-
chester, has in modern times been converted into the cathedral
of a newly-partitioned diocese. The present exterior side aisles
of Chichester were formed from the original side-chapels of
the nave.
PARISH CHURCHES. Many of these were of exceptional

beauty of composition and detail. They display the greatest

 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 237

variety of plan, churches with two equal-gabled naves side by

side being not uncommon. A
considerable proportion of them
date from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and are chiefly

interesting for their square, single, west towers and their carved

wooden ceilings (see below). The tower was usually built over
the central western porch; broad and square, with corner but-
tresses terminating in pinnacles, it was usually finished without

spires. Crenelated battlements crowned the upper story.

Among notable square towers are those of Boston and St.

Nicholas, Newcastle. Important parish churches are St. Mi-

chael's, Coventry; St. Mary's Redcliffe, at Bristol ;
St. Stephen's,
Norwich, and many others.
SPIRES. When spires were added to the west towers, the
transitionfrom the square tower to the octagonal spire was ef-
fected by broaches or portions of a square pyramid intersecting
the base of the spire, or by corner pinnacles and flying-buttresses.
The spires of the more important parish churches are often of
exceptional beauty, and constitute a notably successful element in
English mediaeval architecture. Even the simpler broach-spires
like Frampton or Ewerby are strikingly effective, while the more
elaborate spires of later date, such as Louth, Patrington or St.

Michael's, Coventry, are architectural works of the first order.

The most perfect of all English spires is, however, that of Salis-

bury Cathedral.
WOODEN CEILINGS. The English treated woodwork with
consummate skill. They invented and developed a variety of
forms of roof-truss in which the proper distribution of the strains
was combined with a highly decorative treatment of the several
parts by carving, moulding, and arcading. The ceiling surfaces
between the trusses were handled decoratively, and the oaken
open-timber ceilings of many of the English churches and civic
or academic halls (Christ Church Hall, Oxford; Westminster
Hall, London) are such noble and beautiful works as quite to
justify the substitution of wooden for vaulted ceilings (Fig. 143).
238 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The hammer-beam truss was in its way as highly scientific, and

aesthetically as satisfactory, as any feature of French Gothic stone
construction. Without the use of tie-rods to keep the rafters
from spreading, it brought the strain of the roof upon internal
brackets low down on the wall, and produced a beautiful effect by
the repetition of its graceful curves in each truss. The ceilings
of the parish churches
of Wymondham,
Trunch, March, St.

Stephen's, Norwich,
and the Middle Temple
Hall, London, are fine

examples of this branch

of English design.
CHAPELS AND
HALLS. Many of
these rival the cathe-
drals in beauty and
dignity of design. The
royal chapels at Wind-
sor and Westminster
FIG. 1.43. ROOF OP NAVE, ST. MARY'S, WESTON-
ZOYLAND. have already been
mentioned, as well as
King's College Chapel Cambridge, and Christ Church Hall
at

at Oxford. To these college halls should be added the chapel

of Merton College at Oxford, and the beautiful chapel of St.

Stephen at Westminster, most unfortunately demolished when

the present Parliament House was erected. The Lady-chapels
of Gloucester and
Ely, though connected with the cathedrals, are
really independent designs of late date, and remarkable for the
richness of their decoration, their great windows, and elab-
orate ribbed vaulting. Some of the halls in mediaeval castles

and manor-houses are also worthy of note, especially for their

timber ceilings.
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 239

MINOR MONUMENTS. The student of Gothic architecture

should also give attention to the choir-screens, tombs, and chan-
tries which embellish many of the abbeys and cathedrals. The
rood-screen at York is a notable example of the first; the tomb of
De Gray in the same cathedral, and tombs and chantries in Can-
terbury, Winchester, Westminster Abbey, Ely, St. Alban's Abbey,
and other churches are deservedly admired. In these the English
love for ornament, for minute carving, and for the contrast of

white and colored marble, found unrestrained expression. To

these should be added the market-crosses of Salisbury and Win-

chester,and Queen Eleanor's Cross at Waltham.

DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. The mediaeval castles of Great
Britain belong to the domain of military engineering rather than
of the history of art, though occasionally presenting to view details
of considerable architectural beauty. The growth of peace and
civic order is marked by the erection of manor-houses, the resi-
dences of wealthy landowners. Some of these houses are of im-

posing size, and show the application to domestic requirements,

of the late Gothic style which prevailed in the period to which

most of them belong. The windows are square or Tudor-

arched, with stone mullions and transoms of the Perpendicular

style, and the walls terminate in merlons or crenelated parapets,

recalling the earlier military structures. The palace of the

bishop or archbishop, adjoining the cathedral, and the residences
of the dean, canons, and clergy, together with the libraries,
schools, and gates of the cathedral enclosure, illustrate other

phases of secular Gothic work. Few of these structures are of

striking architectural merit, but they possess a picturesque
charm which is very attractive.
Not many stone houses of the smaller class remain from the
Gothic period in England. But there is hardly an old town that
does not retain many of the half-timbered dwellings of the fif-

teenth or even fourteenth century, some of them in excellent

preservation. They are for the most part wider and lower than
240 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

the French houses of the same class, but are built on the same

principle, and, like them, the woodwork is more or less richly

carved.

MONUMENTS: (A. =
abbey church; C. cathedral r. =
ruined; ;
=
trans. = transept ;
each monument is given under the date of the
earliest extant Gothic work upon it, with additions of later periods
in parentheses.)
EARLY ENGLISH: Kirkstall A., 1152-82, first pointed arches; Can-
terbury C, choir, 1175-84 (nave, 1378-1411; central tower, 1500);
Wells C., 1 190-1206 ( W. front 1225, choir later, chapter-h. 1292-1319) ;

Lincoln C., choir, trans., 1192-1200 (vault 1250; nave and E. end
1260-80); Lichfield C, 1200-50 (W. front 1275; presbytery 1325);
Rochester C., choir and trans., 1200-39 (nave Norman) ;

Worcester C, choir 1203-18, nave partly Norman (W. end 1375-

95) ;
Chichester C, 1204-44 (spire rebuilt I7th century) ;
Fountains
A., 1205-46; Salisbury C., 1220-58 (cloister, chapter-h. 1263-84; spire
1331) Elgin C., 1224-44; Beverley A., choir, trans. 1225-1245
; (nave
1320-50; W. front 1380-1430); York C., S. trans. 1225; N. trans.
1260 (nave, chapter-h. 1291-1345; W. window 1338; central tower
1389-1407; E. window 1407); Southwell Minster, 1233-94 (nave
Norman) ; Ripon C., 1233-94 (central tower 1459) ; Ely C., choir
1229-54 (nave Norman; octagon and presbytery 1323-62); Peter-
borough C., W. front 1237 (nave Norman; retro-choir, late I4th
century); Netley A., 1239 (r.) Durham C., "Nine Altars" and
;

E. end choir, 1235-90 (nave, choir, Norman; W. window 1341;

centraltower finished 1480); Glasgow C. (with remarkable Early
English crypt), 1242-77; Gloucester C., nave vaulted 1239-42 (nave
mainly Norman; choir 1337-51; cloisters 1375-1412; W. end 1420-
37; central tower 1450-57); Westminster A., 1245-69; nave 1350-
1422; St. Mary's A., York, 1272-92 (r.).
DECORATKD: Merton College Chapel, Oxford, 1274-1300; Here-
ford C., N. trans., chapter-h., cloisters, vaulting, 1275-92 (nave,
choir, Norman) ;
Exeter nave 1331-50 E.
C., choir, trans., 1279-91 ; (

end remodelled 1390) Lichlield C., Lady-chapel 1310; Ely C., Lady-
;

chapel, 1321-49; Melrose A., 1327-0)9 (nave 1500; r. St. Stephen's ) ;

chapel, Westminster 1349-64 (demolished); Edington church, 1352-

6t ; Carlisle C, E. end and upper parts 1352-95 (nave in part and S.
trans. Norman; tower finished 1419); Winchester C., \Y. end re-
modelled 1360-66 (nave and aisles 1394-1410; trans, partly Nor-
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 241

man); York Lady-chapel 1362-72; churches of Patrington and

C.,

Hull, late i-jth St. Mary's RedclifTe at Bristol, 1292-1460.

century;
PERPENDICULAR: Winchester C., nave 1371-1460; Canterbury C.,
nave 1379-1400; cloisterHoly Cross Church, Canter-
1397-1412;
bury, 1380; St. Warwick, 1381-91; Manchester C.,
Mary's
1422; St. Mary's, Bury St. Edmunds, 1424-33; Sherborne,
choir 1436 (nave 1475-1504) Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick,
;

1439; King's College Cambridge, 1446; vaults 1508-

Chapel,
15; Roslyn Chapel, Edinburgh, 1446-90; Gloucester C., Lady-chapel.
1 -457-98; St.
Mary's, Stratford-on-Avon, 1465-91; Norwich C., up-
per part and E. end of choir, 1472-99 (the rest mainly Norman) ;

St. George's Chapel, Windsor, 1481-1508; choir vaulted, 1507-20;

Bath A., 1500-39; Chapel of Henry VII., Westminster, 1503-20;
Central towers of York, Lincoln, Gloucester, Durham, Canterbury
and Bristol C. Churches of S. Nicholas, Lynn, St. Michael's,
;

Coventry, Boston, Louth, Malvern Priory and many others.

ACADEMIC AND SECULAR BUILDINGS: Winchester Castle Hall,
1222-35; Merton College Chapel, Oxford, 1274-1300; Library Mer-
ton College, 1354-78; Norborough Hall, 1356; Windsor Castle,
upper ward, 1359-73 Winchester College, 1387-93 Wardour Castle,
; ;

1392; Westminster Hall, rebuilt, 1397-99; St. Mary's Hall, Coventry,

1401-14; \Varkworth Castle, 1440; St. John's College, All Souls'
College, Oxford, 1437; Eton College, 1441-1522; Divinity Schools,
Oxford, 1445-54; Magdalen College, Oxford, 1475-80, tower, 1500;
Christ Church Hall, Oxford, 1529.
 CHAPTER XVIII.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETH-

ERLANDS, AND SPAIN.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Reber. Also,

Adler, M ittelalterliche Backstein-Bauwerke des preussischen
Staates. Essenwein (Hdbuch. d. Arch.), Die romanische imd die

gothische Baukunst ; der Wohnbau. Foerster, Dcnkmdler

deutscher Baukunst. Hasak, Die romanische und die gothische
Baukunst; Kirchenbau; Einzelheiten dcs Kirchenbaues (both
in Hdbuch. d. Arch.] Hase and others, Die mittelalterlichen
Baudenkmdler Niedersachsens. Kallenbach, Chronologic der
deutschen mittelalterlichen Baukunst. Llibke, Ecclesiastical Art
in Germany during the Middle Ages. Piferrer and Pi y Margall,
Espana, sus monumentos y artes. Redtenbacher, Leitjaden zum
Studium der mittelalterlichen Baukunst. Street, Gothic Architec-
ture in Spain. Uhde, Baudenkmdler in Spanien. Ungewitter,
Lehrbuch der gothischen Constructionen. Villa Amil, Hispanm
Artistica y Monumental. Watson, Portuguese Architecture.

EARLY GOTHIC WORKS. The Gothic architecture of Ger-

many is less interesting to the general student than that of France
and England not only because its development was less system-
atic and more provincial, but also because it
produced fewer
works of high intrinsic merit. The introduction into Germany
of the pointed style was tardy, and its progress slow. Roman-
esque architecture had created imposing types of ecclesiastical
architecture, which the conservative Teutons were slow to aban-
don. The result was a half-century of transition and a mingling
of Romanesque and Gothic forms. St. Castor, at Coblentz, built
as late as 1208, is wholly Romanesque. Even when the pointed
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY. 243

arch and vault had finally come into general use, the plan and the
constructive system remained predominantly Romanesque.
still

The western apse and short sanctuary of the earlier plans were
retained. There was no triforium, the clearstory was insignifi-
cant, and the whole aspect low and massive. The Germans
avoided, at first, as did the English, the constructive audacities
and difficulties of the French Gothic, but showed less of invention
and grace than their English neighbors. When, however, through
the influence of foreign models, especially of the great French

cathedrals, and through the employment of foreign architects,

the Gothic styles were at last thoroughly domesticated, a spirit of
ostentation took the place of the earlier conservatism. Technical
cleverness, exaggerated ingenuity of detail, and constructive tours
de force characterize most of the German Gothic work of the late
fourteenth and of the fifteenth century. This is exemplified in
the slender mullions ofUlm, the lofty and complicated spire of
Strasburg, and the curious traceries of churches and houses in

Nuremberg.
PERIODS. The stages of German mediaeval architectural
development corresponded in sequence, though not in date, with

the movement elsewhere. The maturing of the true Gothic

styles was preceded by more than a half-century of transition.

Chronologically the periods* may be broadly stated as follows:

The TRANSITIONAL, 1170-1225.
The EARLY POINTED, 1225-1275.
The MIDDLE OR DECORATED, 1275-1350.
The FLORID, 1350-1530.
These divisions are, however, far less clearly defined than in
France and England. The development of forms was less logical
and consequential, and less uniform in the different provinces,
than in those western lands.
CONSTRUCTION. As already remarked, a tenacious hold of

Romanesque methods is observable in many German Gothic

* See ante, p. 197.
244 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

monuments. Broad wall-surfaces with small windows and a

general massiveness and lowness of proportions were long pre-

ferred to the more slender and lofty forms of true Gothic design.

Square vaulting-bays were persistently adhered to, covering two

aisle-bays. The six-part system
was only rarely resorted to, as at
Schlettstadt, and in St. George
at Limburg-on-the-Lahn (Fig.
144). The ribbed vault was an
imported idea, and was never
systematically developed. Under
the final dominance of French
models in the second half of the
thirteenth century, vaulting in

oblong bays became more gen-

eral, powerfully influenced by

buildings like Freiburg, Cologne,

and Ratisbon Cathedrals, and
St. Catherine at Oppenheim.
In the fourteenth century the
growing taste for elaboration and
rich detail led to the introduction
FIG. 144. ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL
OF ST. GEORGE, LIMBURG.
of multiplied decorative ribs,
not, as in England, through a

logical development of constructive methods, but purely as dec-

orative features. Conspicuous examples of its application are
found Ulm, Prague, and Vienna;
in the cathedrals of Freiburg,

Barbara at Kuttenberg, and many other important churches.

in St.

But with all the richness and complexity of these net-like vaults
theGermans developed nothing like the fan-vaulting or chapter-
house ceilings of England.
SIDE AISLES. A notable feature of many German churches
is the raising of the side-aisle vaults to the same height as that of

the central aisle. Thus was developed a new type,

distinctly to
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY. 245

which German writers have given the name of hall-church. The

result was to transform completely the internal perspective of the

church as well asits structural membering. The clearstory dis-

appeared; the central aisle no longer dominated the interior; the

pier-arches and side-walls were greatly increased in height, and

flying-buttresses were no longer required. The whole design ap-
peared internally more spacious, but lost greatly in variety and in

interest. The
cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna is the most im-

posing instance of this treatment, which first appeared in the

church of St. Elizabeth at Marburg (1235-83; Fig. 145). St.
Barbara at Kuttenberg, St. Martin's at Landshut (1404), the
Frauenkirche of Munich, St. Catherine at Brandenburg, the
Abbey at Zwettl and the
Cathedral of Stendal, are
others among many ex-

amples of this type.

TOWERS AND SPIRES.
The same fondness for spires
which had been displayed
in the Rhenish Romanesque

churches produced in the

Gothic period a number of

strikingly beautiful church

steeply, inwhich openwork

tracery was substituted for
the solid stone pyramids of
MS. SECTION OP ST. ELIZABETH,
examples. The most
earlier MARBURG.
remarkable of these spires
are those of Freiburg (1300), Strasburg, and Cologne Cathe-
drals, of the church Esslingen, St. Martin's at Landshut,
at

and the Cathedral of Vienna. In these the transition from the

simple square tower below to the octagonal belfry and spire is

generally managed with skill. In the remarkable tower of
the cathedral at Vienna (1433) the transition is too gradual, so
246 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

that the spire seems to start from the ground and lacks the vigor
and accent of a simpler square lower portion. The over-elabor-
ate spire of Strasburg (1429, by Junckher of Cologne; lower
parts and facade, 1277-1365, by Erwin von Stelnbach and his
sons) reaches a height of 468 feet; the spires of Cologne, com-

pleted in 1883 from the original fourteenth-century drawings, long

lost but recovered by a happy accident, are 500 feet high. The

spires of Ratisbon and Ulm have also been recently completed

in the original style.

DETAILS. German window tracery was best where it most

closely followed French patterns, but it tended always towards
and of technical display in over-
the faults of mechanical stiffness
slenderness of shafts and mullions. The windows, especially in
"
the hall-churches," were apt to be too narrow for their height.
In the fifteenth century ingenuity of geometrical combinations
took the place of grace of line, and later the tracery was often
tortured into a stone caricature of rustic-work of interlaced and
twisted boughs and twigs, represented with all their bark and
knots (branch-tracery). The execution was far superior to the

design. A favorite device for the display of technical skill was the
carving of intersecting mouldings. The carving of foliage in
no special mention for
capitals, finials, etc., calls for its originality
or its departure from French types.
PLANS. In these there was more variety than in any other
part of Europe except Italy. Some churches, like
Naumburg,
retained the Romanesque system of a second western apse and
short choir. The Cistercian churches generally had square east
ends, while the polygonal eastern apse without ambulatory is seen
in St. Elizabeth at Marburg; the Minster at Ulm, the cathedrals

of Ratisbon and Vienna, and many other churches. The earliest

example and a series of
of the chevet with a single ambulatory

radiating apsidal chapels was Madgeburg Cathedral (1208-11),

later followed by Altenburg, Cologne, Freiburg, LUbeck, Prague
and /Cwettl, St. Francis at Sal/burg and some other churches.
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY. 247

Side chapels to nave or choir appear in the cathedrals of Llibeck,

Munich, Oppenheim, Prague and Zwettl. Cologne Cathedral,

by far the largest and jnost magnificent of all, is completely
French in plan, uniting in one design the leading characteristics
of the most notable French churches (Fig. 146). It has com-

plete double aisles in both nave

and choir, three-aisled transepts,
radial chevet-chapels and twin
western towers. The ambulatory
is, however, single, and there are
no lateral chapels. A typical
German treatment was the east-
ward termination of the church
by polygonal chapels, one in the

axis of each aisle, the central one

projecting beyond its neighbors.
Where there were five aisles, as
at Xanten, the effect was partic-
ularly fine. The
plan of the cu-
rious polygonal church of Our

Lady (Liebfrauenkirche; 1227-

43) built on the site of the
146. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL.
ancient circular baptistery at PLAN.

Treves, would seem to have been

produced by doubling such an arrangement on either side of

the transverse axis (Fig. 147).

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. The so-called Golden Por-
tal of Freiburg in the Erzgebirge is perhaps the first distinc-

tively Gothic work in Germany, dating from 1190. From that

time on, Gothic details appeared with increasing frequency, espe-

cially in the Rhine provinces, as shown in many

transitional

structures. Gelnhausen and Aschaffenburgare early thirteenth

century examples; pointed arches and vaults appear in the

Apostles' and St. Martin's churches at Cologne; and the great
248 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

church of St. Peter and St. Paul at Nemveiler in Alsace has an

almost purely Gothic nave of the same period. The churches of

Bamberg, Fritzlar, and Naumburg, and in Westphalia those

of Miinster and Osnabriick, are important examples of the
transition. The French influ-

ence, especially the Burgundian,

appears as early as 1212 in the
cathedral of Madgeburg, imitat-

ing the choir of Soissons, and in

the structural design of the Lieb-
frauenkirche Treves, as al-
at

ready mentioned; it reached

complete ascendancy in Alsace
at Strasburg (nave 1240-75), in

Baden at Freiburg (nave 1270),

and in Prussia at Cologne (1248-
1320). Strasburg Cathedral is
FIG. I4~. CHURCH OF OUR LADY,
TREVES. especially remarkable for its

facade, the work of Ervvin von

Steinbach and his sons
(1277-1346), designed French after

models, and north spire, built in the fifteenth century.

its Co-
logne Cathedral was begun in 1248 in imitation of the newly
completed choir of Amiens, and the choir was consecrated in
1322. The nave and W. front were partly built during the first

half of the fourteenth century, though the towers were not com-
pleted till 1883. In spite of its vast size and slow construction,
it is in style the most uniform of
great Gothic cathedrals,
all

as it is the most
lofty (excepting the choir of Beauvais) and
the largest excepting Milan and Seville. Unfortunately its de-
tails, though pure and correct, are singularly dry and mechan-
ical, whileits very uniformity deprives it of the picturesque and

varied charm which results from a mixture of styles recording

the labors of successive generations. The same criticism may
be raised against the late minster of Ulm (choir, 1377 '449>
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY. 249

nave, 1477; Fig. 148). The Cologne influence is observable in

the widely separated cathedrals of Utrecht in the Netherlands,
Metz in the W., Minden and Halberstadt (begun 1250; mainly
built after 1327) in Saxony, and in the S. in the church of St.
Catherine at Oppenheim. To the E. and S., in the cathedrals
ofPrague (Bohemia) by Matthew o] Arras (1344-52) and Ratis-
bon (or Regensburg, 1275), the French influence predominates,
at least in the details and construction.
The last-named one of the most dignified
is

and beautiful of German Gothic churches

German in plan, French in execution.
The French influence also manifests itself
in the details of many of the peculiarly Ger-
man churches with aisles of equal height
(see p. 244).
More peculiarly German are the brick
churches of North Germany, where stone
was almost wholly lacking. In these, flat
walls, square towers, and decoration by
colored and bricks are characteristic,
tiles

as at Brandenburg (St. Godehard and St.

Catherine, 1346-1400)^1 Prentzlau, Tan-
FIG. 148. PLAN OP
germ unde, Konigsberg, etc. Liibeck pos- MINSTER OF ULM.
sesses notable monuments of brick archi-

tecture in the churches of St. Mary and St. Catherine, both

much alike in plan and in the flat and barren simplicity of their

exteriors. St. Martin's at Landshut in the South is also a no-

table brick church.

LATE GOTHIC. As in France and England, the fourteenth and
were mainly occupied with the completion of
fifteenth centuries

existing churches, many of which, up to that time, were still

without naves. The complicated ribbed vaults of this period
are among its most striking features (sec- p. 244). Spirt- building
was as general as was the erection of central square towers in
250 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

England, during the same period. To this time also belong the
overloaded traceries and minute detail of the St. Sebald and St.
Lorenz churches and Frauenkirche, and of several secular build-
Nuremberg, the facade of Chemnitz Cathedral, and
ings, all at
similar works. The nave and tower of St. Stephen at Vienna
(1359-1433), the church of Sta. Maria in Gestade in the same
city, and the cathedral of Kaschau in Hungary, are Austrian

masterpieces of late Gothic design.

SECULAR BUILDINGS. Germany possesses a number of im-

portant examples of secular Gothic work, chiefly municipal

buildings (gates and town halls) and castles. The first com-
pletely Gothic castle or palace was not built until 1 280, at Mari-
enburg (Prussia), and was completed a century later. It con-
sists of two courts, the two forming a closed square
earlier of the

and containing the chapel and chapter-house of the Order of the

German Knights. The later and larger court is less regular, its

chief feature being the Great Hall of the Order, in two aisles.

All the vaulting is of the richest multiple-ribbed type. Other

castles are at Marienwerder, Heilsberg (1350) in E. Prussia,
Karlstein in Bohemia (1347), and the Albrechtsburg at Meissen
in Saxony (1471-83).
Among town halls, most of which date from the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, may be mentioned those of Ratisbon (Regens-

burg), Miinster and Hildesheim, Halberstadt, Brunswick, Lii-

beck, and Bremen the last two of brick. These, and the city
gates, such as the Spahlenthor at Basle (Switzerland) and others
at Liibeck and Wismar, are generally very picturesque edifices.
Many fine guildhalls were also built during the last two centuries
of the Gothic style; and dwelling-houses of the same period, of
quaint and with stepped or traceried gables,
effective design,

lofty roofs, openwork balconies and corner turrets, are to be

found in many cities. Nuremberg is especially rich in these.
THE NETHERLANDS, as might be expected from their
jK>sition, underwent the influences of both Fiance and Germany.
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN BELGIUM. 2$ I

During the thirteenth century, largely through the intimate mon-

between Tournay and Noyon, the French influence
astic relations

became paramount in what is now Belgium, while Holland re-

mained more strongly German in style. Of the two countries
Belgium developed by far the most interesting architecture. The
Flemish town halls and guildhalls merit particular attention for
their size and richness, exemplifying in a worthy manner the

wealth and independence of the Flemish weavers and merchants

in the fifteenth century.

CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES. The earliest purely

Gothic edifice in Belgium was the choir of Ste. Gudule (1225) at
Brussels, followed in 1242 by the choir and transepts of Tournay,
designed with pointed vaults, side chapels, and a complete chevet.
The transept-ends are round, as at Noyon. It was surpassed in
splendor by the Cathedral of Antwerp (1352-1422), remark-
able for its seven-aisled nave and narrow transepts. It covers

some 70,000 square feet, but its great size is not as effective inter-

nally as should be, owing to the poverty of the details and the
it

lack of finely felt proportion in the various parts. The late west
front (1422-1518) displays the florid taste of the wealthy Flemish

burgher population of that period, but is so rich and elegant,

especially its lofty and slender north spire, that its over-decoration
is pardonable. The cathedral of St. Rombaut at Malines
(choir, 1336; nave, 1454-64) a more satisfactory church, though
is

smaller and with its western towers incomplete. The cathedral

of Louvain belongs to thesame period (1373-1433). St. Wan-
dru at Mons (1450-1528) and St. Jacques at Liege (1522-58)
are interesting parish churches of the first rank, remarkable espe-

cially for the use of color in their internal decoration, for their late

tracery and ribbed vaulting, and for the absence of Renaissance

details at that late period.
TOWNHALLS: GUILDHALLS. These were really the most
and are in most cases the most
characteristic Flemish edifices,

conspicuous monuments of their respective cities. The Cloth

252 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Hall of Ypres (1304) is the earliest and most imposing among

them; similar halls were built not much later at Bruges, Malines
and Ghent. The town halls were mostly of later date, the earli-
est being that of Bruges (1377). The town halls of Brussels
with its imposing and graceful tower, of Louvain (1448-63; Fig.

149) and of Oudenarde

(early sixteenth century)
are conspicuous monu-
ments of this class. The
town hall of Middel-
burg, Holland, belongs
also in this group.
In general, the Gothic
architecture of Belgium
presents the traits of a
borrowed style, which
did not undergo at the
hands of its borrowers
any radically novel or
fundamental develop-
ment. The structural

design is
usually lack-
ing in vigor and or-

FIG. I4Q. TOWN HAI.I,, LOUVAIN. ganic significance, but

the details are often
graceful and well designed, especially on the exterior. The
tendency was often towards over-elaboration, particularly in the
later works.

The Gothic architecture of Holland and of the Scandinav-

ian countries offers so little that is
highly artistic or inspiring in
character, that space cannot well be given in this work even to an
enumeration of its chief monuments.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. The beginnings of Gothic architec-
ture in Spain followed close on the series of
campaigns from 1217
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SPAIN. 253

to 1252, which began the overthrow of the Moorish dominion.

With the resulting spirit of exultation and the wealth accruing
from booty, came a rapid development of architecture, mainly
under French influence. Gothic architecture was at this date,
under St. Louis, producing in France some of its noblest works.
The great cathedrals of Toledo and Burgos, begun between 1220
and 1230, were the
earliest purely Gothic
churches in Spain. San
Vincente at Avila and
the Old Cathedral at

Salamanca, of some-
what earlier date, pre-
sent a mixture of
round- and
pointed-
arched forms, with the
Romanesque elements
predominant (see page
182). Toledo Cathe-
dral, planned in imita-
tion of Notre Dame
and Bourgcs, but ex-
ceeding them in width,
covers 75,000 square FIG. ISO. PARADE OP BURGOS CATHEDRAL.
feet, and thus ranks
among the largest of European cathedrals. Internally it is well

proportioned and well detailed, recalling the early French mas-

terworks, but its exterior is less commendable.
In the contemporary cathedral of Burgos the exterior is at least
as interesting as the interior. The west front, of German design,
suggests Cologne by its twin openwork spires (Fig. 150); while
the crossing is embellished with a sumptuous dome and lantern
or (
imliorio, added as late as 1507. Tin- chapels at the east end,

especially that of the Condestabile (14X7), are ornate to the i>oint

254 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

which late Spanish Gothic work is pecu-

of overloading, a fault to

liarly prone. Other thirteenth-century cathedrals are those of

Leon (1260), Valencia (1262), and Barcelona (1298), all ex-
hibiting strongly the French influence in the plan, vaulting and
vertical proportions. The models of Bourges and Paris with
their wide naves, lateral chapels and semicircular chevets were
followed in the cathedral of Barcelona, in a number of fourteenth-
century churches both there and elsewhere, and in the sixteenth-
century cathedral of Segovia. In Sta. Maria del Pi at Barcelona,
in the collegiate church at Manresa, and in the imposing nave of
the Cathedral of Gerona (1416, added to the choir of 1312, the

latter by a Southern French architect, Henri de Narbonne), the

influence of Alby in southern France (see p. 209) is discernible.
These are one-aisled churches with internal buttresses separating
the lateral chapels. The nave of Gerona is 73 feet wide, or
double the average clear width of French or English cathedral
naves. The resulting effect is not commensurate with the actual
dimensions, and shows the inappropriateness of Gothic details
for compositions so Roman in breadth and simplicity.

SEVILLE. The largest single edifice in Spain, and the largest

church built during the Middle Ages in Europe, is the Cathedral
of Seville, begun in 1401 on the site of a Moorish mosque. It

covers 124,000 square feet, measuring 415X298 feet, and is a

simple rectangle comprising with lateral chapels. The

five aisles

central aisle is 56 feet wide and 145 high; the side aisles and

chapels diminish gradually in height, and with the uniform piers

in six rows produce an imposing effect, in spite of the lack of tran-

septs or chevet. The somewhat similar New Cathedral of

Salamanca (1510-1560) shows the last struggles of the Gothic
style against the incoming tide of the Renaissance.

LATER MONUMENTS. These all partake of the over-decor-

ation which characterized the fifteenth century throughout Eu-

rope. In Spain this decoration was even less constructive in

character, and more purely fanciful and arbitrary, than in the

 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IX SPAIN. 255

northern lands; but this very rejection of all constructive pre-

tense gives it a peculiar charm and goes far to excuse its extrava-

gance (Fig. 151). Decorative vaulting-ribs were made to de-

scribe geometric pat-
terns of great elegance.
Some of the late Gothic
vaults by the very exu-
berance of imagination
sh6\vn in their designs,
almost disarm criticism.
Instead of suppressing
the walls as far as pos-

sible, and emphasizing

all the vertical lines, as
was done in France
and England, the later
Gothic architects of

Spain delighted in broad

wall-surfaces and mul-

tiplied horizontal lines.

Upon these surfaces

they lavished carving

without restraint and
without any organic re-

lation to the structure

of the building. The
arcades of cloisters and
interior courts (polios)
were formed with arches VALLADOLID.
of fantastic curves

resting on twisted columns; and internal chapels in the cathe-

drals were covered with minute carving of exquisite workman-

ship, but wholly irrational design. Probably the influence of

Moorish decorative art accounts in part for these extravagances.
256 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The eastern chapels in Burgos Cathedral, the votive church of

San Juan de los Reyes (1476) at Toledo and many portals of

churches, convents and hospitals illustrate these tendencies.

PORTUGAL is an almost unknown land architecturally. It

seems to have adopted the Gothic styles very late in its history.
Two monuments, however, are conspicuous, the convent churches
of Batalha (1390-1520) and Belem, both marked by an ex-
treme overloading of carved ornament. The Mausoleum of
King Manoel in the rear of the church at Batalha is, however, a
noble creation, possibly by an English master. It is a polygonal
domed edifice, some 67 and well designed,
feet in diameter,

though covered with a too profuse and somewhat mechanical

decoration of panels, pinnacles, and carving.

MONUMENTS: GERMANY (C cathedral ;

A abbey ;
tr. = tran-
septs). I3th century: Transitional churches: Bamberg C. Naum- ;

burg C.; Collegiate Church, Fritzlar St. George, Limburg-on-

;

Lahn ;
St. Castor, Coblentz Heisterbach A.
;
all in early years of ;

I3th century. St. Gereon, Cologne, choir 1212-27; Liebfrauenkirche,

Treves, 1227-44; St. Elizabeth, Marburg, 1235-83; Sts. Peter and
Paul, Neuweiler, 1250; Cologne C., choir 1248-1322 (nave I4th
century; towers finished 1883) Strasburg C., 1250-75 (E. end
;

Romanesque; faQade 1277-1365; tower 1429-39); Halberstadt C,

nave 1250 (choir 1327; completed 1490) ; Altenburg C., choir 1255-
65 1379); Wimpfen-im-Thal church 1259-78; St. Law-
(finished
rence, Nuremberg, 1260 (choir 1439-77) St. Catherine, Oppen- !

heim, 1262-1317 (choir 1439); Xanten, Collegiate Church, 1263;

Freiburg C., 1270 1300; choir 1354); Toul C, 1272;
(W. tower
Meissen C., (nave 1312-42); Ratisbon C., 1275; St.
choir 1274
Mary's, Liibeck, 1276; Dominican churches at Coblentz, Gebweiler;
and in Switzerland at Basle, Berne, and Zurich. I4th century :

Wiesenkirche, Sost, 1313; Osnabriick C., 1318 (choir 1420); St.

Mary's, Prcntzlau, 1325; Augsburg C., 1321-1431; Metz C.. 1330
rebuilt (choir 1486) St. Stephen's C., Vienna, 1340 (nave I5th
;

century; tower 1433); Zwettl C., 1343; Prague C., 1344; church at
Tliann, 1351 (tower finished i6th century) Liebfrauenkirche, Nu- :

remberg, 1355-61; St. Sebaldus Church. Nuremberg, 1361-77 (nave

Romanesque) ; Minden C., choir 1361 ; Minster at Him, 1377 (choir

 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SPAIN. 257

1449; nave vaulted 1471; finished i6th century); Sta. Barbara,

Kuttenberg, 1386 (nave 1483); Erfurt C. St. Elizabeth, Kaschau ; ;

Schlettstadt C. I5th century: St. Catherine's, Brandenburg, 1401;

Frauenkirche, Esslingen, 1406 (finished 1522) Minster at Berne, ;

1421; Peter- Paulskirche, Gorlitz, 1423-97; St. Mary's, Stendal,

1447; Frauenkirche, Munich, 1468-88; St. Martin's, Landshut, 1473.
SECULAR MONUMENTS Schloss Marienburg, 1341 : Moldau- ;

bridge and tower, Prague, 1344; Karlsteinburg, 1348-57; Albrechts-

burg, Meissen, 1471-83; Nassau House, Nuremberg, 1350; College
of the Jagellons, Prague, late 15th century; Council houses (Rath-
haiiser) at Nuremburg, 1340; Brunswick, 1393; Cologne, 1407-15;
Basle ;
Breslau Liibeck
;
Miinster Prague Ulm City Gates of
; ; ; ;

Basle, Cologne, Ingolstadt, Lucerne.

THE NETHERLANDS: Brussels C. (Ste. Gudule), 1226-80; Tournai
C., choir 1242 (nave finished 1380) Notre Dame, Bruges, 1239-97; ;

Notre Dame, Tongres, 1240; Utrecht C., 1251; St. Martin, Ypres,
1254; Notre Dame, Dinant, 1255; church at Dordrecht; church at
Aerschot, 1337; Antwerp C., 1352-1411 (W. front 1422-1518); St.
Rombaut, Malines, 1355-66 (nave 1456-64) St. Wandru, Mons, ;

1450-1528; St. Lawrence, Rotterdam, 1472; other I5th century

churches St. Bavon, Haarlem St. Catherine, Utrecht St. Wal-
; ;

purgis, Sutphen St. Bavon, Ghent (tower 1461)

;
St. Jacques, Ant- ;

werp ; St. Pierre, Louvain St. Jacques, Bruges churches at Arn-

; ;

heim, Breda, Delft; St. Jacques, Liege, 1522.

SECULAR; Cloth-hall, Ypres, 1200-1304; cloth-hall, Bruges, 1284;
town hall, Bruges, 1377; town hall, Brussels, 1401-55; town hall,

Louvain, 1448-63 town hall, Ghent, 1481 town hall, Oudeniirde,

; ;

1527; Standehuis, Delft, 1528; cloth-halls at Louvain, Ghent,

Malines.
SPAIN: I3th century: Burgos C., 1221 (facade 1442-56; chapels
1487; cimborio 1567); Toledo C., 1227-90 (chapels I4th and isth
centuries); Tarragona C., 1235; Leon C., 1250 (fagade I4th cen-
tury) ;
Valencia C., 1262
(N. transept 1350-1404; fagade 1381-
1418) ;
Avila and N. portal 1292-1353 (finished I4th cen-
C., vault

tury) St. Esteban, Burgos; church at Las Huelgas.

; 141!) century:
Barcelona C., choir 1298-1329 (nave and transepts 1448; fagade
i6th century) Gerona C., 1312-46 (nave added 1416) S. M. del
; ;

Mar, Barcelona, 1328-83; S. M. del Pino, Barcelona, same date;

Collegiate Church, Manresa, 1328; Oviedo C., 1388 (tower very
late); Pampluna C., 1397 (mainly I5th century). I5th century:
258 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Seville C, 1403 i6th century; cimborio 1517-67)

(finished La ;

Seo, Saragossa 1505); S. Pablo, Burgos, 1415-35; El

(finished
Parral, Segovia, 1459; San Pablo, Valladolid, 1463; Astorga C.,
1471; San Juan de los Reyes, Toledo, 1476; Carthusian church,
Miraflores, 1488;San Juan, and La Merced, Burgos. i6th century:
Huesca 1515; Salamanca New Cathedral, 1510-60; Segovia C.,
C.,

1522; S. Juan de la Puerta, Zamorra.

SECULAR: Porta Serranos, Valencia, 1349; Casa Consistorial,
Barcelona, 1369-78; Casa de la Disputacion, same city; Casa de las
Lonjas, Valencia, 1482.
PORTUGAL: Alcobaga A., nave 1211 (choir 1158, Romanesque);
cloister1310; Se A. at Evora, 1185-1211; cloister I4th century;
churches at Coimbra, Santarem, Thomar; Guarda C., I5th cen-
tury at Batalha, church of Sta. Maria de Victoria and mausoleum
;

of King Manoel, 1387-1515; at Belem, monastery, late Gothic.

 CHAPTER XIX.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Reber. Also,

Cummings, A History of Architecture in Italy. De
Fleury, La
Toscane an moyen age. Gruner, The Terra Colta Architecture oj
Northern Italy. Mothes, Die Baukunst des Mittelalters in Italien.
Norton, Historical Studies of Church Building in the Middle
Ages. Osten, Bauu'erke der Lombardei. Ruskin, Stones oj
Venice. Street, Brick and Marble Architecture of Italy. Willis,
Remarks on the Architecture oj the Middle Ages, especially oj Italy.

GENERAL CHARACTER. The various Romanesque styles

which had grown up in Italy before 1200 lacked that unity of
principle out of which alone a new and homogeneous national
style could have been evolved. I^ach province practised its own
style and methods of building, long after the Romanesque had
given place to the Gothic in Western Europe. The Italians cared
little for Gothic structural principles. Their predilection for
walls, for broad spaces and large
units, and for small rather than

large windows, was in every respect opposed to the tendencies of

Gothic design, and architecture was for them an art of decorative
rather than of constructive logic. Provided they could secure
spaces for mosaic and wall-painting, they were content to tie
their vaults with unsightly tie-rods and to make their church

facades mere screen-walls, in form wholly unrelated to the build-

ings behind them.

When, therefore, under foreign influences pointed arches,
tracery, clustered shafts, crockets, and finials came into use, it was
merely as an imported fashion. Even when foreign architects
260 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

(usually Germans) were employed, the composition, and in large

measure the details, were still Italian and provincial. The church
of St. Francis of Assisi (1228-53, by Jacobus oj Meran, a German,
superseded later by an Italian, Campello), and the cathedral of
Milan (begun 1389, perhaps by Henry oj Gmiind), are conspicu-
ous illustrations of this. Rome built basilicas all through the
Middle Ages. Tuscany continued to prefer flat walls veneered
with marble to the broken surfaces and deep buttresses of France
and Germany. Venice developed a Gothic style of facade-design
wholly her own (see p. 273). Nowhere but in Italy could two
such utterly diverse structures as the Certosa at Pavia and the
cathedral at Milan have been erected at the same time.
CLIMATE AND TRADITION. Two further causes militated

against the domestication of Gothic art in Italy. The first was

the brilliant climate, which seems to demand cool, dim interiors,
thick walls, and small windows, instead of the vast traceried
windows of Gothic design. The second obstacle was the persist-
ence of classic traditions, both in construction and decoration.
The spaciousness and breadth of interior planning which charac-
terized Roman design, and its amplitude of scale in every feature,
seem never to have lost their hold on the Italians. The narrow

lofty aisles, multiplied supports and minute detail of the Gothic

style were repugnant to the classic predilections of the Italian
builders. The Roman acanthus and Corinthian capital were
constantly imitated in their Gothic buildings, and the round arch
continued all through the Middle Ages to be used in conjunction
with the pointed arch (Figs. 152, 153).
EARLY BUILDINGS. Gothic forms were first introduced into
Italy through the agency of the monastic orders, especially the
Cistercian. The churches and some other buildings of the Cis-
tercian monasteries of Casamari, Fossanova and San Galgano
betray unmistakably in their interior design the hand of French
builders. They date from the early years of the thirteenth cen-
tury. The Certosa at Chiaravalle near Milan (1208-21) and
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 26l

most of the churches erected by the mendicant orders of the

Franciscans (founded 1210) and Dominicans (121,., were built
with ribbed vaults and pointed arches. The example set by
these orders contributed greatly to the general adoption of the

foreign style. S. Francesco at Assisi, already mentioned, was

the first Gothic Franciscan church, although S. Francesco at

Bologna, begun a few years later,

was finished a little earlier. The
Dominican church of SS. Gio-
vanni e Paolo and the great
Franciscan church of Sta. Maria
Gloriosa del Frari, both at Ven-
ice, were built a little later. Sta.
Maria Novella at Florence (i 278),
and Sta. Maria sopra Minerva
at Rome (1280), both by the
brothers Sisto and Ristoro, and S.
Anastasia at Verona (1261) are
the masterpieces of the Domini-
can builders. S. Andrea at Ver-
celli in North Italy, begun in

1219 under a foreign architect, is

an isolated early example of lay FIG. 152. DUOMO AT FLORENCE.

PLAN.
Gothic work. Though somewhat a. Campanile.
English in its plan, and (unlike
most Italian churches) provided with two western spires in the
English manner, it is in all other respects thoroughly Italian in
aspect. The church at Asti, begun in 1229, suggests German
models by its high side walls and narrow windows.
CATHEDRALS. The greatest monuments of Italian Gothic
design are the cathedrals, in which, even more than was the case
in France, the highly developed civic pride of the municipalities
expressed itself. Chief among these half civic, half religious
monuments are the cathedrals of Sienna (begun in 1243), Arezzo
262 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

(1278), Orvieto (1290), Florence (the Duomo, Sta. Maria del

Fiore, begun 1294 by Arnolfo di Cambio*), Lucca (S. Martino,
1350), Milan (1389-1418), and S. Petronio at Bologna (1390).
They are all of imposing size; Milan is the largest of all Gothic
cathedrals except Se-
ville. S. Petronio was

planned to be 600 feet

long, the present
structure with its three
broad aisles and
flanking chapels being
merely the nave of the
intended edifice. The
Duomo at Florence
(Fig. 153) is
500 feet

long and covers 82,-

ooo square feet; the
nave has a span of 60
feet, while the octagon
at the crossing is 143
feet in diameter. The
effect of these colossal

dimensions is, how-

PIC,. 153. NAVE Ol' DUOMO AT FLORENCE. ever, as in a number
of these large Italian

interiors, singularly belittled by the bareness of the walls, by

the great size of the constituent parts of the composition, and

by the lack of architectural subdivisions and multiplied detail to

serve as a scale by which to gauge the scale of the ensemble.
INTERIOR TREATMENT. It was doubtless intended to cover

these large unbroken wall-surfaces and the vast expanse of the

vaults over naves of extraordinary breadth with paintings and
color decoration. This would have remedied their present
* "
Called by Vasan Arnolfo di Lapo."
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 263

nakedness and lack of interest, hut it was only in a very few in-

stances carried out. The douhle church of S. Francesco at As-

sisi, decorated hy Cimabue, Giotto, and other early Tuscan

painters, the Arena Chapel at Padua, painted hy Giotto, the

Spanish Chapel of S. M. Novella, Florence, and the east end of S.

Croce, Florence, are illustrations of the splendor of effect possihle

by this method of decoration. The bareness of effect in other,
unpainted interiors was emphasized by the plainness of the
minor ribs. The transverse ribs were usually
vaults destitute of
broad arches with flat soffits, and
the vaulting was often sprung from
so low a point as to leave no room
for a triforium. Mere bull's-eyes
often served for clearstory win-

dows, as in S. Anastasia at Verona,

S. Petronio at Bologna, and the
Florentine Duomo. The cathe-
dral of S. Martino at Lucca (Fig.
154) one of the most complete
is

and elegant of Italian Gothic in-

teriors, having a genuine triforium
with traceried arches. Even here,
however, there are round arches
without mouldings, flat pilasters,
broad transverse ribs recalling
Roman arches, and insignificant

bull's-eyes in the clearstory.

The failure to produce adequate
FIG. 1154. ONB HAY, NAVE OP CATIIE-
results of scale in the interiors of DUAL OP SAM MAKTINO, LUCCA.
the larger Italian churches has
been already alluded to. It is strikingly exemplified in the
Duomo at Florence, the nave of which is 60 feet wide, with
four pier-arches each over 55 feet in span. The immense vault,
in square hays, starts from the level of the tops of these arches.
264 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The interior (Fig. 153) is singularly naked and cold, giving no

conception of its vast dimensions. The colossal dome is an early
work of the Renaissance (see p. 280). It is not known how
Fr. TaJ-cnti, who
1357 enlarged and vaulted the nave and
in

planned the east end, proposed to cover the great octagon. The
east end is the most effective part of the design both internally
and externally, owing to the relatively moderate scale of the
fifteenchapels which
surround the apsidal
arms of the cross. In
S. Petronio at Bologna,

begun 1390 by Master

Antonio, the scale is
better handled. The
nave, 300 feet long, is
divided into six bays,
each embracing two
side chapels. It is 46
feet wide and 132 feet

high, proportions
wh i c h approximate
FIG. 155. INTERIOR OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL. those of the French ca-

thedrals, and produce

an impression of size somewhat unusual in Italian churches.
Orvieto has internally little that suggests Gothic architecture;
like many Franciscan and Dominican churches it is
really a
timber-roofed basilica with a few pointed windows. The mixed
Gothic and Romanesque interior of Sienna Cathedral (Fig.
155), with its round arches and six-sided dome, unsymmetri-
cally placed over the crossing, is one of the most impressive
creations of Italian mediaeval art. Alternate courses of black
and white marble add richness but not repose to the effect of

this interior: the same is true of Orvieto, and of some other

churches. The basement baptistery of S. Giovanni, under the
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 265

east end of Sienna Cathedral, is much more purely Gothic in

detail.

In these, and indeed in most Italian interiors, the main interest

centres less in the excellence of the composition than in the acces-
sories ofpavements, pulpits, choir-stalls, and sepulchral monu-
ments. In these the decorative fancy and skill of the Italians
found unrestrained exercise, and produced works of surpassing
interest and merit.
EXTERNAL DESIGN. The greatest possible disparity gen-
erally exists between the sides and west fronts of the Italian
churches. With few exceptions the flanks present nothing like
the variety of sky-line and of light and shade customary in north-
ern and western lands. The side walls are high and flat, plain,
or striped with black and white masonry (Sienna, Orvieto), or
veneered with marble (Duomo at Florence) or decorated with
surface-ornament of thin pilasters and arcades (Lucca). The
clearstory low; the roof low-pitched and hardly visible from
is

below. Color, rather than structural richness, is generally

sought for: Milan Cathedral is almost the only exception, and
goes to the other extreme, with its seemingly countless buttresses,
pinnacles and statues.
The facades, on the other hand, were treated as independent
decorative compositions, and were in many cases remarkably
beautiful works, though having little or no organic relation to the
main structure. The most celebrated are those of Sienna (cathe-
dralbegun 1243; facade 1284, by Giovanni Phano; Fig. 156)
and Orvieto (begun 1290, by Lorenzo Maitani; facade 1310).
Both of these are sumptuous polychromatic compositions in mar-
ble,designed on somewhat similar lines, with three high gables
fronting the three aisles, with deeply recessed portals, pinnacled
turrets flanking nave and aisles, and a central circular window.
That of Orvieto is furthermore embellished with mosaic pictures,
and is the more brilliant in color of the two. The mediaeval
facades of the Florentine Gothic churches were never completed;
266 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

but the elegance of the panelling and of the tracery with twisted
shafts in the flanks of the cathedral and the florid beauty of its

side doorways century) would doubtless if real-

(late fourteenth
ized with equal success on the facades have produced strikingly
beautiful results. The modern facade of the Duomo, by the late
De Fabris (1887) is a correct if not highly imaginative version of
the style so applied.
The front of Milan Ca-
thedral shows a mix-
ture of Gothic and
Renaissance forms, hav-
ing been com pie ted only
in the early nineteenth

century.* Ferrara Ca-

thedral, although in-
ternally transformed in
the last century, retains
its
picturesque but ut-

terly illogical thirteenth-

century three-gabled
and arcaded screen
front. The Cathedral
FIG. 156. FACADE OF SIKNN'A CATHKDKAL. of Genoa presents
Gothic windows and
deeply recessed portals in a facade built in black and white
bands, like Sienna Cathedral and many churches in Pistoia and
Pisa.

Externally the most important feature was frequently a cupola

or dome over the crossing. That of Sienna has already been
mentioned; that of Milan is a sumptuous many-pinnacled struc-
ture terminating in a spire ^oo feet high. The Certosa at Pavia
(Fig. 157) and the earlier Carthusian church of Chiaravalle have
* The proposed iu:w Gothic facade designed by Brentano (d. 1889)
has never been carried out.
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 267

internal cujx)las or domes covered externally by many-storied

structures ending in a tower dominating the whole edifice. These
two churches, like many others in Lomhardy, the /Emilia and
Venetia, are built of brick, moulded terra-cotta being effectively
used for the cornices, string-courses, jambs and ornaments of the
exterior. The Certosa at Pavia (1396) is contemporary with the
cathedral of Milan, to which it oilers a surprising contrast, both in

and material. It is wholly built of brick and terra-cotta, and,

style
save for its ribbed vaulting, possesses hardly a single Gothic
feature or detail. Its arches, mouldings, and cloisters suggest

both the Romanesque and the Renaissance styles by their semi-

classic character.

PLANS The wide diversity of local styles in Italian architec-

ture appears in the plans as strikingly as in the details. In gen-

eral one notes a love of spaciousness which expresses itself in a

sometimes disproportionate breadth, and in the wide spacing of

268 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

the piers. The polygonal chevet with its radial chapels is but
rarely seen; S. Lorenzo Maria dei Servi and S.
at Naples, Sta.

Francesco at Bologna (1230) are among the most important ex-

amples. More frequently the chapels form a range along the
east side of the transepts, especially in the Franciscan churches,
which otherwise retain many basilican features. A comparison
Andrea at Vercelli, the Duomo at Florence, the
of the plans of S.
cathedrals of Sienna and Milan, S. Petronio at Bologna and the
Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 158), suf-

ficiently illustrates the variety of

< Italian Gothic plan-types.

ORNAMENT. Applied decora-
tion plays a large part in all Ital-
ian Gothic designs. Inlaid and
mosaic patterns and panelled
XV-
veneering in colored marble are
essential features of the exterior
decoration of most Italian
churches. Florence offers a fine
treatment in the
1
Mu
example of this

Duomo, and in its accompanying

Campanile or bell-tower, de-
PIG. 158.- -PLAN OF CERTOSA AT
PAVIA. signed by Giotto (1335) and com-
pleted by Gaddi and Talenti.
This beautiful tower an epitome of Italian Gothic decorative
is

art. Its inlays, mosaics, and veneering are treated with consum-
mate elegance, and combined with incrusted reliefs of great
beauty. The tracery of this monument and of the side windows
of the adjoining cathedral is lighter and more graceful than is
common in Italy. Its beauty consists, however, less in move-
ment of line than in richness and elegance of carved and inlaid
ornament. In the Or San Michele a combined chapel and

granary in Florence dating from 1335 the tracery is far less

light and open. In general, except in churches like the cathe-
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 269

dral of Milan, built under German influences, the tracery in

secular monuments is more successful than in ecclesiastical struc-
tures. Venice developed the
designing of tracery to greater
jK-rfection in her palaces than

any other Italian city (see be-

low).
MINOR WORKS. Italian
Gothic art found freer expres-
sion in semi-decorative wotks,
like tombs, altars and votive
chapels, than in more monu-
mental structures. The four-
teenth century was particularly
rich in canopy tombs, mostly
in churches, though some were
erected in the open air, like the
celebrated Tombs of the Scal-
igers in 'Verona (1329-1380).
Many of those in churches in
and near Rome, and others in

south Italy, are especially rich

in inlay of opus Alcxandrimint.

uj)on their twisted columns and

panelled sarcophagi. The
family of the Cosmali acquired
great fame for work of this
kind during the thirteenth

century. UIM'KK PART OP CAMPANILE,

159.
The marble chapel of
little PLOKKNCK.
Sta. Maria della Spina, on
the Arno, at Pisa, is an instance of the decorative' though illog-

ical use of Gothic forms in minor buildings.

TOWERS. The Italians always preferred the square tower

270 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

to the spire, and in most cases treated it as an independent cam-

panile. Following Early Christian and Romanesque traditions,
these square towers were usually built with plain sides unbroken

by buttresses, and terminated in a flat roof or a low and incon-

spicuous cone or pyramid. The Cam-
panile at Florence already mentioned is
by far the most beautiful of these designs
(Fig. 159). The campaniles of Sienna.
Lucca, and Pistoia are built in alternate
white and black courses, like the ad-

joining cathedrals. Verona and Mantua

have towers with octagonal lanterns
In general, these Gothic towers differ
from the earlier Romanesque models
chiefly in the forms of their openings and
their decorative details.

They are picturesque

and well
proportioned,
but lack the poetry and

variety of the Western

Gothic towers and spires.
SECULAR MONU-
MENTS. In their public
halls, open loggias, and
FIG. l6o. UI'I'ER PART OF PALA7ZO VECCHIO,
domestic architecture the FLORENCE.
Italians were able to

develop the application of Gothic forms with greater freedom

than in their church- building, because unfettered by traditional
methods of design. The early and vigorous growth of munici-

pal and popular institutions led, as in the Netherlands, to the

building of two classes of public halls the town hall proper or

Podcsla, and the council hall, variously called Palazzo Com-

munale, Pnl>blico, or del Consiglio. The town halls, as the seat

of authority, usually have a severe and fortress-like character;
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 2/i

the Bargello at Florenceis- the most

important example, dating
in part from 1250. Even more imposing is the well-known
Palazzo Vecchio, the council hall of the same city (1298, by
Arnolfo cli Cambio; Fig. 160), with a tower which, rising 308
feet in the air, overhangs the street fully 4 feet, its front wall

resting on the face of the powerfully corbelled cornice of the

palace. The court and most of the interior were remodelled in

FIO. ifil. LOOr.IA PKI I. V7I, KLOKHSTF..

the sixteenth century. At Sienna is a somewhat similar struc-

ture in brick, the Palazzo Pubblico. At Pistoia the Podcsta
and the Communal Palace stand opposite each other; in both
of these the courtyards still retain their original aspect. At
Perugia, Bologna, and Viterbo are others of some importance;
while in Lombardy, Bergamo, Como, Cremona, Piaccn/.a and
other towns possess smaller halls with open arcades below, of
a more elegant and pleasing aspect. More- successful still are
the open loggias or tribunes erected for the gatherings of public

bodies. The noble Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence (i,;;<>, by

Bc>t( i di done and Sinwnc di Talcnti) is the largest and most
272 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

famous of these open vaulted halls, of which several exist in

Florence and Sienna.Gothic only in their minor details, they

are Romanesque or semi-classic in their broad round arches
and strong horizontal lines and cornices (Fig. 161).
PALACES AND HOUSES: VENICE. The northern cities, espe-

cially Pisa, Florence, Sienna, Bologna, and Venice, are rich in

medix'val public and
private palaces and
dwellings in brick or

marble, in which point-

ed windows and open
arcades are used with
excellent effect. In

Bologna and Sienna

(e.g. Grotanelli, Sara-
ceni and Buonsignori
palaces) brick is used,
in conjunction with de-
tails executed in mould-

ed terra-cotta, in a

highly artistic and ef-

fective way. Viterbo,

nearer Rome, also pos-
FIG. 162. WEST FROXT OF DOGE'S PALACF.
VENICE. sesses many interesting
houses, with street ar-
cades and open stairways or stoops leading to the main
entrance.
The security and prosperity of Venice in the Middle Ages, and
the ever present influence of the sun-loving East, made the mas-
siveand fortress-like architecture of the inland cities unnecessary.
Abundant openings, large windows full of tracery of grca f light-
ness and elegance, projecting balconies and the freest use of
marble veneering and inlay a survival of Byzantine traditions of
the twelfth century (see p. 133) give to the Venetian houses and
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 273

palaces an air of gaycty and elegance found nowhere else. While

there are few Gothic churches of importance in Venice, the num-
ber of medkeval houses and palaces is very large. Chief among
these is the Doge's Palace (Tig. 162), adjoining the church of St.

Mark. The two-storied arcades of the west and south fronts

date from 1354, and originally stood out from the main edifice,
which was widened in the next century, when the present some-
what heavy walls, laid up in red, white and black marble in a
species of quarry-pattern, were built over the arcades. These
arcades are beautiful designs, combining massive strength and
grace in a manner quite foreign to Western Gothic ideas. Lighter
and more ornate is the Ca d'Oro, on the Grand Canal; while
the Foscari, Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, and Pisani palaces, among
many others, are admirable examples of the style. In most of
these a traccried loggia occupies the central part, flanked by walls
incrusted with marble and pierced by Gothic windows with
carved mouldings, borders, and balconies. The Venetian Gothic
owes its success largely to the absence of structural difficulties to

interfere with the purely decorative development of Gothic

details.

MONUMENTS. I3th Century : Cistercian abbeys Fossanova, San

Galgano, S. Martino al Cimino and Casamari. cir. 1208; S. An-
drea, Vcrcclli, 1219; S. Francesco, Assisi, 1228-5,} ; Church at Asti,

1229; S. Francesco, Bologna; Sienna C., 1243-59 (cupola 1259-64;

facade 1284) S. M. Cloriosa del Frari, Venice, 1250-80 (finished
;

1388); Sta. Cbiara, Assisi, 1250; Sta. Trinita. Florence, 1250; S.

Antonio, Padua, begun 1256; SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. I26o( ?)-
1400; Sta. Anastasia, Verona, 1261; Naples C., 1272-1314 (facade
1299; portal 1407; much altered later); S. Lorenxo, Naples, 1275;
Campo Santo,Pisa, 1278-83; Arcxxo C., 1278; S. M. Novella,
Florence. 1278; S. luistorgio, Milan, 1278; S. M. sopra Minerva,
Rome. 1280; Orvieto C., 1290 (facade 1310; roof 1330) Sta. Croce, ;

Florence, 1294 (facade 1863); S. M. del Fiore. or C., Florence,

1294-1310 (enlarged 1357; E. end 1366; dome 1420-64; facade
1887). Genoa C., early I4tb century; S. Francesco.
i4th century:
Sienna, 1310; San Domenico, Sienna, about same date; S. Giovanni
274 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

in Fonte, Sienna, 1317; S. M. dclla Spina, Pisa, 1323; Campanile,

Florence, 1335; Or San Michele, Florence, 1337; Milan C, 1386
(cupola i6th century; fagade i6th-ipth century; new fagade build-
ing, 1895) S. Petronio, Bologna, 1390; Certosa, Pavia, 1306 (choir,
I

transepts,cupola, cloisters, 151)1 and i6th centuries) Como C., ;

1396 (choir and transepts 1513) Lucca C. (S. Martino), Roman-

;

esque building remodelled late in I4th century Verona C. S. ; ;

Fermo, Maggiore; S. Francesco, Pisa; S. Lorenzo, Vicenza. I5th

century: Perugia C. S. M. delle Grazie, Milan, 1470 (cupola and
;

exterior E. part later).

SECULAR BUILDINGS: Pal. Pubblico, Cremona, 1245; Pal. Podesta
(Bargello), Florence, 1255 (enlarged 1333-45) ;
Pal- Pubblico,
Sienna, 1289-1305 (many later alterations) ;
Pal. Giurcconsulti,
Cremona, 1292 ; Broletto, Monza, 1293 ; Loggia dei Mercanti,
Bologna, 1294; Pal. Vccchio, Florence, 1298; Broletto, Como; Pal.
Ducale (Doge's Palace), Venice, 1310-40 (great windows 1404;
extended 1423-38; courtyard I5th and i6th centuries); Loggia dei
Lanzi, Florence, 1335; Loggia del Bigallo, 1337; Broletto, Ber-
gamo, I4th century; Loggia dei Nobili, Sienna, 1407; Pal. Pub-
blico,Udine, 1457; Loggia dei Mercanti, Ancona Pal. del Governo, ;

Bologna Pal. Pepoli, Bologna

;
Palaces Conte Bardi, Davanzati,
;

Capponi, all at Florence at Lucca, Pal. Guinigi at Sienna, Pal.

; ;

Tolomei, 1205; Pal. Saraceni, Pal.

Buonsignori, Pal. Salimbeni,
Pal. Grotanelli at Venice, Pal. Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, Foscari,
;

Pisani, and many others others in Padua and Vicenza.

;
 CHAPTER XX.

EARLY RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.

BOOKS RECOMMENDI-:!): Anderson, Architecture o] the Renais-

sance in Italy. Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance;
Der Cicerone. Cellesi, Scl Fabbriche di Fircnze. Cicognara, Ix
Fabbrifhe pift cospicue di Venezia. Durm, Die Baukunst der
Renaissance in Italien (in Hdbuch. d. Arch.}. Fergusson, His-
tory o/ Modern Architecture. Geymiillcr, La Renaissance en Tos-
cane. Kinross, Details from Italian Buildings. Meyer, Ober-
italienischeFriih renaissance: Bauten und BiUhccrkcdcr Lombardci.
Montigny Famin, Architecture Toscane. Moore, Character 0}
et
Renaissance Architecture. Miintz, La Renaissance en Italic et en
France a Vepoque de Charles 'III. Palustre, L'A rchitecture de la
\

Renaissance. Schiitz, Die Renaissance in Italien. Stegmann,

Die Architektur der Renaissance in Toscana. Symonds, The
Renaissance oj the Fine Arts in Italy. Tosi and Becchio, Altars,
Tabernacles, and Tombs.

THE CLASSIC REVIVAL. The abandonment of Gothic ar-

chitecture in Italy and the substitution in its place of forms do-
rived from classic models were occasioned by no sudden or merely
local revolution. The Renaissance was the result of a profound

movement, whose roots may be traced far back into

intellectual

the Middle Ages, and which manifested itself first in Italy simply
Ijccause there the conditions were most propitious. It spread
through Europe just as rapidly as similar conditions appearing in
other countries prepared the way for it. The essence of this far-
reaching movement was the protest of the individual reason
against the trammels of external and arbitrary authority a pro-
test which found its earliest organized expression in the Human-
2/6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

ists. In its assertion of the intellectual and moral rights of the

individual, the Renaissance laid the foundations of modern
civilization. The same spirit, in rejecting the authority and
teachings of the Church in matters of purely secular knowledge,
led to the questionings of the precursors of modern science and
the discoveries of the early navigators. But in nothing did
the reaction against mediaeval scholasticism and asceticism

display itself more strikingly than in the joyful enthusiasm

which marked the pursuit studies.
of The long-
classic

neglected treasures of classic literature were reopened and turned

to new account in the fourteenth century by the immortal trio

Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. The joy of living, the delight

in beauty and pleasure for their own sakes, the exultant awaken-
came with the bursting
ing to the sense of personal freedom, which
of mediaeval fetters, found and literature their most
in classic art

sympathetic expression. It was in Italy, where feudalism had

never fully established itself, and where the municipalities and
guilds had developed, as nowhere else, the sense of civic and
personal freedom, that these symptoms first manifested them-
selves. In Italy, and above all in the Tuscan cities, they appeared
throughout the fourteenth century in the growing enthusiasm for
all that recalled the antique culture, and in the rapid advance of

luxury and refinement in both public and private life.

THE RENAISSANCE OF THE ARTS. Classic Roman archi-
tecture had never lost its influence on the Italian taste. Gothic
art,already declining in the West, had never been in Italy more
than a borrowed garb, clothing architectural conceptions classic
rather than Gothic in spirit. The antique monuments which
abounded on every hand were ever present models for the artist,
and to the Florentines of the early fifteenth century the civiliza-
tion which had created them represented the highest ideal of
human culture. They longed to revive in their own time the

glories of ancient Rome, and appropriated with uncritical and

undiscriminating enthusiasm the good and the bad, the early and
 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 2/7

the late forms of Roman art. Naively unconscious of the dis-

parity between their own architectural conceptions and those they

fancied they imitated, they were, unknown to themselves, creat-

ing a new style, in which the details of Roman art were fitted in
novel combinations to new requirements. In proportion as the
Church lost its hold on the culture of the age, this new architec-
ture entered increasingly into the service of private luxury and

public display. It created, it is true, striking types of church

design, and made of the dome one of the most imposing of exter-
nal features; but its most characteristic products were palaces,
villas, council halls, and monuments to the great and the power-
ful. The personal clement in design asserted itself as never be-
fore in the growth of schools and the development of styles.
Thenceforward the history of Italian architecture becomes the
history of the achievements of individual artists.
EARLY BEGINNINGS. Already in the thirteenth century the

pulpits of Niccolo Pisano at Sienna and Pisa had revealed that

master's direct recourse to antique monuments for inspiration and

suggestion. In the frescoes of Giotto and his followers, and in

the architectural details of many nominally Gothic buildings,
classic forms had appeared with increasing frequency during the

fourteenth century. This was especially true in Florence, which

was then the artistic capital of Italy. Never, perhaps, since the
days of Pericles, had there been another community so permeated
with the love of beauty in art, and so endowed with the capacity
to realize it. Her
artists, with unexampled versatility, addressed
themselves with equal success to goldsmiths' work, sculpture,
architecture and engineering often to painting and poetry as

well; and they were quick to catch in their art the spirit of the

classic revival. The new movement achieved its first archi-

tectural triumph in the dome of the cathedral of Florence (14:20-

64); and it was Florentine 1

or at least Tuscan artists who

planted in other centres the seeds of the new art that wen- to

spring up in the local and provincial schools of Sienna, Milan,

2/8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Pavia, Bologna, and Venice, of Brescia, Lucca, Perugia, and

Rimini, and many other North Italian cities. The movement
asserted itself late in Rome and Naples, as an importation from
Northern Italy, but it bore abundant fruit in these cities in its
later stages.

PERIODS. The classic styles which grew up out of the Re-

naissance may be divided for convenience into four periods,
although, as in all the history of architecture, the date-limits
assigned are wholly arbitrary, since there was nowhere any sharp
dividing line between them.
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE or FORMATIVE PERIOD, 1420-90;
characterized by the grace and freedom of the decorative detail,
suggested by Roman prototypes and applied to compositions of
great variety and originality.
THE HIGH RENAISSANCE or FORMALLY CLASSIC PERIOD, 1490-
1550. During this period classic details, and especially the
"orders," were copied with increasing fidelity. There was
increase of stateliness but some loss in freedom and delicacy of
design.
THE BAROQUE, 1550-1600; a period of classic formality char-
acterized by the use of colossal orders, engaged columns and
rather scanty and heavy decoration.
THE DECLINE, 1600 1700; a period marked by poverty of
invention in the composition and a predominance of vulgar sham
and display in the decoration. Broken pediments, huge scrolls,
florid stucco-work and a general disregard of architectural pro-

priety were universal.

During the eighteenth century there was a reaction from these
extravagances, which showed itself in a return to the imitation of
classic models, sometimes not without a certain dignity of

coni]X)sition and restraint in the decoration.

By many writers the name Renaissance is confined to the first

]>eriod. This is
etymologically correct; but the difficulty of dis-

sociating the first period historically from those which followed it.
 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 2/9

down to the final exhaustion of the artistic movement to which it

gave birth, warrants a broader use of the term.

Another division is made by the Italians, who give the name of
the Quattrocento to the period which closed with the end of the
fifteenth century, Cinquecento to the sixteenth century, and

Seiccnto to the seventeenth century or Decline. It has, however,

become common to confine the use of the term Cinquecento to the

first half of the sixteenth century.
CONSTRUCTION AND DETAIL. The architects of the Re-
naissance occupied themselves more with form than with con-

struction, and rarely set themselves constructive problems of

great difficulty. Although the new architecture began with the

colossal dome of the cathedral of Florence, and culminated in the

stupendous church of it was

St. Peter at Rome, pre-eminently an
architecture of palaces and villas, of facades and of decorative

display. Constructive difficulties were reduced to their lowest

terms, and the constructive framework was concealed, not em-
phasized, by the decorative apparel of the design. Among the
masterpieces of the early Renaissance are many buildings of
small dimensions, such as gates, chapels, tombs and fountains.
In these the individual fancy had full sway, and produced surpris-

ing results by the beauty of enriched mouldings, of carved friezes

with infant genii, wreaths of fruit, griffins, masks and scrolls; by

pilasters covered with arabesques as delicate in modelling as if

wrought in silver; by inlays of marble, panels of glazed terra-

cotta, marvellously carved doors, fine stucco-work in relief, capi-
tals and cornices of wonderful richness and variety. The Roman
orders appeared only in free imitations, with panelled and carved

pilasters for the most part instead of columns, and capitals of

fanciful design, recalling remotely the Corinthian by their volutes
and leaves (Fig. 163). Instead of the low-pitched classic pedi-
ments, there appears frequently an arched cornice enclosing a
sculptured lunette. Doors and windows were enclosed in richly
carved frames, sometimes arched and sometimes square. Fa-
280 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

cades were flat and unbroken, depending mainly for effect upon
the distribution and adornment of the openings, mouldings, and
cornices. Internally vaults and flat ceilings of wood and plaster
were about equally common, the barrel vault and dome occurring
far more frequently
than the groined vault.
Many of the ceilings of
this period are of re-

markable richness and

beauty.
THE EARLY RENAIS-
SANCE IN FLORENCE:
THE DUOMO. In the

year 1417 a public

competition was held
for completing the
cathedral of Florence

by a dome over the

immense octagon, 139
FIO. EARLY RENAISSANCE CAPITAL, PAL.
feet in diameter. Fi-
163.
ZORZI, VENICE. ll ppo Brunelleschi,
sculptor and architect
(1377-1446), who with Donatello had journeyed to Rome to study
there the masterworks of ancient art, after demonstrating the in-

adequacy of the solutions proposed by the competitors, was

all

finally permitted to undertake the gigantic task according to his

own plans. These provided for an octagonal dome in two shells,
connected by eight major and sixteen minor ribs, and crowned by
a lantern at the top (Fig. 164). This wholly original conception,

by which for the first time (outside of Moslem art) the dome was
made an external feature fitly terminating in the light forms and
upward movement of a lantern, was carried out between the years
1420 and 1464. Though in no wise an imitation of Roman
forms, it was classic in its spirit, in its vastness and in its simplic-
 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 28l

ity of line, and was made possible solely by Brunelleschi's

studies of Roman design and construction (Fig. 165).
OTHER CHURCHES. From Brunelleschi's designs were also
erected the Pazzi Chapel in the cloister of Sta. Croce, a rectangu-
lar interior with a dome over the central part, and preceded by a
vestibule with a richly decorated vault; and the two great
churches of S. Lorenzo (1425) and S. Spirito (1433-1476, Fig.
1
66). Both of these were in reality basilicas with transepts and
domical-vaulted side aisles. The central aisles were covered
with and a low dome was built over the crossing. All
flat ceilings

the details were imitated from Roman models, and yet the result
was something entirely new, and the pendentives and domes em-
ployed by Brunelleschi were Byzantine rather than Roman. It

is not known whence he derived

them. The Old Sacristy of S.

Lorenzo was another domical de-

sign of great beauty.
From this time on the new style
was in general use for church de-
signs. L. B. Alberti (1404-73),
who had in Rome mastered classic
details more thoroughly than
Brunelleschi, remodelled the
church of S. Francesco at -Ri-

mini with Roman pilasters and

arches, and with engaged orders
in the facade, which, however, was
PIG. 164. SECTION OP DOME OP
never completed. His great work DUOMO. FLORENCE.
was the church of S. Andrea at
Mantua, a Latin cross in plan, with a dome at the inter-
section (the present high dome dating, however, only from the
eighteenth century) and a facade to which the conception of a
Roman triumphal arch was skilfully adapted. His facade of in-
crusted marbles for the church of S. M. Novella at Florence was
282 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

a less successful work, though its flaring consoles over the side
aisles established an unfortunate precedent frequently imitated

in later churches.

A great activity in church-building marked the period between

1475 and 1490. The

plans of the churches
erected about this time
throughout north Italy
display an interesting
variety of arrangements,
in nearly all of which the
dome is combined with
the three-aisled cruciform

plan, either as a central

feature at the crossing or
as a domical vault over
each bay. Bologna and
Ferrara possess a number
of churches of this kind.

Occasionally the basilican

arrangement was fol-

lowed, with columnar ar-

FIG. 165. EXTERIOR OF DOME OF DUOMO.
PLOKENl K. cades separating the
aisles. More often, how-
ever, the pier-arches were of the Roman type, with engaged
columns or pilasters between them. The interiors, presumably
intended to receive painted decorations, were in most cases
somewhat bare of ornament, pleasing rather by happy propor-
tions and effective vaulting or rich flat ceilings, panelled, painted
and gilded, than by elaborate architectural detail. A similar
scantiness of ornament is to be remarked in the exteriors, ex-

cepting the facades, which were sometimes highly ornate; the

doorways, with columns, pediments, sculpture and carving,
receiving especial attention. High external domes did not come
 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 283

into general use until the next period. In Milan, Pavia, and
some other Lombard the internal cupola over the cross-
cities,

ing was, however, covered externally by a lofty structure in

diminishing stages, like that of the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 157),
or that erected by Bramante for the church of S. M. delle Grazie
at Milan. The church plans of this period show the greatest
variety, though nearly all were adorned with a central dome.
Among the most successful were some of the smaller churches,
of the Greek cross type, with four short barrel-vaulted arms
projecting from a central area covered by a dome of moderate
height on pcndentives.
At Prato, the church
of the Madonna delle
Career! (1495-1516),
by Ginliano da S.
Gallo, with its unfin-
ished exterior of white

marble, its simple and

dignified lines, and in-

ternal embellishments
in della-Robbia ware,
is one of the master-
pieces of this type,
which was an essen-
tially new architectural

conception, although
never developed to its
full monumental pos-
sibilities. MO. |66. INTERIOR HI' S. SPIKITO. FI.OKKNCK.

In the designing of
of the early Renaissance
chapels and oratories the architects
attained conspicuous success, these edifices presenting fewer
structural limitations and being more purely decorative in char-
acter than the larger churches. Such facades as that of S. Ber-
284 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

nardino at Perugia and of the Frati di S. Spirito at Bologna

are among the most delightful products of the decorative fancy
of the fifteenth century.
FLORENTINE PALACES. The architects of this period at-
tained conspicuous success in palace-architecture. The Ric-
cardi palace in Florence (1430) marks the first step cf the Renais-
sance in this direction. It was built for the great Cosimo di
Medici by Michelozzi
I I
( 397~ 473)> a con-

temporary of Brunel-
leschi and Alberti, and
a man of great talent.
Its imposing rectangu-
lar facade, with
widely
spaced mullioned win-
dows in two stories
over a massive base-
ment, is crowned with
a classic cornice of
unusual and almost
excessive size. In spite
of the bold and for-
tress-like character of
FIG. 167. COVKTYAKD OP KICCARDI PALACE, the rusticated
FLORENCE. masonry
of this and similar fa-

cades,and their mediaeval appearance to modern

eyes, they
marked a revolution in style and established a type frequently
imitated in later years. The courtyard, in contrast with this
stern exterior, appears light and cheerful (Fig. 167). Its wall
is on round arches borne by columns with Corinthi-
carried

anesque capitals, and the arcade is enriched with sculptured

medallions. The Pitti Palace, by Brunelleschi (1435),* em '
*
Only the central portion of the palace belongs to Brunelleschi's
time. It was successively enlarged in the i6th and i7th centuries.
 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 28 5

bodies the same ideas on a more colossal scale, but lacks the

grace of an adequate cornice. A lighter and more ornate style

appeared in 1460 in the P. Rucellai, by Alberti, in which for
the first time classical pilasters in superposed
stages were ap-
plied to a street facade. To avoid the dilemma of either insuf-
crowning the edifice or making the cornice too heavy
ficiently
for theupper range of pilasters, Alberti made use of brackets,
occupying the width of the upper frieze, and converting the
whole upper entablature into a cornice. But this
compromise
was not quite success-
ful,and it remained
for later architects in

Venice, Verona, and

Rome to work out .

more satisfactory SL ll n
methods of applying
the orders to many-
storied palace facades.
In the great P. Strozzi -*'-*

(Fig. 1 68), erected in

1490 by Benedetto da
Majano and Cronaca,
the architects reverted to the earlier type of the P. Riccardi,

treating it with greater refinement and producing one of the

noblest palaces of Italy.

COURTYARDS; ARCADES. These palaces were all built

around interior courts, whose walls rested on columnar arcades,
as in the P. Riccardi (Fig. 167). The origin of these arcades may
be found in the arcaded cloisters of mediaeval monastic churches,
which often suggest classicmodels, as in those of St. Paul-beyond-
the- Walls and St. John Lateran at Rome. Brunelleschi not only
introduced columnar arcades into a number of cloisters and pal-
ace courts, but also used them effectively as exterior features in
the Loggia S. Paolo and the Foundling Hospital (Ospedale degli
286 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Innocent!) at Florence. The chief drawback in these light ar-

cades was their inability to withstand the thrust of the vaulting
over the space behind them, and the consequent recourse to iron
tie-rods where vaulting was used. The Italians, however,
seemed to care little about this disfigurement.

MINOR WORKS. The details of the new style were developed

quite as rapidly in purely decorative works as in monumental
buildings. mural monuments, tabernacles, pulpits and
Altars,
ciboria alTorded scope for the genius of the most distinguished
artists. Among those who were specially celebrated in works of
this kind should be named Lucca dclla Robbia (1400-82) and his
successors, Mino da Flcsole (1431-84) and Benedetto da Majano
(1442-97). Possessed of a wonderful fertility of invention, they
and their pupils multiplied their works in extraordinary number
and variety, not only throughout North Italy, but also in Rome
and Naples. Among the most famous examples of this branch of
design may be mentioned a pulpit in Sta. Croce by B. da Majano;
a terra-cotta fountain in the sacristy of S. M. Novella, by the della
Robbias; the Marsupini tomb in Sta. Croce, by Desiderio da
Settignano (all in Florence); the della Rovere tomb in S. M. del
Popolo, Rome, by Mino da Fiesole, and in the Cathedral at Lucca
the Noceto tomb and the Tempietto, by Matteo Civitali. It was

in works of this character that the Renaissance oftenest made its

first appearance in a new centre, as was the case in Sienna, Pisa,

Lucca, Naples, etc.

NORTH ITALY. Between 1450 and 1490 the Renaissance

presented in Sienna, in a number of important palaces, a sharp
contrast to the prevalent Gothic style of that city. The P. del
Governo (formerly Piccolomini), in the style of the Riccardi at
Florence, was built 1469, and theSpannocchi Palace in 1470. In

1463 Ant. Fcdcriglii built there the Loggia del Papa. About the
same time Bernardo di Lorenzo was building for Pope Pius II.
(/Eneas Sylvius Piccolomini) an entirely new city, Pienza, with a
cathedral, arvhbishop's palace, town halland Papal residence
 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IX ITALY. 287

(the P. Piccolomini, an obvious copy of the P. Rucellai in I-'lor-

ence), which are interesting if not strikingly original works. Pisa

possesses few early .

Renaissance struc-

tures, owing to the

utter prostration of her
fortunes in the fifteenth

century, and the domi-

nance of Pisan Gothic
traditions. In Lucca,
besides a wealth of
minor monuments
(largely the work of
Matteo Civitali, 1435-
1501) in various
churches, a number of
palaces date from this
period, the most im-
|>ortantbeing the P.
Pretorio and P. Ber-
nardini. To Milan the
Renaissance was car-
ried by the Florentine
masters Michelozzi and
Filarete, to whom are

respectively due the

Portinari Chapel in

S. Kustorgio (1462)
and the earlier part \ocKn
rfx>. TOMB i'iinii in
of the great Ospedale
Maggiore (1457). In the latter, an edifice of brick with terra-
cotta enrichments, the windows were Gothic in outline an
unusual mixture of styles, even in Italy. The munificence of
the Sforzas, the hereditary tyrants of the province, embellished
288 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

the semi-Gothic Certosa of Pavia (see p. 267) with a new

marble facade, begun 1476 or 1491, which in its fanciful and
exuberant decoration, and the small scale of its parts, belongs
properly to the early Renaissance. Exquisitely beautiful in de-
tail, it resembles rather a magnified altar-piece than a work of

architecture, properly speaking. Bologna and Ferrara developed

somewhat late in the century a strong local school of architecture,
remarkable especially for the beauty of its courtyards, its grace-
ful street arcades, and its artistic treatment of brick and terra-
cotta (P. Bevilacqua, P. Fava, at Bologna; P. Scrofa, P.
Roverella, at Ferrara). About the same time palaces with
interior arcades and details in the new style were erected in
Verona, Vicenza, Mantua, and other cities.
VENICE. In this city of merchant princes and a wealthy
bourgeoisie, the architecture of the Renaissance took on a new

aspect of splendor and display. It was late in appearing, the

Gothic style with its tinge of Byzantine decorative traditions
having here developed into a style well suited to the needs of a
rich and relatively tranquil community. These traditions the
architects of the new style appropriated in a measure, as in the
marble incrustations of the exquisite little church of S. M. dei
Miracoli (1480-89), and the facade of the Scuola di S. Marco
(1485-1533), both by Pictro Lombardo. Nowhere else, unless on
the contemporary facade of the Certosa at Pavia, were marble

inlays and delicate carving, combined with a framework of thin

pilasters, finely profiled entablatures and arched pediments, so

lavishly bestowed upon the street fronts of churches and palaces.
The family of the Lombardl (Martino, his sons Moro and Pietro,
and grandsons Antonio and Tullio), with Ant. Kizzo (also called
Riccio and Krcgno) and Bart. BUOH, were the leaders in the
architectural Renaissance of this period, and to them Venice
owes her choicest masterpieces in the new style. Its first

appearance is noted in the later portions of the church of

S. Zaccaria (1456-1515), partly Gothic internally, with a
 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 289

facade whose semicircular pediment and small decorative ar-

cades show a somewhat timid but interesting application of clas-
sic details.In this church, and still more so in S. Giobbe (1451-

93) and the Miracoli above mentioned, the decorative element

predominates throughout. It is hard to imagine details more
graceful in design, more effective in the swing of their movement,

TIG. 170. VEND'^AMIN'I PALACE, VENICE.

or more delicate in execution than the mouldings, reliefs, wreaths,

scrolls, and capitals one encounters in these buildings. Yet in

structural interest, in scale and breadth of planning, these early

Renaissance Venetian buildings hold a relatively inferior rank.

PALACES. The great Court of the Doge's Palace, begun
1483 by Ant-. Rizzo, part to the first period.
belongs only in It

shows, however, the lack of constructive principle and of largeness

of composition just mentioned, but its decorative effect and pic-

turesque variety elicit almost universal admiration. Like the

neighboring facade of St. Mark's, it violates nearly every principle
290 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

of correct composition, and yet in a measure atones for this capi-

tal defect by its charm of detail. Far more satisfactory from the
purely architectural point of view is the facade of the P. Ven-
dramini (Vendramin-Calergi),byPietroLombardo (1481). The
simple, stately lines of its composition, the dignity of its broad
arched and mullioned windows, separated by engaged columns
the earliest example in Venice of this feature, and one of the earli-
est in Italy its well-proportioned basement and upper stories,

crowned by an adequate but somewhat heavy entablature, make

this one of the finest palaces in Italy (Fig. 1 70). It established a

type of large-windowed, vigorously modelled facades which later

architects developed, but hardly surpassed. In the smaller con-

temporary P. Uario, another type appears, better suited for

small buildings, depending for effect mainly upon well-ordered

openings and incrusted panelling of colored marble.

ROME. Internal disorders and the long exile of the popes had
by the end of the fourteenth century reduced Rome to utter insig-
nificance. Not until the second half of the fifteenth century did

returning prosperity and wealth afford the Renaissance its oppor-

tunity in the Eternal City. Pope Nicholas V. had, indeed, begun
the rebuilding of St. Peter's from designs by B. Rossellini, in 1450,
but the project lapsed shortly after with the death of the pope.
The earliest Renaissance building in Rome was the P.di Venezia,

begun in 1455, together with the adjoining porch of S. Marco. In

this palace and the adjoining unfinished Palazzetto we find the

influence of the old Roman monuments clearly manifested in the

court arcades, built like those of the Colosseum, with superposed

stages of massive piers and engaged columns carrying entabla-

tures. The proportions are awkward, the details coarse; but the
spirit of Roman classicism is here seen in the germ. The exterior
of this palace however, still media-vat in spirit. The archi-
is,

tects are unknown; Giidiano da Majano (1432-90), Giaconw di

Picfrasanta, and ,\fro del C'apr'mo (14^0-1501) arc known to

have worked upon it, but it is not certain in what capacity.

 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 2QI

The new style, reaching, and in time overcoming, the con-

servatism of the Church, overthrew the old basilican traditions.
In S. Agostino (1479-83), by Pietrasanta, and S. M. del Popolo,

by Pintelli (?), piers with pilasters or half-columns and massive

arches separate the aisles, and the crossing is crowned with a
dome. To the same period belong the Sistine chapel and parts
of the Vatican palace, but the interest of these lies rather in their
later decorations than in their somewhat scanty architectural
merit. The renewal of Rome, thus begun,
architectural
reached its culmination in the following period.
OTHER MONUMENTS. The complete enumeration of even
the most important Early Renaissance monuments of Italy is im-

possible within our limits. Two or three only can here be singled
out as suggesting types. Among town halls of this period the

first place belongs to the P. del Consiglio at Verona, by Fra

Giocondo (1435-1515). In this beautiful edifice the facade
and graceful arcade supporting a wall pierced
consists of a light
with four windows, and covered with elaborate frescoed ara-

besques (recently restored). Its unfortunate division by pilasters

into four bays, with a pier in the centre, is a blemish avoided

in the contemporary P. del Consiglio at Padua. The Ducal

Palace at Urbino, by Luciano da Laurano (1468), is note-

worthy for its fine arcaded court, and was highly famed in its
day. At Brescia S. M. dei Miracoli is a remarkable example
of a cruciform domical church dating from the close of this

period, and is
especially celebrated for the exuberant decoration
of its porch and its elaborate detail. Tew campaniles were
built in this period; the best of them arc at Venice. Naples
possesses several interesting Karly Renaissance monuments,
chief among which are the Porta Capuana (1484), by Ginl. da
Majano, the triumphal Arch of Alphonso of Arragon, by Pictro
di Martina, and the Cuomo and Gravina palaces, the latter by
Gab. (? \gnolo.
.
Naples is also rich in minor works of the Karly
Renaissance, in which it ranks with Florence, Venice, and Rome.
 CHAPTER XXL
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY Continued.

THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE AND DECLINE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Burckhardt, Cicognara,

Fergusson, Paltistre. Also, Gauthier, Les plus beany edifices dc
Genes. Geymiiller, Les projets primitijs pour la basilique de St.
Pierre de Rome. Gurlitt, Geschichte dcs Barockstiles in Italien.
Laspeyres, Die Kirchen der Renaissance in Mittel Ilalien. Leta-
rouilly, Edifices de Rome modernc; Le Vatican. Palladio, The
Works ofA. Palladio. Strack, Die Central- tind Kuppclkirchcn
dcr Renaissance in It alien. Also, for St. Peter's and domed
churches, consult Gosset, Les coupoles d'oricnt ct d'occident, and
Isabelle, Les edifices circulaires ct les domes.

CHARACTER OF THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE. It was

and imitation of Roman architecture

inevitable that the study
should lead to an increasingly literal rendering of classic details
and a closer copying of antique compositions. Toward the close
of the fifteenth century the symptoms began to multiply of the
approaching reign of formal classicism. Correctness in the repro-
duction of old Roman forms came to be highly esteemed, and in
the following period the orders became the principal resource of
the architect. During the so-called Cinquecento, that is, from
the close of the fifteenth century to nearly or quite 1550, architec-
ture still retained much of the freedom and refinement of the

Quattrocento. There was meanwhile a notable advance in dig-

nity and amplitude of design, especially in the internal distribu-

tion of buildings. Externally the orders were freely used as sub-
ordinate features in the decoration of doors and windows, and in
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 293

court arcades of the Roman type. The lantern-crowned dome

upon a high drum was developed into one of the noblest of archi-
tectural forms. Great attention was bestowed upon all subordi-
nate features; doors and windows were treated with frames and

pediments of extreme elegance and refinement; all the cornices

and mouldings were proportioned and profiled with the utmost
care, and the balustrade was elaborated into a feature at once
useful and highly ornate. Interior decoration was t/en more
splendid than before, if somewhat less delicate and subtle; relief
enrichments in stucco were used with admirable effect, and the
greatest artists exercised their talents in the painting of vaults and
ceilings, as in P. del Te at Mantua, by Giulio Romano (1492-

1546), and the Sistine Chapel at Rome, by Michael Angelo. This

period is distinguished by an exceptional number of great archi-
tects and
buildings. It was ushered
by Bramante Lazzari, of
in

Urbino (1444-1514), and closed during the career of Michael

Angelo Buonarotti (1475-1564); two names worthy to rank with
that of Brunelleschi. Inferior only to these in architectural

genius were Raphael (1483-1520), Baldassare Pcruzzi (1481-

1536), Antonio da San Gallo the Younger (1485-1546), and G.
Barozzi da Vignola (1507-1572), in Rome; Giacopo Tatti San-
and others almost equally illustri-
soi'ino (1479-1570), in Venice,

ous. This period witnessed the erection of an extraordinary

and churches, the beginning and much of
series of palaces, villas,

the construction of St. Peter's at Rome, and a complete transfor-

mation in the aspect of that city.

BRAMANTE'S WORKS. While precise time limits cannot be-

set to architectural styles, it is not irrational to date this period

from the maturing of Bramante's genius. While his earlier
works in Milan belong to the Quattrocento (S. M. delle (ira/ie,
the sacristy of San Satiro, the extension of the (ireat Hospital),
his later designs show the (lassie tendency very dearly. The
charming Tempietto in the court of S. Pietro in Montorio at

Rome, a circular temple-like chapel (150.'), is

composed of purely
2Q4 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

classic elements, although it cannot be said to be a copy of any

known Roman edifice. In the P.Giraud (Fig. 171) and the great
Cancelleria Palace, pilasters appear in the external composition,
and all the details of doors and windows betray the results of

classic study, as well as the refined taste of their designer.* The

beautiful courtyard of the Cancelleria combines the Florentine

system of arches on columns with the Roman system of super-

posed arcades independent of the court wall. In 1506 Bramante

began the rebuilding of St. Peter's for Julius II. (see p. 298) and

* It now
is many investigators that either the Can-
denied by
celleria or the Giraud palace is the work of Bramante, or any one
of two or three smaller houses in Rome showing a somewhat
similar architectural treatment. The date 1495 carved on a frieze
of the Cancelleria palace thought to forbid its attribution to
is

Bramante, who is not have come to Rome till 1500; and

known to
there is a lack of positive evidence of his authorship of the Giraud
palace and of the other houses which seem to be by the same band.
The resemblance in style between this group of buildings and his
acknowledged work is considered by some insufficient to identify
them as Bramante's.
It must be remarked, on the other band, that this notable group
of works, stamped with the marks and even the mannerisms of a
strong personality, reveal an ability amounting to genius, and by
no means unworthy of Bramante. It is almost inconceivable that
they should have been designed by a mere beginner previously
unknown and forgotten soon after. Those who deny the attribu-
tion to Bramante have thus far been unable to find another name

worthy of the credit of these works, no two of them having agreed

on any one person. None of the names suggested seems to fit the
conditions even as well as Bramante's; while to some critics the
comparison of these works with Bramante's Milanese work on
the one hand and his great Court of the Belvedere in the Vatican
on the other, yields conclusions quite opposed to those of the ad-
vocates of another authorship than Bramante's.
The controversy must be considered as still open, and it will
probably so remain until settled by the discovery of new and
undisputable evidence.
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 295

the construction of a new and imposing papal palace adjoining it

on the Vatican hill. Of this colossal group of edifices, commonly
known as the Vatican, he executed the greater Belvedere court

(afterward divided in two by the Library and the Braccio Nuovo),

the lesser octagonal court of the Belvedere, and the court of San
Damaso, with its ar-
cades afterward
frescoed by Raphael
and his school. Be-
sides these, the
cloister of S. M. della
Pace, and many
other works in and
out of Rome, reveal
the impress of Bra-
mante's genius, alike
in their admirable
plans and in the har-
FACADE OF THE GIKAUU PALACE, ROME.
mony and beauty of FIG. 171.

their details.
FLORENTINE PALACES. The P. Riccardi long remained the

accepted type of palace in Florence. As we have seen, it was

imitated in the Strozzi palace, as late as 1489, with greater perfec-
tion of detail, but with no radical change of conception. In the
P. Gondi, however, begun in the following year by Ginlianoda
San Gallo (1445-1516), a more pronounced classic spirit appears,
especially in the court and the interior design. Early in the six-
teenth century classic columns and pediments began to be used as
decorations for doors and windows; the rustication was confined
to basements and corner-quoins, and niches, loggias, and porches
gave variety of light and shade to the fa<;ades (P. Bartolini, by
Baccio a" Agnali); P. Larderel, 1515, by Dosio; P. Guadagni,

by Cronaca; P. Pandolfini, 1518, attributed to Raphael). In

the P. Serristori, by Baccio d'Agnolo (1510), pilasters were ap-
296 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

of the facade, but this example was not

plied to the composition
often followed in Florence.
ROMAN PALACES. These followed a different type. They
were usually of great and built around ample courts with
size,

arcades of classic model in two or three stories. The broad street

facade in three stories with an attic or mezzanine was crowned
with a rich cornice. The orders were sparingly used externally
and was sought principally in the careful proportioning of
effect

the stories, in the form and distribution of the square-headed and

arched openings, and in the design of mouldings, string-courses,
cornices, and other details. The piano nobile, or first story above
the basement, was given up to suites of sumptuous reception-
rooms and halls, with magnificent ceilings and frescoes by the
great painters of the day, while antique statues and reliefs adorned
the courts, vestibules, and niches of these princely dwellings.
The Massimi palace, by Pe-
ruzzi, is an interesting example
of this type. The Vatican,
Cancelleria, and Giraud
pal-
aces have already been men-

tioned; other notable palaces

are the Palma (1506) and
Sacchetti (1540), by A. da San
Gallo the Younger; the Far-
nesina, by Peruzzi, with cele-
brated fresco decorations
designed by Raphael; and the
Lante (1520) and Altemps
(1530), by Peruzzi. But the
VII',. 172. PLAN (IF FAKNESE PALAC noblest creation of this period
was the
FARNESE PALACE, by many esteemed the finest in Italy. It

was begun in 1530 for Alex. Karnese (Paul III.) by A. da San

Gallo the Younger, with Vignola's collaboration. The simple
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 297

but admirable plan is shown in Fig. 172, and the courtyard, the
most imposing in Italy, in Fig. 173. The exterior is monoto-
nous, but the noble cornice by Michael Angelo measurably re-
deems this defect. The fine
vaulted columnar entrance
vestibule, the court and the
salons, make up an ensemble

worthy of the great architects

who designed it. The loggia
toward the river was added by
(Jiacomo della Porta in 1580.
VILLAS. The Italian villa

of this
pleasure-loving period
afforded full scope for the
most playful fancies of the

architect, decorator, and land-

scape gardener. It comprised

usually a dwelling, a casino or PIG. 173. ANOLK OP COt-KT OP

amusement-house, and many PAKXBSK PALACE, HOME.
minor edifices, summer-houses,
arcades, etc., disposed in extensive grounds laid out with

terraces, cascades, and shadexl alleys. The style was graceful,

sometimes trivial, but almost always pleasing, making free
use of stucco enrichments, both internally and externally,
with abundance of gilding and frescoing. The Villa Madama
(1516), by Raphael, with stucco-decorations by Giulio Romano,
though incomplete and now dilapidated, is a noted example of the

style. More complete, the Villa of Pope Julius, by Yiirnola

(1550), belongs by its purity of style to this period; its facade well

exemplifies the simplicity, dignity, and line- proportions of this

master's work. In addition to these Roman villas may be men-
tioned the V. Medici (1540, \ty.lnnilnilc /.//>/>/; now the French

Academy of Rome); the Casino del Papa (or Villa Pia) in the
Vatican Gardens, by 1'irro Ligorio (1500); the V. Lante, near
298 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Viterbo, and the V. d'Este, at Tivoli, as displaying among almost

countless others the Italian skill in combining architecture and

gardening.
CHURCHES AND CHAPELS. This period witnessed the build-
ing of a few churches of the first rank, but it was especially prolific
in memorial, votive, and sepulchral chapels added to churches
already existing, like the Chigi Chapel of S. M. del Popolo, by
Raphael. The earlier churches of this period generally followed
antecedent types, with the dome as the central feature dominating
a cruciform plan, and simple, unostentatious and sometimes unin-
teresting exteriors. Among them may be mentioned: at Pistoia,
S. M. del Letto and S. M. dell' Umilta, the latter a fine domical
rotunda by Ventura Vitoni (1509), with an imposing vestibule; at
Venice, S. Salvatore, by Tullio Lombardo (1530), an admirable
domical and barrel-vaulted bays; S.Gior-
edifice with alternating

gio del Grechi (1536), by Sansovino, and S. M. Formosa; at

Todi, the Madonna della Cdnsolazione (1508-1606), by Cola da
*
Caprarola, a charming design with a high dome and four apses;
at Montefiascone, the Madonna delle Grazie, by Sammkhele

(1523), besides several churches at Bologna, Ferrara, Prato, Si-

enna, and Rome of almost or quite equal interest. In these
churches one may trace the development of the dome as an ex-
ternal feature, while in S. Biagio, at Montepulciano, the effort
was made by Ant. da San Gallo the Elder (1455-1534) to combine
with it the contrasting lines of two campaniles, of which, however,
but one was completed.
ST. PETER'S. The culmination of Renaissance church archi-
tecture was reached in St. Peter's, at Rome. The original pro-
ject of Nicholas V. having lapsed with his death, it was the inten-
on the same site a stupendous domical
tion of Julius II. to erect
church over the monument he had ordered of Michael Angelo.
The design of Bramante, who began its erection in 1506, com-
* who may
Often attributed to Bramante, possibly have bad a
band in its design.
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 299

prised aGreek cross with apsidal arms, the four angles occupied
by domical chapels and loggias within a square outline (Fig. 174).
The too hasty execution of this noble design led to the collapse of
two of the arches under the dome, and to long delays after Bra-
mante's death in 1514.
Raphael, Giuliano da San
Gallo, Peruzzi, and A. da
San Gallo the Younger
successively supervised
the works under the

popes Leo X. to
from
Paul III., and devised a
vast number of plans for
its completion. Most of
these involved funda-
mental alterations of the
original scheme, and were
FIG. 174. ORIGINAL PLAN OF ST. PETER S,
motived by the aban- ROME.
donment of the proposed
monument of Julius II.; a church, and not a mausoleum,

being required. In 1546 Michael Angelo was assigned by Paul

III. to the works, and gave final form to the general design in

a simplified version of Bramante's plan with more massive

supports, a square east front* with a portico for the chief en-
trance, and the unrivalled Dome which is its most striking
feature. This dome, and improved in curvature
slightly altered
by della Porta after M. Angelo's death in 1564, was completed
by D. Fontana in 1604. It is the most majestic creation of the
Renaissance, and one of the greatest architectural conceptions
of all history. It measures 140 feet in internal diameter, and
with its two shells rises from a lofty drum, buttressed by coupled
*
St. Peter's fronts to the East instead of the West, reversing
the usual orientation of churches, but conforming to the practice
of the earlier basilicas.
300 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Corinthian columns, to a height of 405 feet to the top of the

lantern. The church, as left by Michael Angelo, was harmonious
in its proportions, though the single order used internally and
externally dwarfed by its colossal scale the vast dimensions of
the edifice. Unfortunately in 1606 C. Maderna was employed
by Paul V. to lengthen the nave by two bays, destroying the
proportions of the whole, and hiding the dome from view on
a near approach. The present tasteless facade was Maderna's
work. The splendid atrium
or portico added (1629-67),

by Bernini, as an approach,
mitigates but does not cure
the ugliness and pettiness
of this front.
St. Peter's as thus com-
pleted (Figs. 175, 176) is the

largest church in existence,

and in many respects is ar-

chitecturally worthy of its

pre-eminence. The central

aisle, nearly 600 feet long,

with its stupendous panelled
and gilded vault, 83 feet in

span, the vast central area

and the majestic dome, be-

FIG. 175. PLAN OF ST. PKTER'S, ROME, AS

long to a conception unsur-
NOW STANDING. passed in majestic simplic-
The portion below the line A, and the
f>, ity and effectiveness. The
side chapels, C\ />, were added by Maderna.
construction is almost ex-
The remainder represents Michael An^clo's
plan. cessively massive, but

admirably disposed. On
the other hand the nave is too long, and the details not only lack

originality and interest, but are also too large in scale, dwarfing
the whole edifice. The interior (Fig. 176) is wanting in the so-
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 303

so stately a design its decorative details,

briety of color that befits ;

especially the stucco enrichments added in the seventeenth cen-

tury, are to a large extent
coarse and tasteless, tending to nullify
the solemnity which the grand dimensions impart to the interior
effect. But in spite of its defects it is a most impressive edifice
and a wonderful monument of architecture.

THE PERIOD OF FORMAL CLASSICISM. By the middle

of the sixteenth century the classic orders had come to dominate
all While Vignola, who wrote a treatise
architectural design.

upon had
the orders, employed them with unfailing refinement
and judgment, his contemporaries and successors showed less
discernment and taste, making of them an end rather than a
means. Too often mere classical correctness was substituted for
the fundamental qualities of original invention and intrinsic

beauty of composition. The innovation of colossal orders ex-

tending through several stories, while it gave to exterior designs a
certain grandeur of scale, tended to coarseness and even vulgarity
of detail. Sculpture and ornament began to lose their refinement,
and while street-architecture gained in monumental scale, and
public squares received a more stately adornment than ever be-
fore, the street-facades individually were too often bare and unin-

teresting in their correct formality. In the interiors of churches

and large appears a struggle between a cold and digni-
halls there

fied simplicity and a growing tendency toward pretentious sham.

But these pernicious tendencies did not fully mature till the latter
part of the century, and the half-century after 1540 or 1550 was
prolific of notable works in both ecclesiastical and secular archi-
tecture. The names of Michael Angelo and Vignola, whose
careers began in the preceding period; of I'alladio and della
Porta (1541-1604) in Rome; of Ammanati in Florence and
Lucca, of Sammichele and Sansovino in Verona and Venice, and
of Galeazzo Alessi inGenoa, stand high in the ranks of archi-
tectural merit.
CHURCHES. The type established by St. IVtcr's was widely
304 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

imitated throughout Italy. The churches in which a Greek or

Latin cross is dominated by a high dome rising from a drum and
terminating in a lantern, and is treated both internally and ex-
ternally with Roman Corinthian pilasters and arches, are almost
numberless. Among the best churches of this type is the Gesu at

Rome, by Vignola (1568), with a highly ornate interior of excel-

lent proportions and a less interesting exterior, the facade adorned
with two stories of orders and great Hanking volutes over the sides
(see p. 277). Two churches at Venice, by Palladia S. Giorgio
Maggiore (1560; facade by Scamozzi, 1575) and the Redentore
offer a strong contrast to the Gesu, in their cold and almost bare

but pure and correct designs. An imitation of Bramante's plan

for St. Peter's appears in S. M. di Carignano, at Genoa, by Galc-
azzo Alessi (1500-72), begun 1552, a fine structure, though in-

ferior in scale and detail to its original. Besides these and other

important churches there were many large domical chapels of

great splendor added to earlier churches; of these the Chapel of
Sixtus V. in S. M. Maggiore, at Rome, by D. Fontana (1543-

1607), is an excellent example.

PALACE .- ROME. The palaces on the Capitoline Hill, built
at different dates (1540-1644) from designs by Michael Angelo,
illustrate the palace architecture of this period, and the imposing
effect of a single colossal order running through two stories. This
treatment, though well adapted to produce monumental effects in

large squares, was dangerous in its bareness and heaviness of

scale, and was better suited for buildings of vast dimensions than
for ordinary street-facades. In other Roman palaces of this time
the traditions of the preceding period still prevailed, as in the Sap-
ienza (University), by clella Porta (1575), which lias a dignified
court and a facade of great refinement without columns or pilas-
ters. The Papal palaces built by Domenico Fontana on the
Lateran, Quirinal, and Vatican hills, between 1574 and 1590,
externally copying the style of the Farnese, show a similar return

to earlier models, but are less pure and refined in detail than the
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 305

Sapienza. The great pentagonal Palace of Caprarola, near

Rome, by Vignola, is
perhaps the most successful and imposing
production of the Roman classic school in this field.
VERONA. Outside of Rome, palace-building took on various
local and provincial phases of style, of which the most important
were the closely related styles of Verona, Venice, and Vicenza.
Mifliele Sammichele (1484-1559), who built in Verona the Bevi-

lacqua, Canossa, Pompei, and Verzi palaces and the four chief
city gates, and in Venice the P. Grimani, his masterpiece (1550),
was a designer of great originality and power. He introduced
into his military architecture, as in the gates of Verona, the use of
rusticated orders, which he treated with skill and taste. The idea
was copied by later architectsand applied, with doubtful pro-
priety, to palace-facades; though Ammanati's garden-facade for
the Pitti palace, in Florence (dr. 1560), is an impressive and suc-
cessful design.
VENICE. Into the development of the maturing classic style

Giacopo Tatti Sansovino (1477-1570) introduced in his Venetian

buildings new elements of splendor. Coupled columns between
arches themselves supported on columns, and a profusion of figure

sculpture, gave to his palace-facades a hitherto unknown magnifi-

cence of effect, as in the Library of St. Mark (now the Royal Pal-
and the Cornaro palace (P. Corner de Ca Grande),
ace, Fig. 177),
both dating from about 1530-40. So strongly did he impress

uj>on Venice these ornate and sumptuous variations on classic

themes, that later architects adhered, in a very debased period, to
the main features and spirit of his work.
VICENZA. Qi Palladia's churches in Venice we have already
spoken; his palaces are mainly to be found in his native city,

Vicenza. In these structures he displayed great fertility of in-

vention and a profound familiarity with the classic orders, but the
degenerate taste of the Baroque period already begins to show
itself in his work. There is less of architectural propriety and
grace in these pretentious palaces, with their colossal orders and
306 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

their affectation of grandeur, than in the designs of Vignola or

Sammichele. Wood and plaster, used to mimic stone, indicate
the approaching reign of sham in all design (P. Barbarano, 1570;
Chieregati, 1560; Tiene,
Valmarano, 1556;
Porto, Pref etizzio, Villa
Capra). His masterpiece
is the two-storied arcade
about the mediaeval Ba-
silica, in which the arches
are supported on a minor
order between engaged
columns serving as but-
tresses.This treatment
has in consequence ever
since been known as the
Palladian Motive.
GENOA. During the
second half of the six-

teenth century a remark-

able series of palaces was
erected in Genoa, espe-

cially notable for their

great courts and impos-

ing staircases. These
PItJ. 177. LIBRARY OF ST. MARK, VENICE. last were given unusual
prominence owing to dif-

ferences of level in the courts, arising from the slope of their sites
on the hillside. Among these palaces the P. Giustiniani,
Lercari, Cambiasi, Sauli, Pallavicini and several others, and
the elegant Loggia dei Banchi, were by Galeazzo Alcssi (1502-

72); others by architects of lesser note; but nearly all charac-

terized by their effective planning, fine stairs and loggias, and
strong and dignified, if sometimes uninteresting, detail (P. Balbi,
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 307

Brignole, Doria-Tursi [or Municipio], by Rocco Lurago, Du-

razzo [or Reale], and University by Bianchi).
THE BAROQUE STYLE. A reaction from the cold classi-
cismo of the late sixteenth century showed itself in the following

period, in the lawlessand vulgar extravagances of the so-called

Baroque style. The wealthy Jesuit order was a notorious con-
tributor to the debasement of architectural taste. Most of the
Jesuit churches and many others not belonging to the order, but
following its pernicious example, are monuments of bad taste and
pretentious sham.
Broken and contorted

pediments, huge scrolls,

heavy mouldings, ill-

applied sculpture in ex-

aggerated attitudes, and
a general disregard for
architectural propriety
characterized this per-
iod, especially in its

church architecture, to
whose style the name
Jesuit is often applied.
Sham marble and heavy
and excessive gilding
were universal (Fig.

178). C. Maderna
(1556-1629), Lorenzo
Bernini (1589-1680),
and F. Borromini (1599-
1667) were the worst 178. INTERIOR OF SAN SBVBRO.
offenders of the period, NAPLES.

though Bernini was an

artist of undoubted ability, as proved by his colonnades or
atrium in front of St. Peter's. There were, however, architects
308 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

of purer taste whose works even in that debased age were

worthy of admiration.
BAROQUE CHURCHES. The Baroque style prevailed in

church architecture for almost two centuries. The majority of

the churches present varieties of the cruciform plan crowned by a
high dome which is

usually the best part

of the design. The
vices of the period ap-

pear in all other parts

of these churches, es-

pecially in their facades

and internal decor-
ation. S. M. della

Vittoria, by Maderna,
and Sta. Agnese, by
Borromini, both at

Rome, are examples

of the style. Naples
is
particularly full of

Baroque churches
(Fig. iycS), a few of
which, like the Gesu
Nuovo (1584), are

dignified and credit-

FIG. 179. CHURCH OF S. M. DELLA SALUTE,
VENICE. able designs. The
domical church of S.
M. della Salute, at Venice (1631), by Long/iciia (1604-1675),
is and here
also a majestic edifice in excellent style (Fig. 179),
and there other churches offer exceptions to the prevalent

baseness of architecture. Particularly objectionable was the

wholesale disfigurement of existing monuments by ruthless re-

modelling, as in S. John Lateran, at Rome, the cathedrals of Fer-

rara, Palermo, Ravenna, and many others.

 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 309

PALACES. These were generally superior to the churches, and

not infrequently impressive and dignified structures. The two
best examples in Rome are the P. Borghese,by Martina Lunghi
the Elder (1590), with a fine court arcade on coupled Doric. and
Ionic columns, and the P. Barberini, by Maderna and Borro-
mini, with an elliptical staircase by Bernini, one of the few
palaces in Italy with projecting lateral wings. In Venice, Long-
hena, in the Rezzonico and Pesaro palaces (1650-80), showed
his freedom from the mannerisms of the age by reproducing
successfully the ornate but dignified style of Sansovino (see
p. 305). At Naples D. Fontana, whose works overlap the
Baroque period, produced in the Royal Palace (1600) and the
Royal Museum (1586-1615) designs of considerable dignity,
in some respects superior to his papal residences in Rome. In
suburban villas, like the Albani and Borghese villas near Rome,
the ostentatious style of the Decline found free and congenial
expression.
FOUNTAINS. To this period belong many of the monumental
fountains erected in Rome, Messina, Viterbo, Bologna, Florence
and other cities. Among Rome are worthy of espe-
these, two in
cialmention: the Fonte Felice by D. Fontana (1585) and the F.
Paolina (1611), by Giov. Fontana. The great Fontana di Trevi
is a later work (see p. 310).
LATER MONUMENTS. In the few eighteenth-century build-

ings which are worthy of mention there is noticeable a reaction

from the extravagances of the seventeenth century, shown in the
dignified correctness of the exteriors and the somewhat frigid

splendor of the interiors. The most notable work of this period is

the Royal Palace at Caserta, by Van Vifclli (1752), an archi-

tect of considerable taste and inventiveness, considering his time.
This great palace, 800 feet square, encloses four fine courts, and is
especially remarkable for the simple if monotonous dignity of the
well-proportioned exterior and the effective planning of its three
octagonal vestibules, its ornate
chapel and noble staircase.
3IO HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Staircases, indeed, were among the most successful features of

late Italian architecture, as in the Scala Regia of the Vatican,
and in the Corsini, Braschi, and Barberini palaces at Rome, the

Royal Palace at Naples, etc.

In church architecture the east front of S. John Lateran*
in Rome, by Galilei (1734), and the whole exterior of S. M. Mag-

giore, by Ferd. Fuga (1743), are noteworthy designs: the

former an especially powerful conception, combining a colossal
order with two smaller orders in superposed loggie, but marred by
the excessive scale of the balustrade and statues which crown it.

The Fountain of Trevi, conceived in much the same spirit

(1735, by Niccola Salvi), is a striking piece of decorative architec-

ture. The
Sacristy of St. Peter's, by Marchionne (1775), also
deserves mention as a monumental and not uninteresting work.
In the early years of the nineteenth century the Braccio Nuovo
of the Vatican, by Stern, the imposing church of S. Francesco di
Paola at Naples, by Bianc/ii, designed in partial imitation of the
Pantheon, and the great S. Carlo Theatre at Naples, show the
same coldly classical spirit, not wholly without merit, but lacking
in true originality and freedom of conception.
CAMPANILES. The campaniles of the Renaissance and
Decline deserve passing reference, though less important and in-
teresting than other forms of Renaissance architecture. Some
are simple square towers with pilasters; more often engaged col-
umns and entablatures mark the several stories, and the upper

portion is treated either with an octagonal lantern or with dimin-

ishing stages, and sometimes with a spire. Of the latter class the
bestexample that of S. Biagio, at Alontepulciano,
is one of the
two designed to flank the facade of Ant. da S. Gallo's beautiful
church of that name. One or two good late examples are to be
found at Naples. Of the more massive square type there are cx-

* St.
John Lateran follows the primitive basilican orientation, as
docs St. Peter's, instead of the later medkeval custom of fronting
westwards.
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 311

amples in the towers of S. Michele, Venice; of the cathedral at

Ferrara, Sta. Chiara at Naples, and Sta. Maria dell' Anima one
of the earliest at Rome. The most complete and perfect of
these square belfries of the Renaissance is that of the Campido-
glio at Rome, by Martino Lunghi, dating from the end of the six-
teenth century, which groups so admirably with the palaces of the

Capitol. Venetia possesses a number of graceful and lofty bell-

towers, generally of brick with marble bell-stages, of which the
upper part of the Campanile of St. Mark (which fell in 1902;
see p. 164)and the tower of S. Giorgio Maggiore are the finest
examples.
IN CONCLUSION: The revival of the actual forms of ancient
Roman architecture was only partially accomplished by the Ital-

ian architects of the Renaissance and then only for brief periods

during the latter half of the sixteenth century, and in a few

buildings of the eighteenth. The architects of the early Renais-
sance did not attain to their aim of reviving Roman art; those of
the Decline soon wearied of its restrictions. Their revolt would
perhaps been less lawless had their predecessors not fallen into
so mechanical a copying of antique forms of the letter without
the spirit of antique art.

MONUMENTS: in addition to those mentioned in the

(mainly
text). i5Tii CENTURY
FLORENCE: Foundling Hospital (Innocenti),
1421; Old Sacristy and Cloister S. Lorenzo; P. Quaratesi, 1440;
cloisters at Sta. Croce and Certosa, all by Brunelleschi fagade S. ;

M. Xoveila, by Alberti, 1456; I'adia at Fiesole, from designs of

Rruncllesclii, 1462; Court of P. Vccchio, by Michelozzi, 1464 (al-
tered and enriched. 1565); P. Guadagni, by Cronaca, 1400; Hall
of 500 in P. Vecchio. by same, 1495. VKNICE: S. Zaccaria, by
Martino Lombardo, 1457-1515: S. Michele. by Moro Lombardo,
1466; S. M. del Orto. 147.?; S. Giovanni Crisostomo. by Moro
Lombardo, atrium of S. Giovanni Rvangclista, Procura/ic Yecchie,
all 14X1 Scuola di S. Marco, by Martino and I'ietro Lombardo,
;

HQO; I'- Hario; P. Corncr-Spinelli. FERRARA: P. Schifanoja, 1460;

P. Scrofa or Costabili, 14X5; S. M. in Vado, P. dei Diamanti, P.
312 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Bevilacqua, S. Francesco. S. Benedetto, S. Cristoforo, all 1490-

1500. MILAN: Ospedalc Grande (or Maggiore), begun 1457 by
Filarete, extended by Bramante, cir. 1480-90 (great court by Ricb-
ini, 1
7th century) ;
S. M. delle Grazie, E. end, Sacristy of S. Satiro,
S. M. presso S. Celso, all by Bramante. 1477-1499. ROME: S.
Pietro in Montorio, 1472; S. M. del Popolo, 1475?; Sistine Chapel
of Vatican, 1475; S. Agostino, 1483. SIEXXA Loggia del Papa :

and P. Xerucci, 1460; Governo, 1469-1500; P. Spannoccbi,

P. del

1470; Sta. Catarina, 1490, by di Bastiano and Federighi, church

later by Peruzzi Library in cathedral by L. Marina. 1497; Oratory
;

of S. Bernardino, by Turrapili, 1496. PIENZA Cathedral, Bishop's :

Palace (Vescovado), P. Pubblico, all cir. 1460. by B. di Lorenzo

(or Rosselini?). ELSEWHERE (in chronological order): Arch of
Alphonso, Naples, 1443, by P. di Martino; Oratory S. Bernardino,
Perugia, by di Duccio, 1461 Church over Casa Santa, Loreto, 1465-
;

1526; P. del Consiglio at Verona, by Fra Giocondo, 1476; Capclla

Colleoni, Bergamo, 1476; S. M. in Organo, Verona, 1481; Porta
Capuana, Naples, by Giul. da Majano, 1484; ]\ladonna della Croce,
Crema, by B. Battagli, 1490-1556; Madonna di Campagna and S.
Sisto, Piacenza, both 1492-1511; P. Bevilacqua, Bologna, by Nardi,
1492 (?); P. Gravina. Naples; P. Fava, Bologna; P. Pretorio,
Lucca; S. M. dci Miracoli, Brescia; all at close of i5th century.
16111 CENTURY ROME: P. Sora, 1501; S. M. della Pace and
cloister, 1504, both by Bramante (faqade of church by P. da Cor-
tona, i/th century) S. M. di Loreto, 1507, by A. da San Gallo the
;

Elder; P. Vidoni, by Raphael; P. Lante," 1520; Vigna Papa Giulio,

1534, by Peruzzi P. clei Conservator!, 1540, and P. del Senatore,
;

1563 (both on Capitol), by M. Angelo, Vignola, and della Porta;

Sistine Chapel in S. M. Maggiore, 1590; S. Andrea della Valle,
'59 1 hy Olivieri (fac.ade, 1670, by Rainaldi). FLORENCE: Medici
.

Cliapel of S. Lorenzo, new sacristy of same, and Laurentian

Library, all by M. Angelo, 1529-40; Mercato Nuovo, 1547, by I?.
Tasso P. desji Uffizi, 1560-70, by Vasari
; P. Giugni. 1560-8. ;

VENUE: P. Camerlinghi 1525, b}* Bergamasco; S. Francesco della

Vigna, by Sansovino, 1539, facade by Palladio, 1568; Zecca or
Mint, 1536, and Loggctta of Campanile, 1540, by Sansovino; Pro-
curazie Nuove, 1584, by Scamo/zi. VERONA: Capella Pellegrini in
S. Bernardino, 1514: City Gates, by Sammichele, 1530-40 (Porte

Xuova. Stii|)pa, S. Y.cnn, S. (iiorgio). VICEN/A P. Porto, 1552; :

Teatro Olimpico, 1580; both l>y Palladio. GENOA: P. Andrea

 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 313

Doria, by Montorsoli, 1529; P. Ducalo, by Pcnnonc, 1550; P.

Lercari, P. Spinola, P. Sauli, P. Marcello Durazzo, all by Gal.
Alessi, cir. 1550; Sta. Annunziata, 1587, by dclla Porta ; Loggia
del Banchi, end of i6th century. ELSEWHERE (in chronological
order) S. M. prcsso S. Celso, Milan, by Brnmante and Alessi; P.
:

Roverella, Fcrrara, 1508; P. del Magnilico, Sienna, 1508, by Cozza-

relli P. Comniunale, Brescia, 1508, by Formentone
;
P. Albcrgati, ;

Bologna, 1510; P. Ducale, Reggio-Gonzaga or Corte Reale, and

Pal. della Giusti/.ia, all in Mantua, 1520-40; P. Giustiniani, Padua,

by Falconetto, 1524; Ospedale del Ccppo, Pistoia, 1525; Madonna

delle Grazie, Pistoia, by Vitoni, 1535; P. Buoncampagni-Ludovisi,

Bologna, 1545; Cathedral, Padua, 1550, by Ringhetti and della Valle,

after M. Angclo P. Bernardini, 1560. and P. Ducale, 1578, at
;

Lucca, both by Ammanati.

I/TH CENTURY: Chapel of the Princes in S. Lorenzo, Florence,
1604, by Nigetti; S. Pietro, Bologna, 1605; S. Andrea delle Fratte,
Rome, 1612; Villa Borghese, Rome, 1616, by Vasanzio; P. Con-
tarini delle Scrigni, Venice, by Scamozzi Badia at Florence, re- ;

built 1625 by Segaloni ;

S. Ignazio, Rome, 1626-85; Museum of the
Capitol, Rome, 1644-50; Church of Gli Scalzi, Venice, 1649; P.

Pesaro, Venice, by Longhcna, 1650; P. Reale, Turin, 1660; S.

Moise, Venice, 1668; Brera Palace, Milan; P. Carignano, Turin,
i6So; S. M. Zobenigo, Venice, 1680; Dogana di Mare, Venice, 1686,
by Bcnohe ; Santi Apostoli, Rome.
18x11 AND EAKI.Y HjTii CKNTfKY: University, Turin, by Ricca,
1713; Gesuati, at Venice, 1715-30; P. Reale, Milan, 1/72; S. Gcre-
mia, Venice, 1753, by Corbellini; P. Braschi, Rome, by Morelli,
1790; Xuova Fabbrica, Venice, 1810.
 CHAPTER XXII.

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Miintz, Palus-

tre. Also Berty, La Renaissance tnonnmentale en France.
Blondel, Architecture franc^aise. Chateau, Histoire el caracteres
de ^architecture en France. Daly, Motifs historiques ^architec-
ture et de sculpture. De Laborde, La Renaissance dcs arts a la
cour de France. Du Cerceau, Les plus excellent s bast i men ts de
France. Liibke, Gcschichte dcr Renaissance in Frankrcich.
Mathews, The Renaissance tinder the Valois Kings. Palustre,
La Renaissance en France. Pattison, The Renaissance 0} the
Fine Arts in France. Rouyer et Darcel, L'Art architectural en
France. Sauvageot, Choix de palais, chateaux, hotels, et maiscns
de France

ORIGIN AND CHARACTER. The vitality and richness of

the Gothic style in France, even in its decline in the fifteenth cen-

tury, long stood in the way of any general introduction of classic

forms. When the Renaissance appeared, it came as a foreign
importation, introduced from Italy by the king and the nobility.
It underwent a protracted transitional phase, during which the

national Gothic forms and traditions were picturesquely mingled

with those of the Renaissance. The campaigns of Charles VIII.
(1489), Louis XII. (1499), and Francis I.
(1515), in vindication
of their claims to the throne of Naples and the dukedom of Milan,
brought these monarchs and their nobles into contact with the
splendid material and artistic civilization of Italy, then in the full
tide of the maturing Renaissance. They returned to France,
filled with the ambition to rival the splendid palaces and gardens
of Italy, taking with them Italian artists to teach their arts to the
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 315

French. But while these Italians successfully introduced many

classicelements and details into French architecture, they wholly
failed to dominate the French master-masons and tailleurs de

pierre in matters of planning and general composition. The early

Renaissance architecture of France consequently wholly unlike
is

the Italian, from which it derived only minor details and a certain

largeness and breadth of spirit. It differs from the Italian also in

being pre-eminently a royal and courtly style, dominated through

much of its history by the taste and the architectural activity of a
series of builder-monarchs.
PERIODS. The French Renaissance and its sequent develop-
ments may be broadly divided into three periods, with subdivis-
ions coinciding more or less closely with various reigns, as follows:
I. THE VALOIS PERIOD, or Renaissance proper, 1483-1589,
subdivided into:
a. THE TRANSITION, comprising the reigns of Charles VIII.

and Louis XII. (1483-1515), and the early years of that of Francis
I.; characterized by a picturesque mixture of classic details with

Gothic conceptions.
I). THE STYLE OF FRANCIS I., or Early Renaissance, from about
1520 to that king's death in 1547; distinguished by a remarkable
variety and grace of composition and beauty of detail, with a
gradual increase of classic forms.
c. THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE, comprising the reigns of
Henry II. (1547), Francis II. (1559), Charles IX. (1560), and

Henry III. (1574-89); marked by a constant struggle between

the increasing classical tendency and a more or less fantastic
caprice.
II. THE BOURBON or CLASSIC PERIOD (1589-1715):
a. STYLE OF HEXRY IV., covering his reign and partly that of
Louis XIII. (1610-45), employing the orders and other classic
forms with a somewhat heavy, florid style of ornament.
b. STYLE OF Louis XIV., beginning in the preceding reign and
extending through that of Louis XIV. (1645-1715); the great age
316 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

of classic architecture in France, corresponding to the Palladian

in Italy.

III. THE DECLINE or Rococo PERIOD, corresponding with the

reign of Louis XV. (1715-74); marked by a fanciful and some-

times frivolous .capriciousness of decoration.

During this period a reaction set in toward a severer classicism,

leading to the styles of Louis XVI. and of the Empire, to be
treated of in a later chapter. Through all these developments
there appears a constant struggle between two tendencies: one,
which may be called the Latin, toward classical correctness; the
other, which we may for lack of a better designation call the

Gallic, toward freedom from the traditional restraints. The

progress from the free style of Francis I. to the formal correctness
of that of Louis XIV. was marked by singular oscillations, and
the struggle continues even in modern French art.
THE TRANSITION. early as 1475 the new style made its
As
appearance in altars, tombs, and rood-screens wrought by French
carvers with the collaboration of Italian artificers. The tomb
erected by Charles of Anjou to his father in Le Mans Cathedral

(1475, by Francesco Laitrana}, the chapel of St. Lazare in the

cathedral of Marseilles (1483), and the tomb of the children of
Charles VIII. in Tours Cathedral (1506), by Michel Columbc, the

greatest artist of his time in France, are examples. The schools

of Rouen and Tours were especially prominent in works of this
kind, marked by exuberant fancy and great delicacy of execution.
In church architecture Gothic traditions were long dominant, in

spite of the great numbers of Italian prelates in ranee. It was

I'"

in chateaux, palaces, and dwellings that the new style achieved its
most notable triumphs.
EARLY CHATEAUX. The castle of Charles VIII., at Am-
boise on the Loire, shows little trace of Italian influence. It was
under Louis XII. that the transformation of French architecture
really began. The Chateau de Gaillon (of which unfortunately

only fragments remain in the Fcole des Beaux-Arts at Paris),

 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 317

built for the Cardinal George of Amboisc, between 1497 an<^ :

5 O 9>

by Pierre Fain, was the mastenvork of the Rouen school. It

presented a curious mixture of styles, with its irregular plan, its

moat, drawbridge, and

round corner-towers, its
high roofs, turrets, and
dormers, which gave it,

in spite of many Renais-

sance details, a medkeval

picturesqueness. The
Chateau de Blois (the
east and south wings of
the present group), begun
for Louis XII. about
1500, was the first of a re-
markable series of royal
palaces which are the

glory of French architec-

ture. It sh6\vs the new
influences in its horizontal
lines and flat, unbroken
facades of brick and stone,
rather than in its archi-
tectural details (Fig. 180).
The Ducal Palace at

Nancy and the Hotel

de Ville at Orleans, by
Viart, show a some-
what similar commingling of the classic and mediaeval styles.
STYLE OF FRANCIS I. Under the lead of Italian artists, like
il Rosso, Serlio, and Primaticcio, classic elements early began to
dominate the general composition and Gothic details to disap-
pear. A simple and effective system of exterior design was
adopted in the castles and palaces of this period. Finely
318 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

moulded belt-courses sills and heads of the windows

at the

marked the different stories, and were crossed by a system of

almost equally important vertical lines, formed by superposed

pilasters flanking the windows continuously from basement to

roof. The facade was crowned by a slight cornice and open
balustrade, above which rose a steep and lofty roof, diversified by
elaborate dormer windows which were adorned with gables and
pinnacles (Fig. 181). Slender pilasters, treated like long panels
ornamented with arabesques of great beauty, or with a species of
baluster shaft* like a candelabrum, were preferred to columns, and
were provided with graceful capitals of the Corinthianesque type.
The mouldings were minute and richly carved; pediments were
replaced by steep gables, and mullioned windows with stone
crossbars were used in preference to the simpler Italian openings.
In the earlier monuments Gothic details were still used occasion-
ally; and round corner-towers, high dormers, and numerous
turrets and pinnacles appear even in the chateaux of later date.
CHURCHES. Ecclesiastical architecture received but scant
attention under Francis I., and, so far as it was practised, still

clung tenaciously to Gothic principles. Among the few impor-

tant churches of this period may be mentioned St. Etienne du

Mont, at Paris (1517-38), in which classic and Gothic features

appear equal proportions; the east end of St. Pierre, at

in nearly

Caen, with rich external carving; and the great parish church
of St. Eustache, at Paris (1532, by Pierre Lonerrier},m which
the plan and construction are purely Gothic, while the details
throughout belong to the new style, though with little appreciation
of the spirit and proportions of classic art. New facades were
also built for a number of already existing churches, among which
St. Michel, at Dijon, is
conspicuous, with its vast portal arch and
*Derived evidently from the decorations of the P.. end of S. M.
delle(jra/ie at Milan and the mullion-candelabra in the ^reat
windows of the Certosa at Pavia, as a result of Francis I.'s cam-
paigns in Italy.
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 319

imposing towers. The Gothic towers of Tours Cathedral were

completed with Renaissance lanterns or belfries, the northern in
1507, the southern in 1547.
PALACES. To the palace at Blois begun by his predecessor,
Francis I. added a northern

and a western wing, complet- r:

ing the court.The north wing
is one of the masterpieces of
the style, presenting toward
the court a simple and effect-

ive composition, with a rich

but slightly projecting cornice
and a high roof with elabor-
ate dormers. This fa9ade is
divided into two unequal sec-
tions by the open Staircase
Tower (Fig. 181), a chcj-
d'a-inre in boldness of con-
struction as well as in delicacy
and richness of carving. The
outer facade of this wing is a
less ornate but more vigorous

design,crowned by a contin-
uous open loggia under the
roof. More extensive than
Blois was Fontainebleau, the ..

favorite residence of the king PIO. l8l. STAIRCASE TOWER, BLOIS.

and of many of his successors.

Following parts the irregular plan of the convent it replaced,

in

itsother portions were more symmetrically disposed, while the

whole was treated externally in a somewhat severe, semi-classic
style, singularly lacking in ornament. Internally, however, this

palace, begun in 1528, by Gillcs l.c lircton (1495? 1552), was at

that time the most splendid in France, the gallery of Franc-is I.

320 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

being especially noted. The Chateau of St. Germain, near

Paris (1539, by Pierre Chambiges, d. 1544), is of a very different
character. Built largely of brick, with flat balustraded roof
and deep buttresses car-

rying three ranges of

arches, it is neither
Gothic nor classic,
neither fortress nor pal-
ace in aspect, but a

wholly unique concep-

tion.

The rural chateaux

and hunting-lodges
FIG. 182. PLAN OF CHAMDORD.
erected by Francis I.

display the greatest diversity of plan and treatment, attesting the

inventiveness of the French genius, expressing itself in a new-
found language, whose formal canons it disdained. Chief among
them is the Chateau of Chambord (Figs. 182, 183) "a Fata
Morgana in the midst of a wild, woody thicket," to use Liibke's
language. This extraordinary edifice, resembling in plan a feu-
dal castle with curtain-walls, bastions, moat, and donjon, is in its

FIG. 183. KOOF OP CIIAMBOKI).

 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 321

architectural treatment a palace with arcades, open stair-towers,

a noble double spiral staircase terminating in a graceful lantern,
and a roof of the most bewildering complexity of towers, chimneys
and dormers (1526, by Pierre le Xefrccu}. The hunting-lodges
of La Muette and Chalvau, and the so-called Chateau de Ma-
drid all during or since the Revolution
three demolished
deserve mention, especially the last. This consisted of two
rectangular pavilions, connected by a lofty banquet-hall, and
adorned externally with arcades in Florentine style, and with
medallions and reliefs of della Robbia ware (1527, by Gadyer}.
THE LOUVRE. By far the most important of all the ar-
chitectural enterprises of this reign, in ultimate results, if not in

original extent, was the beginning of a new palace to replace the

old Gothic fortified palace of the Louvre. To this task Pierre

Lescot was summoned in 1542, and the work of erection actually
begun in 1546. The new
sumptuous and remarkably
palace, in a
dignified classic style, was
have covered precisely the area of
to

the demolished fortress. Only the southwest half, comprising

two sides of the court, was, however, undertaken at the outset
(Fig. 184). It remained for later monarchs to amplify the orig-
inal scheme, and ultimately to complete, late in the last cen-

tury, the most extensive and beautiful of all the royal residences
of Europe. (See Figs. 184, 186, 213.)
Want of space forbids more than a passing reference to the

rural castles of the nobility, rivalling those of the king. Among

them La Rochefoucauld, Bournazel, and especially
Bur)
r
,

Azay-le-Rideau (1520) and Chenonceaux (1515-23), may be

mentioned, all displaying that love of rural pleasure, that hatred
ot the city and its confinement, which so distinguish the French

trom the Italian Renaissance.

OTHER BUILDINGS. The H6tel-de-Ville (town hall), of

Paris, begun during this reign, from plans by Donicnico di Cortona

( ?), and completed under Henry IV., was the most important edi-
fice of a class which in later periods numbered many interesting
322 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

structures. The town hall of Beaugency (1527) is one of the

best of minor public buildings in France, and in its elegant treat-

ment of a simple two-storied facade may be classed with the

Maison Francois I., at Paris. This stood formerly at Moret,
whence it was transported to Paris and re-erected about 1830 in
somewhat modified
form. The large city
houses of this period
are legion; we can
mention only the Hc5tel

Carnavalet at Paris;
A
the Hc)tel
Bourgthe-
roude at Rouen; the
Hotel d'Ecoville at

Caen; the archbishop's

palace at Sens, and a
number of houses in
Orleans. The Tomb
cf Louis XIL, at St.

Denis, deserves espe-

cial mention for its

fine proportions and

beautiful arabesques.
THE ADVANCED
RENAISSANCE. By the
middle of the six-

teenth century the new style had lost much of its earlier charm.
The orders, used with increasing frequency, were more and more
conformed to antique precedents. Facades were Hatter and
simpler, cornices more pronounced, arches more Roman in

treatment, and a heavier style of carving took the place of the deli-
cate arabesques of the preceding age. The reigns of Henry II.

(1547-59) and Charles IX. (1560-74) were especially distin-

guished by the labors of three celebrated architects: Pierre Lescot
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 323

(1515-78), who continued the work on the southwest angle of the

Louvre; Jean Bullant (1515-78), to whom are due the right wing
of Ecouen and the porch of colossal Corinthian columns in the
left wing of the same, built under Francis I.; and, finally, Phili-
bert de VQrme (1515-70). Jean Goujon (1510-72) also executed
during this period most of the remarkable architectural sculptures
which have made his name one of the most illustrious in the an-
nals of French art. Chief among the works of de 1'Orme was the

palace of the Tuileries, built under Charles IX. for Catherine

de Medicis, not far from the Louvre, with which it was ultimately
connected by a long gallery. Of the vast plan conceived for this
palace, and comprising a succession of courts and wings, only a
part of one side was erected (1564-72). This consisted of a domi-
cal pavilion, flankedby low wings only a story and a half high,
to which were added two stories under Henry IV., to the great
advantage of the design. Another masterpiece of his was the
Chateau d'Anet, built in 1552by Henry II. for Diane de Poi-
tiers, of which, unfortunately, only fragments survive. This
beautiful edifice, while retaining the semi-military moat and bas-
tions of feudal tradition, was planned with classic symmetry,
adorned with superposed orders, court arcades, and rectangular
corner-pavilions, and provided with a domical cruciform chapel,
the earliest of its class in France. All the details were unusually

pure and correct, with just enough of freedom and variety to lend
a charm wanting in later works of the period. To the reign of
Henry belong also the chateaux of Ancy-le-Franc, Verneuil,
II.
"
Chantilly (the petit chateau," by Bullant), the banquet-hall over
the bridge at Chenonceaux (1556), several notable residences at

Toulouse, and the tomb of Francis I. at St. Denis. The chateaux

of Pailly and Sully, distinguished by the sobriety and monu-
mental quality of their composition, in which the orders are im-
portant elements, belong to the reign of Charles IX., together with
the Tuileries, already mentioned.
THE CLASSIC PERIOD: HENRY IV. Under this energetic
3 24 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

but capricious monarch (1589-1610) and his Florentine queen,

Marie de Medicis, architecture entered upon a new period of
activity and a new stage of development. Without the charm
of the early Renaissance or the stateliness of the age of Louis
XIV., it has a touch of the Baroque, attributable partly to the
influence of Marie de Medicis and her Italian prelates, and partly
to the Italian training of many of the French architects. The

FIG. 185.
- THE LUXKMHUKG,

great work of this period was the extension of the Tuileries by ./.
B. du Ccrcean, and the completion, by Metczcan and'others, of 'the

long gallery next the Seine, begun under Henry II., with the view
of connecting the Tuileries with the Louvre. In this part of the
work colossal orders were used with indifferent effect. Next in

importance was the addition to Fontainebleau of a great court to

the eastward, whose relatively quiet and dignified style offers less
contrast than one might expect to the other wings and courts dat-
* The facade- here shown is modern, but reproduces the original
garden-front as it was before, the enlargement in iS.jj to nearly
double the original area.
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 325

ing from Francis I. More successful architecturally than either

of the above \vas the Luxemburg palace, built for the queen by
Salomon DcKrossc, in 1616 (Fig. 185). Its plan presents the fav-
orite French arrangement of a main building separated from the

streetby a garden or court, the latter surrounded on three sides by

low wings containing the dependencies. Externally, rusticated
orders recall the garden-front of the Pitti at Florence; but the
and the projecting pavilions and high roofs give
scale is smaller,
ita grace and picturesqueness wanting in the Florentine model.
The Place Royale, at Paris, and the chateau of Beaumesnil,
illustrate a type of brick-and-stone architecture much in vogue at
this time, stone quoins decorating the windows and corners, and
the orders being generally omitted.
Under Louis XIII. the Tuileries was extended northward and
the Louvre as built by Lescot was doubled in size by the architect,
/. Lemercier, the Pavilion de 1'Horloge being added to form the
centre of the enlarged court facade.
CHURCHES. To belong also the most important
this reign

churches of the period. The church

of St. Paul-St. Louis, at
Paris (1627, by Derrand], though disfigured by an overloaded and

uninteresting front, is not without merit in its interior design and

proportions. Its internal dome is the earliest in Paris. Far supe-
rior is the chapel of the Sorbonne,a well-designed domical church

by Jacques Lemercier (1590-1654), with a sober and appropriate

exterior treated with superposed orders. It was begun in 1635.

In the same general style, though built in the early part of the

following reign, are the churches of St. Roch( 1653), by /. Lcmcr-

der and R. de Code, and St. Sulpice, by L. Ixvau (c. 1660). The
latter of the two is of imposing size. All four churches are
marked by great dignity and simplicity of internal design. Con-
structed and vaulted wholly in stone, they avoid the pretentious
sham and stucco of the contemporary Italian churches, but the
lack of painted decorations renders them somewhat cold and
severe in effect internally.
326 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV. This was an age of remarkable

literary and artistic activity, pompous and pedantic in many of its

manifestations, but distinguished also by productions of a very

high order. Although contemporary with the Italian Baroque
Bernini having been the guest of Louis XIV. the architecture of
this period was free from the wild extravagances of that In
style.
its often cold and correct dignity it resembled rather that of Pal-
ladio, making large use of the orders in exterior design, and tend-
ing rather monotony than to overloaded decoration.
to In
interior design there was more of lightness and caprice. Papier-
mache and stucco were freely used in a fanciful style of relief
ornamentation by scrolls, wreaths, shells, etc., and decorative
panelling was much employed. The whole was saved from trivi-

ality only by the controlling lines of the architecture which framed

it. But it was better suited to cabinet-work or to the prettinesses
of the boudoir than to monumental interiors. The Galerie
d'Apollon, built during this reign over the Petite Galerie in the
Louvre, escapes this reproach, however, by the sumptuous dig-
nity of its interior treatment.

VERSAILLES. This immense palace, built about an already

existing villa of Louis XIII., was the work of Lcrau (1612-1670)
and /. //.Mansart (1647-1708). Its erection, with the laying
out of marvellous park, almost exhausted the resources of the
its

realm, but with results quite incommensurate with the outlay.

In spite of its vastness, its exterior is commonplace; the orders are
used with singular monotony, which is not redeemed by the deep
breaks and projections of the main front. There is no control-

ling or dominant feature; there is no adequate entrance or ap-

proach; the grand staircases are badly placed and unworthily

treated, and the different elements of the plan are combined with

singular lack of the usual French sense of monumental and ra-

tional arrangement. The chapel is by far the best single feature-

in the design.

Far more successful was the completion of the Louvre, in 1688,

 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. .
327

from the designs of Claude Perraidt (1633-1688), the court physi-

cian, whose plans were fortunately adopted in preference to those
of Bernini. For the east front he designed a magnificent Corin-
thian colonnade nearly 600 feet long, with coupled columns upon
a plain high basement, and with a central pediment and terminal
pavilions (Fig. 186). The whole forms one of the most imposing
facades in existence; but it is a mere decoration, obviously de-

signed for the adornment of the open square in front of it, and

FIG. 186. COLONNADE OF LOUVRE.

having no practical relation to the building behind it. Its height

required the addition of a third story to match it on the north and
south sides of the court, which as thus completed quadrupled the

original area proposed by Lescot. Fortunately the style of Les-

cot's work was retained throughout in the court facades, while
externally the colonnade was recalled on the reconstructed south
frontby a colossal order of pilasters. The Louvre as completed
by Louis XIV. was a stately and noble palace, as remarkable for
the surpassing excellence of the
sculptures of Jean Goujon as for
the dignity and beauty of its architecture. Taken in connection
with the Tuileries, it was unrivalled by
any palace in Kurope
except the Vatican.
328 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

OTHER BUILDINGS. To Louis XIV. is also due the nobly

planned but externally uninteresting Hotel des Invalides or

veterans' asylum, at Paris, by /. H. Mansart. To the chapel of
thisinstitution was added,

in1680-1706, the celebrated

Dome of the Invalides, a
masterpiece by the same
architect. In plan it some-
what resembles Bramante's
scheme for St. Peter's a
Greek cross with domical
chapels- in the four angles
and a dome over the centre.
The exterior (Fig. 187), with
the lofty gilded dome on a
high drum adorned with en-
gaged columns, is somewhat
high for its breadth,
but is a harmonious
and impressive design;
and the interior, if

somewhat cold, is ele-

gant and well propor-

tioned. The chief
innovation in the design
was the wide separation
FIG. 187. DOME OP THE of the interior stone
dome from the lofty
exterior decorative cupola and lantern of wood, this separation

being designed to meet the conflicting demands of internal and

external effect. To the same architect is due the formal monot-
ony of the Place Vendome, all the houses surrounding it being
treated with a uniform architecture of colossal pilasters, at once
monumental and inappropriate. One of the most pleasing
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 329

designs of the time is the Chateau de Maisons (1658), by

F. Mansart (1598-1666), uncle of J. H. Mansart. In this
the proportions of the central and terminal the mass pavilions,
and lines ofthe steep roof a la Mansarde, the
simple and
effective use of the orders, and the refinement of all the details

impart a grace of aspect rare in

contemporary works. The same
qualities appear in his
other works, as in the
west wing at Blois for
Gaston d'Orleans and
in the
Val-de-Grace,
begun by him in 1645
but continued and
completed by Lcmer-
cicr, Le Mitel and G.
Le Due, a domical
church of excellent

proportions. Many
important residences
for persons of noble
rank or large fortune
were erected during I8. FACADE OF ST. SULPICE, PARIS.
this reign, among which
may be mentioned the earlier portion of the Palais Royal,
the Hotel Lambert on the He St. Louis by Levau (1645), and
the extension of the Hotel Carnavalet by F. Mansart. The
want of space forbids mention of other buildings of this period.
THE DECLINE. Under Louis XV. the pedantry of the classic

period gave place to a protracted struggle between license and the

severest classical correctness. The exterior designs of this time
were often even more uninteresting and bare than under Louis
XIV.; while, on the other hand, interior decoration tended
towards an unregulated fancifulness in which straight lines and
right angles almost disappeared and structural considerations
330 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

were ignored. There was originality and charm in much of this

decoration, but it too often degenerated into a vulgar extrava-
gance.
In public buildings of a seriously monumental character, how-
" "
ever, this rocaille decoration was
little used, and a severe classicism
manifests itself throughout. The
facade of St. Sulpice (Fig. 188) at
Paris, built by Scrvandoni in 1755,
onto the church already referred
to on page 325, is a remarkably
dignified and successful composition.
In the domical church of the
Pantheon at Paris, begun in 1755,

by Soufflol (1713-1781), the greatest

ecclesiasticalmonument of its time
in France, this classical correctness

dominates the interior as well as

FIG. 189. PLAN OF PANTHEON,
PARIS. the exterior. The four arms of

the cross, measuring 362 267 feet, X

are dome-vaulted and provided with double aisles separated by
Corinthian columns. The central dome, 69 feet in diameter, is 265
feet high, surrounded externally by a superb Corinthian peristyle.
It comprises three shells, all of stone, the intermediate ovoid

shell serving to support the lantern.* There is a noble portico

of eighteen colossal Corinthian columns. The whole structure is
notable for the cold perfection of its classic elegance.

PUBLIC SQUARES. Much attention was given to the embel-

lishment of open spaces in the cities, for which the classic style

was admirably suited. The most important work of this kind

was that on the north side of the Place de la Concorde, Paris.

This splendid square, perhaps, on the whole, the finest in F.urope
* In the peristyle and llie shell Soufflol
triple evidently applied
suggestion derived from St. Paul's, London (see p. ,},?X, Fig. 103).
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 331

(though many of its best features belong to a later date), was at

thistime adorned with the two monumental colonnades by Ga-
briel (1698-1782). These colonnades, which form the decorative
fronts for blocks of houses, deserve praise for the beauty of their

pro{>ortions as well as
for the excellent treat-

ment of the arcade on

which they rest, and of
the pavilions at the ends.
IN GENERAL. French
Renaissance architec-
ture marked by good
is

proportions and har-

monious and appropri-
ate detail. Its most
interesting phase was
unquestionably that of
Francis I., so far, at
least, as concerns ex-
terior design. It steadily

progressed, however, in
its mastery of planning;
and in its use of pro-
fU~,. KXTERIOR OP PANTHKON, PARIS.
jecting pavilions 190.

crowned by dominant
masses of roof, it succeeded in preserving, even in severely
classic designs, a picturesqueness and variety otherwise impos-
sible. Roofs, dormers, chimneys, and staircases it treated with
especial success; and in these matters, as well as in monu-
mental dispositions of plan, the French have largely retained
their pre-eminence to our own day.

MONUMENTS: (Mainly supplementary to text. Cli. chateau ;

P. = palace; C. cathedral Clm. ;

church = ;
11.= hotel; T. II.

= town hall or hotel dc I'ille).

332 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

TRANSITION: Ch. Blois, E. wing, 1499; Ch. Meillant; Ch. Chau-

mont; T. H. Amboisc, 1502-05.
FRANCIS I.: Ch. Nantouillet, 1517-25; Ch. Blois, W. wing (af-
terward demolished) and N. wing, 1520-30; H. Lallemant, Bourges,
1520; Ch. Villers-Cotterets, 1520-59; P. of Archbishop, Sens, 1521-
35; P. Fontainebleau (Cour Ovale, Cour d'Adieux, Gallery Francis
! 1527-34; Peristyle, Chapel St. Saturnin, 1540-47, by Gillcs Ic
Breton; Cour du Cheval Blanc, 1527-31, by P. Chambiges) H. ;

Bernuy, Toulouse, 1528-39; P. Granvelle, Besangon, 1532-40; T. H.

Niort, T. H. Loches, 1532-43; H. de Ligeris (Carnavalet), Paris,
1544, by P. Lcscot; churches of Gisors, nave and fagade, 1530; La
Dalbade, Toulouse, portal, 1530; St. Symphorien, Tours, 1531;
Tillieres, 1534-46.
HENRY II., CHARLES IX.: Fontaine des Innocents, Paris, 1547-50,
by P. Lcscot and /. Goujon; tomb Francis I., at St. Denis, 1555,
by Ph. de I'Ormc; H. Catelan, Toulouse, 1555; tomb Henry II.,
at St. Denis, 1560; portal S. Michel, Dijon, 1564; Ch. Sully, 1567;
T. H. Arras, 1573; P. Fontainebleau (Cour du Cheval Blanc
remodelled, 1564-66, by P. Girard; Cour de la Fontaine, same
date) T. H. Besangon, 1582; Ch. Charleval, 1585, by /. B. dc Ccr-
;

ccau.
STYLES OF HENRY IV. AND Louis XIII.: P. Fontainebleau (Gal-
erie des Cerfs, Chapel of the Trinity, Baptistery, etc.) P. Tuileries
;

(Pav. de Flore, by du Ccrccait, 1590-1610; long gallery continued) ;

Hotel Vogue, at Dijon, 1607; Place Dauphine, Paris, 1608; P. de

Justice, Paris, Great Hall, by S. dc Brossc, 1618; H. Sully, Paris,
1624-39; P. Royal, Paris, by/. Lcmcrcicr, for Cardinal Richelieu,

1627-39; P. Louvre doubled in size, by the same; P. Tuileries (N.

wing, and Pav. Marsan, long gallery completed) H. Lambert,
;

Paris; T. H. Reims, 1627; Ch. Blois, W. wing for Gaston d'Orleans,

by F. Afansart, 1635; fagade St. Etienne du Mont, Paris, 1610; of
St. Gervais, Paris, 1616-21, by 5". dc Brossc.

STYLE OF Louis XIV.: T. IT. Lyons, 1646; P. Louvre, F. colon-

nade and court completed, 1660-70; Tuileries altered by Le Van,
1664; observatory at Paris, 1667-72; arch of St. Denis, Paris, 1672,
by Hlondcl; Arch of St. Martin, 1074; by liitllcl : l'anque de
France (Hotel Toulouse), by </< Colic, II. de Luyne. II. Soubisc
(1708-40, partly by />'</?><;;;</), all in Paris; Ch. Chantilly Ch. de
;

Taulay; P. St. Cloud; Place des Victoires. 1685; Chu. St. Sulpice,
Paris, by ].e Vau (fagade, 1755) Chu. St. Roch, Paris, 1653, by
;
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 333

Lcmercicr and dc Cottc; Notre Dame des Victoires, Paris, 1656,

by Le Muct and Bruant.
THE DECLINE: P. Bourbon, 1772 (by Lassurancc and Gabriel);
T. H. Rouen; Fontaine de Crenelle, by Bouchardon, 1739; Halle
aux Bles (recently demolished), 1748; ficole Militaire, 1752-58, by
Gabriel; P. Louvre, court completed, 1754, by the same ;
Madeleine
begun, 1764 (redesigned and completed early in igth century by
I'ignon) H. des Monnaies (Mint), by Antoine; Ecole de Mede-
;

cine, by Gondouin; P. Royal, Great Court, 1784, by Louis;

1774.
Theatre Frangais, 1784 (all the above at Paris) Grand Theatre,
;

Bordeaux, 1785-1800, by Louis; Prefecture at Bordeaux, by the

same; Ch. de Compiegne, 1770, by Gabriel; P. Versailles, theatre
by the same H. Montmorency, Soubise, de Varennes", and the Petit
;

Luxembourg, all at Paris, by dc Cottc; public squares at Nancy,

Bordeaux, Valenciennes, Rennes, Reims.

 CHAPTER XXIII.

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN

AND THE NETHERLANDS.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Palustre. Also,

Belcher and Macartney, Later Renaissance Architecture in Eng-
land. Billings, Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities 0} Scot-
land. Blomfield, A Short History of Renaissance Architecture in
England. Britton, Architectural Antiquities oj Great Britain.
Campbell, Vitruvius Britannicus. Ewerbeck, Die Renaissance
in Bclgien und Holland. Galland, Gcschichte dcr Hollandischcn
Baukunst im Zcitallcr dcr Renaissance. Gotch and Brown, Ar-
chitecture 0} the Renaissance in England. Haupt, Baukunst dcr
Renaissance in Portugal. Loftie, Inigo Jones and Wren. Nash,
Mansions of England. Papworth, Renaissance and Italian
Styles of Architecture in Great Britain. Richardson, Architec-
tural Remains of the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Schayes,
Ilistoire de ^architecture en Belgiquc.

THE TRANSITION. The architectural activity of the six-

teenth century in England was chiefly devoted to the erection of
vast country mansions for the nobility and wealthy bourgeoise.
In these seigniorial residences a degenerate form of the Gothic,
known as the Tudor style, was employed during the reigns of

Henry VII. and Henry VIII., and they still retained much of the
feudal aspect of the Middle Ages. This style, with its broad,
square windows and ample halls, was well suited to domestic
architecture, as well as to collegiate buildings, of which a consid-
erable number were erected at this time. Among the more im-
portant palaces and manor houses of this period are the earlier

parts of Hampton Court, Haddon and Hengreave Halls, and the

now ruined castles of Raglan and Wolterton.
 THE RENAISSANCE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 335

ELIZABETHAN STYLE. Under Elizabeth (1558-160.}) the

progress of classic culture and the employment of Dutch and Ital-

ian artists led to a gradual introduction of Renaissance forms,

which, as in France, were at first mingled with others of Gothic

origin. Among the foreign artists were the versatile Holbein
from Germany, Trevigi and Torregiano from Italy, and Theodore
Have, Bernard Jansen,and Gerard Chrismas from Holland. The
pointed arch disappeared, and the orders began to be used as sub-
ordinate features in the decoration of doors, windows, chimneys
and mantels. Open-work balustrades replaced externally the

heavy Tudor and a peculiar style of carving in

battlements, flat

relief-patterns, resembling applique designs cut out with the jig-

saw and attached by nails or rivets, was applied with little judg-
ment to all possible features. Ceilings were commonly finished
in plaster, with elaborate interlacing patterns in low relief; and
this,with the increasing use of interior woodwork, gave to the
mansions of this time a more homelike but less monumental as-
pect internally. English architects, like Smithson and Thorpe,
now began win the patronage at first monopolized by foreign-
to

ers. In Wollaton Hall (1580), by Smithson, the orders were

used for the main composition with mullioned windows, much
Longleat House, completed a year earlier,
after the fashion of

by his master, John of Padua. During the following period,

however (1590-1610), there was a reaction toward the Tudor
practice, and the orders were again relegated to subordinate uses.
Of their more monumental employment, the Gate of Honor of
Cains College, Cambridge, is one of the earliest examples. Hard-
wicke and Charlton Halls, and Burghley (Eig. igi), Ilatfield,
and Holland Houses are noteworthy monuments of the style.
JACOBEAN STYLE. During the reign of James I. (160^-25),
details of (lassie origin came into more general use, but carica-

tured almost beyond recognition. The orders, though much em-

ployed, were treated without correctness or grace, and the orna-
ment was unmeaning and heavy. It is not worth while to dwell
336 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

further upon this style, which produced no important public

buildings,and soon gave way to a more rigid classicism.
CLASSIC PERIOD. If the classic style was late in its appear-

ance in England, its final sway was complete and long-lasting.

It was Inigo Jones (1572-1652) who first introduced the correct

and monumental style of the Italian masters of classic design.

For Palladio, indeed, he seems to have entertained a sort of ven-

KIG. 191. BURGHLEY HOUSB.

eration, and the villa which he designed at Chiswick was a re-

duced copy of Palladio's Villa Capra, near Vicenza. This and

other works of his show a failure to appreciate the unsuitability of
Italian conceptions to the climate and tastes of Great Britain ;
his

efforts to popularize Palladian

architecture, without the
re-

sources which Palladio controlled in the way of decorative sculp-

ture and painting, were consequently not always happy in their
results.His greatest work was the design for a new Palace at
Whitehall, London. Of this colossal scheme, which, if com-
 THE RENAISSANCE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 337

pleted, would have ranked as the grandest palace of the time, only
the Banqueting Hall (now used as a museum) was ever built
(1'ig. 192). It is an effective composition in two stories, rusti-

cated throughout and adorned with columns and pilasters, and

contains a fine vaulted hall in three aisles. The plan of the pal-

ace, which was to have measured 1,152 X 720 feet, was excellent,

largely conceived and carefully studied in its details, but it was

wholly beyond the re-
sources of the kingdom.
The garden-front of
Somerset House (1632;
demolished) had the
same qualities of sim-
plicity and dignity, re-
calling the works of
Sammichele. Wilton
House, Coleshill, the
villa at Chiswick, and
St. Paul's, Covent Gar-
den, are the best known
of his works, showing
him to have been a de-
signer of ability, but FIG. 192. BANQUETING HALL, WHITEHALL.

hardly of the consum-

mate genius which his admirers attribute to him.
ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. The greatest of Jones's successors
was Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723), principally known as the
architect of St. Paul's Cathedral, London, built to replace the
earlier Gothic cathedral destroyed in the great fire of 1666. It
was begun in 1675, and its designer had the rare good fortune to

witness its completion in 1710. The plan, as finally adopted,

retained the general proportions of an English Gothic church,

measuring 480 feet in length, with transepts 250 feet long, and a
grand rotunda 108 feet in diameter at the crossing (Kig. 193)-
333 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The style was strictly Italian, treated with sobriety and dignity, if
somewhat lacking in variety and inspiration. Externally two
stories of the Corinthian order appear, the upper story being
merely a screen to hide the clearstory and give greater height and
mass to the long exterior of the cathedral, an architectural pre-
tense hardly atoned for by any special beauty of detail. The
dominant feature of the design is the dome over the central area.
It consists of an inner shell, reaching
a height of 216 feet, above which rises

the exterior dome of wood, surmounted

by a stone lantern, the summit of
which is 360 feet from the pavement
(Fig. 194). This exterior dome,
springing from a high drum sur-
rounded by a magnificent peristyle,
gives to the otherwise somewhat com-
monplace exterior of the cathedral a

signal majesty of effect. Next to the

dome the most successful part of the

design is the west front, with its two-

storied porch and flanking bell-turrets.

Internally the excessive relative length,

FIG. 193. PLAN OF ST. PAUL'S
LONDON. especially that of the choir, detracts
from the effect of the dome, and the
interior detail lacks distinction. The much discussed mosaic
decoration of the choir, added in recent years, has somewhat
relieved the former bareness of this interior. The central area
itself, in spite of the awkward treatment of the four smaller
arches of the eight which support the dome, is a noble design,

occupying the whole width of the three aisles, like the Octagon
at Ely (see p. 228), and producing a striking effect of amplitude
and grandeur. The dome above it is
constructively interesting
from the employment of a cone of brick masonry to support
the stone lantern which rises above, the exterior wooden shell.
 THE RENAISSANCE IN GREAT UKITAIN. 339

The lower part of the cone forms the drum of the inner dome,
its contraction upward being intended to produce a perspective
illusion of increased height.

St. Paul's ranks among the five or six greatest domical buildings
of Europe, and is the most imposing modern edifice in
England.
WREN'S OTHER WORKS. Wren was conspicuously success-

FIG. IQ4. EXTERIOR OP ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.

ful in the designing of parish churches in London. St. Stephen's,

Walbrook, is the most admired of these, with a dome resting on

eight columns. Wren may be called the inventor of the English

Renaissance type of steeple, in which a conical or pyramidal spire
is
harmoniously added to a belfry on a square tower with classic-
details. The Bow Church, Cheapside, is the most
steeple of
successfulexample of the type. In secular architecture Wren's
most important works were the plan for rebuilding London after
the Great Fire; the new courtyard of Hampton Court, a quiet and
340 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

dignified composition in brick and stone ;

the pavilions and colon-
nade of Greenwich Hospital ; the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford,
and the Trinity College Library at Cambridge. Without pro-
found originality, these works testify to the sound good taste and
intelligence of their designer.
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. The Anglo-Italian style as
used by Jones and Wren continued in use through the eighteenth

century, during the first half of which a number of important

country-seats and some churches were erected. Van Brugh
(1666-1726), Hawksmoor (1666-1736), and Gibbs (1683-1754)
were then the leading architects. Van Brugh was especially
skilful in his dispositions of plan and mass, and produced in
the designs of Blenheim and Castle Howard effects of grandeur
and variety of perspective hardly equalled by any of his contem-
poraries in France or Italy. Blenheim, with its monumental plan
and the sweeping curves of its front (Fig. 195), has an unusually
palatial aspect, though the striving for picturesqueness is carried
too far. Castle Howard is
simpler, depending largely, for effect
on a somewhat inappropriate dome. To Hawksmoor, his pupil,

are due St. Mary's, Wool-

noth (1715), at London,
in which by a bold rustica-
tion of the whole exterior
and by windows set in

large recessed arches he

was enabled to dispense
wholly with the orders; St.

George's, Bloomsbury; the

FIG. 195. PLAN OP BLENHEIM. new quadrangle of All
Souls at Oxford, and some
minor works. The two most noted designs of James Gibbs are
St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, at London (1726), and the Rad-
cliffeLibrary, Oxford
at(1747). In the former the use of a
Corinthian portico and of a steeple apparently mounted on the
 THE RENAISSANCE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 341

roof, with no visible lines of support from the ground, though

c>i>en to criticism, adds greatly to the splendor of the edifice,
which is marked by excellent proportions and general harmony
and appropriateness of design (t ig. 196). The Radcliffe Library
is a circular domical hall
surrounded by a lower cir-

cuit of alcoves and rooms,

the whole treated with
straightforward simplicity
and excellent proportions.
Colin Campbell, Flitcroft,
Kent and Wood, contem-
poraries of Gibbs, may be
dismissed with passing
mention.
Sir William Chambers
(1726-96) was the greatest
of the later eighteenth-
century architects. His
fame rests chiefly on his
Treatise on Civil Archi-
tecture, and the extension
and remodelling of Somer-
set House, in which he
PIG. 196. ST. MARTIN'S-IN'-THE-PIELDS,
retained the general ordon- LONDON.
nance of Inigo Jones's de-
sign, adapting it to a frontage of some 600 feet. Robert

Adam, the designer of Keddlestone Hall and of Edinburgh

University; the two Dances, who designed the Mansion House

and Newgate Prison, at London the latter a vigorous and

appropriate composition without the orders (recently demol-

ished) and Sir Joint Soane, the architect of the Bank of
England, close the list of noted architects of the eighteenth
century. It was a period singularly wanting in artistic creative-
342 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

ness and spontaneity; its productions were nearly all respectable,

and often dignified, but without charm.
BELGIUM. As in all other countries where the late Gothic
style had been highly developed, Belgium was slow to accept the

principles of the Renaissance in art. Long after the dawn of the

sixteenth century the Flemish architects continued to employ their
highly florid Gothic alike for churches and town-halls, with which
they chiefly had to do. The earliest Renaissance buildings date
A
from 1530-40, among them being the Hc >tel du Saumon at Ma-
lines, at Bruges the Ancien Greffe, by Jean Wallot, and at Liege
the Archbishop's Palace, by Borsct. The last named, in the
singularand capricious form of the arches and baluster-like col-
umns of its court, reveals the taste of the age for what was outre

and odd; a taste partly due, no doubt, to Spanish influences, as

Belgium was in reality from 1506 to 1712 a Spanish province, and
there was more or less interchange of artists between the two
countries. The Hotel de Ville, at Antwerp, by Cornelius de
Vriendt or Floris (1518-75), erected in 1565, is the most impor-
tant monument of the Renaissance in Belgium. Its facade, 305

feet long and 102 feet high, in four stories, is an impressive crea-
tion in spite of its somewhat monotonous fenestration and the in-

artistic repetition in the third story of the composition and propor-

tions of the second. The basement story forms an open arcade,
and an open colonnade or loggia runs along under the roof, thus

imparting to the composition a considerable play of light and

shade, enhanced by the picturesque central pavilion which rises
to a height of six stories in diminishing stages. The style is
almost Palladian in its severity, but in general the Flemish archi-
tects disdained the restrictions of classic canons, preferring a more
florid and fanciful effect than could be obtained by mere combina-
tions of Roman columns, arches and entablatures. De Vriendt's
other works were mostly designs for altars, tabernacles and the
like; among them the rood-screen in Tournay Cathedral. His
influence may be traced in the Hotel de Yille at Flushing (1594).
 THE RENAISSANCE IN HOLLAND. 343

The ecclesiastical architecture of the Flemish Renaissance is

almost as destitute of imjx>rtant monuments as is the secular.

Ste. Anne, at Bruges, fairly illustrates the type, which is charac-
terised in general by heaviness of detail and a cold and bare aspect
internally. The Renaissance in Belgium is best exemplified,
after all, by minor works and ordinary dwellings, many of which
have considerable artistic grace, though they are quaint rather
than monumental (Fig.

197). Stepped gables, high

dormers, and volutes flank-
ing each diminishing stage
of the design, give a certain

piquancy to the street archi-

tecture of the period.

HOLLAND. Except in

the domain of realistic

painting, the Dutch have

never manifested pre-
eminent artistic endow-
ments, and the Renaissance
produced in Holland few
monuments of consequence.
It lx.'gan there, as in many
other places, with minor FIG. 197. RENAISSANCE HOUSES, BRUSSELS.
works in the churches, due
largely to Flemish or Italian artists. About the middle of the

sixteenth century two native architects, Sebastian van Noye and

William van Noort, first popularized the use of carved pilasters
and of gables or steep pediments adorned with carved scallop-
shells, in remote imitation of the style of Francis I. The prin-

cipal monuments of the age were town-halls, and, after the war
of independence in which the yoke of Spain was finally broken

(1566-70), local administrative buildings mints, exchanges

and the like. The Town Hall of The Hague (1565), with its
344 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

stepped gable or great dormer, its consoles, statues, and octag-

onal turrets, may be said to have inaugurated the style gener-

ally followed after the war. Owing to the lack of stone, brick
was almost universally employed, and stone imported by sea
was only used in edifices of exceptional cost and importance.
Of these the Town Hall at Amsterdam holds the first place.

Its facade is of about the same dimensions as the one at

Antwerp, but compares unfavorably with it in its monotony and

want of interest. The Leyden Town Hall, by the Fleming,
Lieven de Key (1597), the Bourse or Exchange and the Hanse
House Amsterdam, by Hendrik de Keyser, the Weighing
at
House Alkmaar and the Market at Haarlem, are also worthy
at
of mention, though many lesser buildings, built of brick combined
with enamelled terra-cotta and stone, possess quite as much artis-
tic merit.
DENMARK. In Denmark the monuments of the Renaissance

may almost be said to be confined to the reign of Christian IV.

(1588-1648), and do not include a single church of any impor-

tance. The royal castles of the Rosenberg (1610) and Christians-
borg(i73i)at Copenhagen, and theFredericksborg (1580-1624),
the latter by a Dutch architect, are interesting and picturesque in

mass, with their fanciful gables, mullioncd windows and numer-

ous turrets, but can hardly lay claim to beauty of detail or purity
of style. The Exchange at Copenhagen, built of brick and stone
same general
in the style (1619-40), is still less interesting both in
mass and detail.
The only other important Scandinavian monument deserving
of special mention in so brief a sketch as this is the Royal Palace
atStockholm, Sweden (1698-1753), due to a foreign architect,
Nicodemus de Texsin. It is of imposing dimensions, and al-
though simple in external treatment, it merits praise for the
excellent disposition of its plan, its noble court, imposing
entrances, and the general dignity and appropriateness of its

architecture.
 THE RENAISSANCE IN DENMARK. 345

MONUMENTS: (in addition to those mentioned in text). ENG-

LAND, TUDOR STYLE: Several palaces by Henry VIII., no longer
extant; \Vestwood, later rebuilt Gosfield Hall
; Harlaxton. ;

ELIZABETHAN: Buckhurst 1565; Kirby House, 1570, both by

,

Thorpe; Cains College, 1570-75, by Theodore Have; "The Schools,"

Oxford, by Thomas Holt, 1600; Beaupre Castle, 1600. JACOBEAN:
Tombs of Mary of Scotland and of Elizabeth in Westminster Ab-
bey; Audsley Inn; Bolsover Castle, 1613; Heriot's Hospital, Edin-
burgh, 1628. CLASSIC or ANGLO-ITALIAN St. John's College, Ox-
:

ford; Queen's House, Greenwich; Coleshill all by Inigo Jones,

;

1620-51; Amesbury, by Webb; Combe Abbey; Buckingham and

Montague Houses The Monument, London, 1670, by Wren Tem-
; ;

ple Bar, by the same Winchester Palace, 1683 Chelsea College

; ; ;

Towers of Westminster Abbey, 1696 St. Clement Dane's St.

; ;

James's, Westminster St. Peter's, Cornhill, and many others, all

;

by Wren. i8TH CENTURY Seaton Delaval and Grimsthorpe, by

:

Van Brugh Chatsworth Wanstead House, by Colin Campbell

; ; ;

Treasury Buildings, by Kent.

The most important Renaissance buildings of BELGIUM and HOL-
LAND have been mentioned in the text.
 CHAPTER XXIV.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, SPAIN,
AND PORTUGAL.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Palustre. Also,

von Bezold, Die Baukunst dcr Renaissance in Deutschland, Hol-
land, Belgicn und Ddnemark (in Hdbuch. d. Arcli.). Ewerbeck,
Die Renaissance in Bclgien und Holland. Caveda (tr. Kugler),
Geschichte dcr Baukunst in Spanicn. Fritsch, Dcnkmdlcr dcr
deutschen Renaissance (plates). Galland, Die Renaissance in
Holland. Haupt, Baukunst dcr Renaissance in Portugal. Jung-
handel, Die Baukunst Spanicns. Lambert und Stahl, Motive
der deutschen Archilektur. Liibke, Geschichte dcr Renaissance
in Deutschland. Ortwein, Deutsche Renaissance. Prentice,
Renaissance ArcJiitecture and Ornament in Spain. Uhde, Ban-
dcnkmdlcr in Spanicn. Verdier et Cattois, ArcJiitecture civile et
.

domcsliquc. Villa Amil, Hispania Arti'stica y Monumental.

AUSTRIA: BOHEMIA. The earliest appearance of the Re-

naissance in the architecture of the German states was in the

eastern provinces. Before the close of the fifteenth century

Florentine and Milanese architects were employed in Austria,

Bohemia, and the Tyrol, where there are a number of palaces

and chapels in an unmixed Italian style. The portal of the
castle of Mahrisch-Trubau dates from 1492; while to the early

years of the sixteenth century belong a cruciform chapel at Gran,

the remodelling of the castle at Cracow, and the chapel of the

Jagellons in the same city the earliest domical structure of the

German Renaissance, though of Italian design. The Schloss
Porzia (1510), at Spital in Carinlhia, is a line quadrangular
palace, surrounding a court with arcades on three sides, in which
the open stairs form a picturesque interruption with their ram-
 THE RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY. 347

pant arches. But for the massiveness of the details it might

be a Florentine palace. In addition to this, the famous Arsenal
at Wiener-Neustadt (1524), the portal of the Imperial Palace
at Vienna (1552), and the Castle Schalaburg on the Danube
(1530-1601), are attributed to Italian architects, to whom must
also be ascribed a number of important works at Prague.
Chief among these the Belvedere (1536, by Paolo delta Stella),
a rectangular building surrounded by a graceful open arcade,
above which it rises with a second story crowned by a curved
roof; the Waldstein Palace (1621-29),by Giov. Marini, with its
imposing loggia; Schloss Stern, built on the plan of a six-
pointed star (1459-1565) and embellished by Italian artists with
stucco ornaments and frescoes; and parts of the palace on the

Hradschin, by Scamozzi, attest the supremacy of Italian art in

Bohemia. The same is true of Styria, Carinthia, and the
Tyrol; Schloss Ambras at Innsbruck (1570).
e.g.
GERMANY: PERIODS. The earliest manifestation of the Re-
naissance in what is now the German Empire, appeared in the
works of painters like Diirer and Burkmair, and in occasional

buildings previous to 1525. The real transformation of German

architecture, however, hardly began until after the Peace of
Augsburg, in 1555. From that time on its progress was rapid,
its achievements being almost wholly in the domain of secular

architecture princely and ducal castles, town halls or Rath-

hditser, and houses of wealthy burghers or corporations. The
Empire was a mere abstraction; Germany was really a loose
states, most of them having but limited resources,
bundle of small
so that anything like an imperial or royal architecture was im-
possible. The
palaces grew up at haphazard about nuclei of
mediaeval origin, with no single portion to compare with the

stately chateaux of the French kings. Church architecture was

neglected, owing to the Reformation, which turned to its own
uses the existing churches, while the Roman Catholics were too

impoverished to replace the edifices they had lost.

348 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The periods of the German Renaissance are less well marked

than those of the French; but its successive developments follow
the same general progression, divided into three stages:
I. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1525-1600, in which the orders
were infrequently used, mainly for porches and for gable decora-

tion. The conception and spirit of most monuments were

still strongly tinged with Gothic feeling.

II. THE LATE RENAISSANCE, 1600-1675, characterized by

a dry, heavy treatment, in which too often neither the fanciful

gayety of the previous period nor the simple and monumental

dignity of classic design appears. Broken curves, large scrolls,
obelisks, and a style of flat relief carving resembling the Eliza-
bethan are common. Occasional monuments exhibit a more
correct and classic treatment after Italian models.
III. THE DECLINE or BAROQUE PERIOD, 1675-1800, em-

ploying the orders in a style of composition oscillating between

the extremes of bareness and of Rococo over-decoration. The
ornament partakes of the character of the Louis XV. and Italian
Jesuit styles, being most successful in interior decoration, but
externally running sometimes to the extreme of unrestrained
fancy.
CHARACTERISTICS. In none of these periods do we meet
with the sober, monumental treatment of the Florentine or
Roman schools. A love of picturesque variety in masses and
sky-lines, inheritedfrom medieval times, appears in the high
roofs, stepped gables and lofty dormers which are universal.
The roofs often comprise several stories, and are lighted by lofty
gables at either end, and by dormers carried up from the side
walls through two or three stories. Gables and dormers alike
are built in diminishing stages, each step adorned with a console
or scroll, and the whole treated with pilasters or rolonnctles and
entablatures breaking over each support (Fig. 198). These
roofs, dormers, and gables contribute the most noticeable ele-
ment to the general effect of German Renaissance build-
 THE RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY. 349

ings, and are commonly the best-designed features in them.

The orders are scantily used and usually treated with utter dis-

regard of classic canons, being generally far too massive and

overloaded with orna-
ment. Oriels, bay
windows, and turrets,
starting from corbels or
colonnettes, or rarely
from the ground, diver-
sify the facade, and
spires of curious bulbous
patterns give added
piquancy to the pictur-

esque skyline. The

plans seldom had the
monumental symmetry
and largeness of Italian
and French models ;

courtyards were often

irregular in shape and

diversified with balcon-
ies and spiral staircase
turrets. The national

leaning was always to-

ward the quaint and
fantastic, as well in the
decoration as in the FIG. 198. SCHLOSS HXMKLSCHENBURG.

composition. Gro-
tesques, caryatids, gatncs (half-figures terminating below in
sheath-like supports), fanciful rustication, and many other details

give a touch of the Baroque even to works of early date. The

same principles were applied with better success to interior
decoration, especially in the large halls of the castles and town-
halls, and many of their ceilings were sumptuous and well-
35O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

considered designs, deeply panelled, painted and gilded, in

wood or plaster.
CASTLES. The Schloss or Burg of the German prince or
duke retained throughout the Renaissance many mediaeval
characteristics in plan and aspect. A large proportion of these
noble residences were built upon foundations of demolished
feudal castles, reproducing in a new dress the ancient round
towers and vaulted guard-rooms and halls, as in the Hartenfels
at Torgau, the Heldburg (both inSaxony), and the castle of
Trausnitz, in Bavaria, among many others. The Castle at
Torgau (1540) is one of the most imposing of its class, with
massive round and square towers showing externally, and court
facades full of picturesque irregularities. In the great Castle
at Dresden the plan is more symmetrical, and the Renaissance
appears more distinctly in the details of the Georgenflligel
(1530-50), though at that early date the classic orders were al-
most ignored. The portal of the Heldburg, however, built in
1562, a composition quite in the contemporary French vein,
is

with superposed orders and a crowning pediment over a massive

basement.
Another important series of castles or palaces are of more
regular design, in which the feudal traditions tend to disappear.
The majority belong to the end of the sixteenth and beginning
of the seventeenth centuries. They are built around large rec-

tangular courts with arcades in two or three stories on one or more

sides, but rarely surrounding it entirely. In these the segmental
arch is more common than the semicircular, and springs usually
from short and stumpy Ionic or Corinthian columns. The
rooms and halls are arranged en suite, without corridors, and a
large and lofty banquet hall forms the dominant feature of the
series. The earliest of these regularly planned palaces are of
Italian design. Chief among them is the Residenz at Landshut
('5.^ 4.i)> w 'lh a thoroughly Roman plan, by pupils of Giulio
Romano, and exterior and court facades of great dignity treated
 THE REXAISSAXCE IN GERMANY. 351

with the orders. More German in its details, but equally inter-
esting, is the Fiirstenhof at Wismar, in brick and terra-cotta,
by Valentino di Lira and Van A ken (1553); while in the Piasten-
schloss at Brieg (1547-
72), by Italian architects,
the treatment in parts

suggests the richest works

of the style of Francis
I. In other castles the

segmental arch and

stumpy columns or piers
show the German taste,
as in the Plassenburg,
by K as par Vise her (1554-

64), the castle at Plagnitz,

and the Old Castle at

Stuttgart, all dating

from about 1550-55-
Heidelberg Castle, in

spite of its mediaeval

aspect from the river

and its irregular plan,
ranks as the highest
achievement of the
German Renaissance in
palace design. The most
interesting parts among 199. THE FRIEDRICHSHAU, HEIDBLBKRG.
its various wings built

at different dates the earlier portions still Gothic in design -

are the Otto Heinrichsbau (1554) and the Friedrichsbau

(1601). The first of these appears somewhat simpler in its lines

than the second, by reason of having lost its original dormer

gables. The orders, freely superposed in three
treated, are
stories, and twin windows, niches, statues, gahies, medallions
352 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

and profuse carving produce an effect of great gayety and rich-

ness. The
Friedrichsbau (Fig. 199) less quiet in its lines, and
with high scroll-gabled and stepped dormers, is on the other
hand more soberly decorated and more characteristically Ger-
man. The Schloss Hiimelschenburg (Fig. 198) is designed in

somewhat the same spirit, but with even greater simplicity of

detail.

TOWN HALLS. These most interesting class

constitute the
of Renaissance buildings in Germany, presenting a considerable
variety of types, but nearly all built in solid blocks without courts,
and adorned with towers or spires. A high roof crowns the build-
ing, broken by one or more high gables or many-storied dormers.
The majority of these town halls present facades much diversified
by projecting wings, as at Lemgo and Paderborn, or by oriels and
turrets, as at Altenburg (1562-64); and the towers which dom-
inate the whole terminate usually in bell-shaped cupolas, or in
more capricious forms with successive swellings and contractions,
as at Dantzic (1587). A few, however, are designed with monu-
mental simplicity of mass; of these that at Bremen (1612) is

perhaps the finest, with its beautiful exterior arcade on strong

Doric columns. The town hall of Nuremberg is one of the few
with a court, and presents a facade of almost Roman simplicity
(1613-19); that at Augsburg (1615) is equally classic and more
pleasing; while at Schweinfurt, Rothenburg (1572), Mialhausen,
etc., are others worthy of mention.

CHURCHES. St. Michael's, at Munich, is almost the only

important church of the first period in Germany (1582), but it
is
worthy to rank with many of the most notable contemporary
Italian churches. A wide nave, covered by a majestic barrel
vault, is llanked by side chapels, separated from each other by
massive piers and forming a series of gallery bays above. There
are short transepts and a choir, all in excellent proportion and
treated with details which, if somewhat heavy, are appropriate
and reasonably correct. The Marienkirche at Wolfenbiittel
 THE RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY. 353

(1608) is a fair sample of the parish churches of the second

period. In the exterior of this church pointed arches and semi-
Gothic tracery are curiously associated with
heavy rococo carv-
ing. The simple rectangular mass, square tower, and portal
with massive orders and

carving are characteristic

features. Many of the
church-towers are well pro-
portioned and graceful
structures in spite of the
fantastic outlines of their

spires. One of the best and

purest in style is that of the

University Church at Wiirz-

burg (1587-1600).
HOUSES. Many of the
German houses of the six-
teenth and seventeenth cen-
turies would merit extended
notice in a larger work, as

among the most interesting

lesser monuments of the
Renaissance. Nuremberg
and Hildesheim are particu-
larly rich in such houses,
built either for private PHI. 2OO. ZWINC.ER PALACE, DKESDKN.

citizens or for guilds and

corporations. Not a few of the half-timbered houses of the

time are genuine works of art, though interest chiefly centres in
the more monumental dwelling of stone. In this domestic
architecture the picturesque quality of German design appears
to better advantage than in more monumental edifices, and their

broadly stepped gables, corbelled oriels, florid portals and want

of formal symmetry imparting a peculiar and undeniable charm.
354 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

The Kaiserhaus and Wedekindsches Haus Fur-

at Hildesheim;

stenhaus at Leipzig; Teller, Hirschvogel, and Funk houses at

Nuremberg; the Salt House at Frankfurt, and Ritter House at
Heidelberg, are a few of
the most noted among
these examples of domes-
tic architecture.
LATER MONUMENTS.
The Zwinger Palace at
Dresden (1711-22), by
Poppelmann (Fig. 200),
is the most elaborate and

wayward example of the

German palace architec-
ture of the third period.
Its details are of the most
exaggerated rococo type,
like confectioner's work
done in stone; and yet
the building has an air of

princely splendor which

partly atones for its de-
tails. Besides this palace,
Dresden possesses in the
domical Marienkirche
CHURCH OP ST. MARY (MAKIEN-
KIKCHIC), DRESDEN. (Fig. 201) a very merito-
rious example of late de-

sign. The proportions are good, and the detail, if not interest-
ing, is at least inoffensive, while the whole is externally a

dignified and rational piece of work. At Vienna are a number

of palaces of the third period, more interesting for their beautiful
grounds and parks than for intrinsic architectural merit, except
in some of the interiors where, as notably in the superb Im-
perial Library by Fischer i'on 1'lrlacli (1650-1723) the wayward
 THE RENAISSANCE IX SPAIN. 355

capriciousness of the Rococo style was turned to splendid dec-

orative account. As in Italy, this was the period of stucco,
and although in Vienna this cheap and perishable material
was cleverly handled, and the ornament produced was often
quaint and effective, the results lack the permanence and dig-
nity of true building in stone or brick, and may be dismissed
without further mention.
In minor works the Germans were far less prolific than the
Italians or Spaniards. Few of their tombs were of the first
importance, though one, the Sebald Shrine, in Nuremberg, by
Peter Vischer (1506-19), is a splendid work in bronze, in the
transitional style; a richly decorated canopy on slender metal
colonnettes covering and enclosing the sarcophagus of the saint.
There are a large number of fountains in the squares of Ger-
man and Swiss cities which display a high order of design,
and are among the most characteristic minor products of Ger-
man art.

SPAIN. The flamboyant Gothic style sufficed for a while

to meet the requirements of the arrogant and luxurious period
which in Spain followed the overthrow of the Moors and the
discovery of America. But it was inevitable that the Renais-
sance should in time make its influence felt in the arts of the

Iberian peninsula, largely through the employment of Flemish

artists. In jewelry and silverwork, arts which received a great

impulse from the importation of the precious metals from the

New World, the forms of the Renaissance found special acceptance
so that the new style received the name of the Plateresque (from

platcro, silversmith). This was a not inept name for the minutely
detailed and sumptuous decoration of the early Renaissance,
which lasted from 1500 to the accession of Philip II. in 1556. It

was characterized by surface-decoration spreading over broad

areas, especially around doors and windows, florid escutcheons
and Gothic details mingling with delicately chiselled arabesques.
Decorative pilasters with broken entablatures and carved balus-
356 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

ter-shafts were employed with little reference to constructive

lines,but with great refinement of detail, in spite of the exuber-

ant profusion of the ornament.
To this style, after the artistic inaction of Philip II.'s
reign,
succeeded the coldly classic style practised by Berruguete and
Hcrrera (1530-1597), and called the Griego-Romano. In spite
of the attempt to produce works of classical purity, the buildings

of this period are for the most part singularly devoid of original-
ity and interest. This style lasted until the middle of the seven-
teenth century, and in the case of certain works and artists, until
its close. was followed, at least in ecclesiastical architecture,
It

by the so-called Churrigueresque, a name derived from an other-

wise insignificant architect, Churrignera (died 1725), who like
Maderna and Borromini in Italy, discarded all the proprieties
of architecture, and rejoiced in the wildest extravagances of an
untrained fancy and debased taste. About the middle of the
eighteenth century, however, the advent of a number of Italian
architects resulted in a return toward classical correctness.
EARLY MONUMENTS. The earliest ecclesiastical works of
the Renaissance period, like the cathedrals of Salamanca, and
Segovia, were almost purely Gothic in style. Not until 1525
did the new forms begin to dominate in cathedral design. The
cathedral at Jaen, by Valdeh'ira (1525), an imposing structure
with three aisles and side chapels, was treated internally with the
Corinthian order throughout. The Cathedral of Granada (1529,

by Diego de Siloe) is especially interesting for its great domical

sanctuary 70 feet in diameter, and for the largeness and dignity of
its conception and details. The cathedral of Malaga, the church
ofSan Domingo at Salamanca, and the monastery of San Giro-
lamo in the same city are either wholly or in part Plateresque, and

provided with portals of especial richness of decoration. Indeed,

the portal of S. Domingo practically forms the whole facade.
In secular architecture the Hospital of Santa Cruz at Toledo,

by Enrique dc Kgaz (1504-16), is one of the earliest examples of

 THE RENAISSANCE IN SPAIN. 357

the style. Here, as also in the University at Salamanca (Fig.

202), the portal is the most notable feature, suggesting both
Italiah and Trench models in its details. The great College at
Alcala de Henares is another important early monument of the
Renaissance (1500-17,
by Pedro Gunnel). In
most designs the pref-
erence was for long

fa9ades of moderate
height, with a base-
ment showing few
openings, and a bel
etage lighted by large
windows widely
spaced. Ornament
was chiefly concen-
trated about the doors
and windows, except
for the roof balus-

trades, which were

often exceedingly elab-
orate. Occasionally a
decorative motive is
spread over the whole
facade, as in the Casa
de las Conchas at 202. DOOR OF THE UNIVERSITY, SALAMANCA.
Salamanca, adorned
with cockle-shells carved at intervals all over the front a bold
and effective device; or the Infantada palace with its spangling
of carved diamonds. The courtyard, or patio, was an indispen-
sable feature of these buildings, as in all hot countries, and was
surrounded by arcades frequently of the most fanciful design
overloaded with minute ornament, as in the Infantada at
Guadalajara, the Casa de Zaporta, formerly at Saragossa (now
358 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

removed to Paris; Fig. and the Lupiana monastery.

203),
The Archbishop's Palace at Alcala de Henares
patios in the
and the Collegio de los Irlandeses at Salamanca are of simpler
design; that of the Casa
de Pilatos at Seville is

almost purely Moorish.

Salamanca abounds in

buildings of this period.

THE GRIEGO-ROMANO.
The more classic treat-
ment of architectural

designs by the use of the

orders was introduced by
Alonzo Berruguete (1480-
1561), who studied in

Italy after 1503. The

Archbishop's Palace and
the Doric Gate of San

Martino, both at Toledo,

were his work, as well as
the first palace at Ma-
drid. The Palladio of

Spain was, however, by

Juan de Herrera, the
architect of Valladolid
Cathedral, built under
:

Philip V. This vast edifice

FIG. 203. CASA DE ZAPORTA: COURTYARD. follows the general lines
of the earlier cathedrals
of Jaen and Granada, but a style of classical correctness almost
in

severe in aspect, but well suited to the grand scale of the church.
The masterpiece of this period was the monastery of thcEscurial,

begun by Juan Battisla of Toledo, in 1563, but not completed

until nearly one hundred and fifty years later. Its final architec-
 THE RENAISSANCE IN SPAIN. 359

tural aspect was largely due

to Herrera. It is a vast
rectangle of
740 X
580 feet, a
comprising complex of courts, halls, and cells,
dominated by the huge mass of the chapel. This last is an im-
posing domical church covering 70,000 square feet, treated
throughout with the Doric order, and showing externally a lofty
dome and campaniles with domical lanterns, which serve to
diversify the otherwise monotonous mass of the monastery.
What the Escurial
lacks in grace or

splendor is at least in
a measure redeemed

by its majestic scale

and varied sky-lines.
The Palace of
Charles V. (Fig. 204),

adjoining the Alham-

bra at Granada,
though begun as early
as 1527 by Machuca,
was mainly due to
Berruguete, and is an
excellent example of
the Spanish Palladian

style. With its cir-

2O4. -PALACE OF CHARLES V., GRANADA.
cular court, admirable

proportions and well-studied details, this often maligned edifice

deserves to be ranked among the most successful examples of
the style. During this period the cathedral of Seville received
many alterations, and the upper part of the adjoining Moorish
tower of the Giralda. burned in 1395, was rebuilt by Fernando
Ruiz in the prevalent style, and with considerable elegance and
appropriateness of design.
Of the Palace at Madrid, rebuilt by Philip V. after the burn-
ing of the earlier palace in 1734, and mainly the work of an
360 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Italian, Ivara: the Aranjuez palace (1739, by Francisco Herrera),

and the Palace at San Ildefonso, it need
only be said that their
chief merit lies in their size and the absence of those glaring viola-
tions of good taste which generally characterized the successors
of Churriguera. In ecclesiastical design these violations of taste
were particularly abundant and excessive, especially in the
facades and in the sanctuary huge aggregations of misplaced
and vulgar detail, with hardly an unbroken pediment, column,
or arch in the whole, yet sometimes, in spite of their extravagance,

undeniably picturesque. Some extreme examples of this style

are to be found in the Spanish-American churches of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries, as at Chihuahua and many other
cities in Mexico, at Tucson (Arizona), and other places. The
least offensive features of the churches of this period were the
towers, usually in pairs at the west end, some of them showing
excellent proportions and good composition in spite of their

execrable details.
Minor architectural works, such as the rood screens in the
churches of Astorga and Medina de Rio Seco, and many tombs
at Granada, Avila, Alcala, etc., give evidence of superior skill in
decorative design, where constructive considerations did not
limit the exercise of the imagination.
PORTUGAL. The Renaissance appears to have produced
few notable works in Portugal. Among the chief of these are the

Tower, the church, and the Cloister at Belem. These display

a riotous profusion of minute carved ornament, with a free com-

mingling of late Gothic details, wearisome in the end in spite of the

beauty of execution (1500-40?). The church of Santa Cruz
its

at Coimbra, and that of Luz, near Lisbon, are among the most
noted of the religious monuments of the Renaissance, while in
secular architecture the royal palace at Mafra is worthy of
mention beside the Escurial of Madrid, which it rivals in size
and architectural dignity. It is the work of F. Ludu'ig, a Ger-
man architect (1717-1730).
 THE RENAISSANCE IN PORTUGAL. 361

MONUMENTS: (Mainly supplementary to preceding text.)

AUSTRIA, BOHEMIA, etc.; At Prague, Schloss Stern, 1459-1565;
Schwarzenburg Palace, 1544; Waldstein Palace, 1629; Salvator
Chapel, Vienna, 1515; Schloss Shalaburg, near Molk, 1530-1601;
Standehaus, Gratz, 1625. At Vienna Imperial palace, various
:

dates; Schwarzenburg and Lichtenstein palaces, i8th century.

GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND, FIRST PERIOD: Schloss Baden, 1510-
20, and part 1569-82; Schloss Merseburg, 1514, with late 16th-
century portals; Fuggerhaus at Augsburg, 1516; castles of Neuen-
stein, 1530-64; Celle, 1532-46 (and enlarged, 1665-70); Dessau,
r
533; Leignitz, portal, 1533; Landshut, Neue Residenz, 1536-43;
Plagnitz, 1550; Schloss Gottesau, 1553-88; castle of Giistrow, 1555-
"
65; Lucerne, Rittersche Palast or Schlossli," 1557; of Oels, 1559-
1616; of Bernburg, 1565; of Heiligenburg, 1569-87; Munzhof at
Munich, 1575; Lusthaus (demolished) at Stuttgart, 1575; Lands-
hut, Schloss Trausnitz, 1578-80; Wilhelmsburg Castle at Schmal-
kald, 1584-90; castle of Hamelschenburg, 1588-1612. SECOND
PERIOD: Zunfthaus at Basle, 1578, in advanced style; so also Juleum
at Helmstadt, 1593-1612; gymnasium at Brunswick, 1592-1613;
Spiesshof at Basle, 1600; castle at Berlin, 1600-1616, demolished in
great part castle Bevern, 1603
;
Schloss Biickeburg and church,
;

early I7th century; Dantzic, Zeughaus, 1605; Wallfahrtskirche at

Dettelbach, 1613; castleAschaffenburg, 1605-13; Pal. in Greater
Garden, Dresden, 1679 Schloss Weikersheim, 1600-83
;
Schloss ;

Heiligenburg. THIRD PERIOD: Zeughaus at Berlin, 1695; palaces by

Schliiter at Charlottenburg, and at Berlin, 1696-1706; Catholic

church, Dresden, 1738, by Chiaveri Bruchsal, Ducal Palace,

;

1720-42; Munich, Amalienburg, 1734, by de Cuvillie; Asam-

house, 1740; Potsdam, Stadt Schloss, 1740, by Knobelsdorf; Sans
Souci, 1751-1768; other palace buildings 1754-1775; Berlin, Royal
Library, 1775; the Neue Kirche, 1780. (For Classic Revival, see
next chapter.) TOWN HALLS: At Heilbronn, 1535, Gorlitz, 1537;
Posen, 1550; Miilhauscn, 1552; Cologne, porch with Corinthian
columns and Gothic arches, 1569; Liibeck (Rathhaushalle), 1570;
Schweinfurt, 1570; Gotha, 1574; Emden, 1574-76; Lemgo, 1589;
Neisse, Nordhausen, 1610; Paderborn, 1612-16; Augsburg,
1604;
1615-1620, by Holl Gernsbach, 1617; Magdeburg, 1691.
;

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL, i6TH CENTURY: Monastery San Marcos at

Leon; palace of the Infanta, Saragossa Carcel del Corte at Baez
; ;

Early Renaissance details in cloisters of Belem; choir of Cath. of

362 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Thomar, Portugal, 1509; pulpit in Sta.

Cruz, Coimbra, Portugal,
1522; Cath. of Malaga, W. by de Siloe N. S. da Serra
front, 1538, ;

do Pilar, Gaya, Portugal, 1540-1600; Tavera Hospital, Toledo, 1541,

by de Bustamente Alcazar at Toledo, 1548; Lonja (Town Hall) at
;

Saragossa, 1551; Evora, Portugal, University, 1551-58; cloister Dos

Filippes, Thomar, 1557-62; Casa de la Sal, Casa Monterey, and Col-
legio de los Irlandeses, all at Salamanca; Town Hall, Casa de los
Taveras and upper part of Giralda, all at Seville Cath. Se Nova
;

at Coimbra, 1580; Sao Vicente, Lisbon, 1570-1600. 17111 CENTURY:

Circular cloister N. S. do Pilar, Oporto, 1602; Cathedral del Pilar,
Saragossa, 1677; Tower del Seo, 1685. iSin CENTURY: Palace and
church at Mafra, 1717-30; palace at Madrid, 1735; at Aranjuez,
1739; cathedral of Santiago, 1738; Lonja at Barcelona, 1772.
 CHAPTER XXV.
THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson. Also Chateau,

Histoire et caracteres de I'architecture en France; and Ltibke,
Geschichte der Architektur. (For the most part, however, re-
course must be had to the general histories of architecture, and to
monographs on special cities or buildings.)

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. By the end of the seventeenth

century the Renaissance, properly speaking, had run its course
in Europe. Having wearied in turn of the restraints of pure
classicism and the extravagances of the Baroque, it had exhausted
the springs of original invention. Taste rapidly declined before
the growth of the industrial and commercial spirit in the eigh-
teenth century. The ferment of democracy and the disquiet of
far-reaching political changes had begun to preoccupy the minds
of men to the detriment of all artistic creation, in the absence of
which taste tended to swing back toward the safe standards of
classic models. But the demand was for a literal copying of the
arcades and porticos of Rome, to serve as frontispieces for build-

ings in which modern requirements should be accommodated to

these antique exteriors, instead of controlling the design. The

result was a manifest gain in the splendor of the streets and
squares adorned by these highly decorative frontispieces, but at
the expense of convenience and propriety in the buildings them-
selves. While this academic spirit too often sacrificed logic and
originality to an arbitrary symmetry and to the supposed canons
of Roman design, it also, on the other hand, led to a statelincss
364 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

and dignity in the planning, especially in the designing of vesti-

bules, stairs, and halls, which render many of the public buildings
it
produced well worthy of study. The architecture of the
Roman Revival was pompous and artificial, but seldom trivial,
and its somewhat affected grandeur was a welcome relief from
the dullness or extravagance of the styles it
replaced.
THE GREEK REVIVAL. The Roman revival began, how-
ever, near the end of the eighteenth century, be displaced in
to

England and Germany by the Greek Revival, the result of a

newly awakened interest in the long-neglected monuments of
Attic art which the discoveries of Stuart and Revett sent out in

1732 by the London Society of Dilettanti had once more made

known to the world. It led to a veritable jurore in England for

Greek Doric and Ionic columns, which were applied indiscrimin-

ately to every class of buildings, with utter disregard of propriety.

The British taste was at this time at its lowest ebb, and failed to

perceive the poverty of Greek architecture when deprived of its

proper adornments or carving and sculpture, which were singu-
larly lacking in the British examples. Nevertheless the Greek

England had a long run of popular favor, yielding only

style in
toward the middle of the last century to the so-called Victorian
Gothic, a revival of mediaeval forms. In Germany the Greek
Revival was characterized by a more cultivated taste and a more
rational application of its forms, which were often freely modified
to suitmodern needs. In France, where the Roman Revival
under Louis XV. had produced some notable results (see p. 330),
and where the influence of the Royal School of Fine Arts (Ecolc
dcs Beaux-Arts) tended to perpetuate the principles of Roman de-

sign, the Greek Revival found no footing. The Greek forms

were seen to be too severe and intractable for present require-
ments. About 1830, however, a modified style of design, known
since as the Nco-Grcr, was introduced by the exertions of a small
coterie of talented architects;and though its own life was short,
it
profoundly influenced French art in the direction of freedom
 TFIE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. 365

and refinement for a long time afterward. In Italy there was

hardly anything in the nature of a true revival of either Roman

or Greek forms. The few important works of the late eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries were conceived in the spirit of the
late Renaissance,and took from the prevalent revival of classicism
elsewhere merely a greater correctness of detail, not any radical

change of form or spirit.

ENGLAND. In Great Britain the Palladian style of Wren

FIC,. 205. BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON.

and Gibbs and their successors continued until superseded

by the Greek revival, but not without a distinct tendency
toward classic Roman types. The Royal Exchange ( 789, re- r

stored 1846) and the Mansion House (17.^0 by Dance) in

London are examples of design in the Roman spirit; and public

buildings in other cities, Dublin and Bath, show

notably in

the same tendency. Little by little Greek models began to

supersede the Roman. The first fruit of the new movement
seems to have been the Bank of England at London, by
3 66 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Sir John Soane (1788). In this edifice the Greco-Roman order

of the round temple at Tivoli was and applied
closely copied,
to a long facade, too low for its length and with no sufficient
stylobate, but fairly effective with its recessed colonnade and
unpierced walls. The British Museum, nearly sixty years
later, by Robert Smirke (Fig. 205), was a more ambitious essay in
a more purely Greek style. Its colossal Ionic colonnade was,
however, a mere frontispiece, applied to a badly planned and
commonplace building, from which it cut off needed light. The
more modest but appropriate columnar facade to the Fitzwilliam

FIG. 206. ST. GEORGE'S HALL, LIVERPOOL.

Museum at Cambridge, by Basevi, was a more successful attempt

in thesame direction, better proportioned and avoiding the incon-
gruity of modern windows in several stories; but it is quite as
Roman as it is Greek. Windows have always been the stumbling-
block of the revived Greek style. The difficulties they raise are
avoided, however, in buildings presenting but two stories, the
order being applied to the upper story, upon a high stylobate

serving as a basement. The High School and the Royal In-

stitution at Edinburgh, by Hamilton, are for this reason, if for no
other, superior to the British Museum and other many-storied

Anglo-Greek edifices. In spite of all difficulties, however, the

Knglish extended the applications of the style with doubtful
success not only to all manner of public buildings, but also to
 THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. 367

country residences. Carlton House, Bowden Park, and Grange

House are instances of Greek forms.
of this misapplication
Neither did it
prove more tractable for ecclesiastical purposes.
St. Pancras's Church at London, and several churches by

Tfwmson (1817-75), m Glasgow, though interesting as experi-

ments in such adaptation, are not to be commended for imitation.
The most successful of Greek designs is St. George's
all British
Hall at Liverpool (Fig. 206) by Elmes (1809-1846) whose im-
posing peristyle and porches are sufficiently Greek in spirit and
detail to class it among the works of the Greek Revival.* But its

great hall and its interior composition are really Roman and not
Greek, emphasizing the teaching of experience that Greek archi-
tecture does not lend itself to the exigencies of modern civiliza-
tion to nearly the same extent as the Roman.
On the whole the most successful products of the Greek re-

vival wereminor works, especially sepulchral monuments.

Among the best of these are two in Edinburgh, to the memory
respectively of Rol>ert Burns and Dugald Stewart, both inspired
from the monument of Lysicrates (Fig. 38) though diverging
widely from its detailed design.
GERMANY. During the eighteenth century the classic revival
in Germany, which at first followed Roman precedents (as in
the columns carved with spirally ascending reliefs in front of the
church of St. Charles Borromeo, at Vienna, by Fischer von
Erlach), was directed into the channel of Greek imitation by the
literary works of Winckelmann, Lessing, Goethe, and others,
as well as by the interest aroused by the discoveries of Stuart and
Revett. The Brandenburg Gate at Berlin (1784 by Schmidt),
was the earliest realization in architecture of this revived Hellen-

ism, and one of its most successful applications to civic purposes.

Without precisely copying any Greek structure, it was evidently

inspired from the Athenian I'ropyla-a, and nothing in its purpose
*
The building was continued by Rawlinson and completed by
Cockcrcll after Elnies' death.
368 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

is foreign to the style employed. The greatest activity in the

style came however, and was greatly stimulated by the
later,
achievements of Fr. Schinkcl (1781-1841), one of the greatest of
modern German architects. While in the domical church of St.

Nicholas at Potsdam he employed Roman forms in a modern-

ized Roman conception, and followed in one or two other build-

ings the principles of the Renaissance, his predilections were

for Greek architecture. His masterpiece was the Museum at
Berlin, with an imposing portico of 18 Ionic columns (Fig. 207).
This building with its fine rotunda was excellently planned,
and forms, in conjunction with the New Museum by Stiihler

(1843-55), a n ble palace of art, to whose monumental require-

ments and artistic purpose the Greek colonnades and pediments
were not inappropriate. Schinkel's greatest successor was Leo
von Klenze (1784-1864), whose more textual reproductions
of Greek models won him great favor and wide employment.

FIG. 207. THE OLD MUSEUM, BERLIN.

The Walhalla near Ratisbon is a modernized Parthenon, inter-

nally vaulted with glass; in spite of its elegance, but too obvious
a plagiarism externally, and internally too tin-Hellenic, to be

greatly admired. The Ruhmeshalle at Munich, a double L

partly enclosing a colossal statue of Bavaria, and devoted to the

commemoration of Bavaria's great men, is copied from no Greek

 THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. 369

building, though purely Greek in design and correct to the

smallest detail. In the Glyptothek (Sculpture Gallery), in the

same city, the one distinctively Greek feature introduced by
Klenze, an Ionic portico, is also the one inappropriate note in the
design. The Propylaea at Munich, by the same (Fig. 208), and.
the Court Theatre at Berlin, by Schinkel, are other important

VIC,. 208. THE PROPYLAEA, MUNICH.

examples of the style. Schinkel's genius was remarkably suc-

cessful in adapting Greek details to the exigent difficulties of
theatre design, and there is in the last-named edifice no sugges-
tion of copying any known Greek building.
In Vienna the one notable monument of the Classic Revival
is the Reichsrathsgebaude or Parliament House, by Th. Han-
sen (1843), an imposing two-storied composition with a lofty
central colonnade and lower side-wings, harmonious in general

proportions and pleasingly varied in outline and mass.

In general, the Greek Revival in Germany presents the aspect
of a sincere striving after beauty, on the part of a limited number
of artists of great talent, misled by the idea that the forms of a
dead civilization could be galvanized into new life in the service
37O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

of modern needs. The result was disappointing, in spite of the

excellent planning, admirable construction and carefully studied
detail of these buildings, and the movement here as elsewhere was
foredoomed to failure.

FRANCE. In France the Classic Revival, as we have seen, had

made its appearance during the reign of Louis XV. in a number
of important monuments which expressed the protest of their
authors against the caprice of the Rococo style then in vogue.
The colonnades of the Garde-Meuble, the facade of St. Sulpice,
and the coldly beautiful Pantheon (Figs. 188, 190), testified to
the conviction in the most cultured minds of the time that Roman

grandeur was to be attained only by copying the forms of Roman

architecture with the closest possible approach to correctness.
The Grand Theatre, at Bordeaux (1785,^ by Victor Louis), one
of the largest and finest theatres in Europe, was another product
of this
movement, its stately colonnade forming one of the chief
ornaments of the city. Under Louis XVI. there was a temporary
reaction from this somewhat pompous affectation of antique
grandeur; but there were few important buildings erected during
that unhappy reign; the Petit Trianon by Percicr and the
Great Court of the Palais Royal by V. Louis are the most notable
monuments of this reign. The reaction showed itself most
effectively in a more delicate and graceful style of interior decora-
tion. was reserved for the Empire to set the seal of official
It

approval on the Roman Revival. The Arch of Triumph of the

Carrousel, behind the Tuilerics, by Percier and Fontaine, the
magnificent Arc de 1'Etoile, at the summit of the Avenue of the

Champs Elysees, by Chalgrin; the wing begun by Napoleon to

connect the Tuileries with the Louvre on the land side, and the
church of the Madeleine, by Vignon, erected as a temple to the
heroes of the Grande Armee, were all designed, in accordance
with the expressed will of the Emperor himself, in a style as
Roman as the requirements of each case would permit. All
these monuments, begun between 1806 and 1809, were completed
 THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. 371

after the Restoration. The Arch of the Carrousel is a close

copy of Roman models carried out with great elegance; that of
the Etoile (Fig. 209) is a much more original design, of
colossal dimensions. Its admirable proportions, simple com-
position and striking sculptures give it a place among the noblest
creations of its class. The Madeleine (Fig. 210), externally a
Roman Corinthian
temple of the larg-
est size, presents
internally an al-

most Byzantine
conception with the
three pendentive
domes that vault its

vast nave, but all

the details are Ro-

man. However
suitable for a pan-
theon or mauso-
leum, it seems
strangely inappro-
priate as a design
for a Christian
church. To these FIO. 209. ARC DK L'fiTflll.

monuments should
be added the Bourse or Exchange, by Brongniart, heavy
in spite of its Corinthian peristyle, and the river front of the
Corps Le"gislatif, added to the rear of the Palais Bourbon

by Am'/, one of the very few extant examples of a dodec-

astyle portico with a pediment. All of these designs are

characterized by great elegance of detail and excellence of
execution, and however inappropriate in style to modern uses,
they add immensely to the splendor of the French capital. Un-
questionably no feature can take the place of a Greek or Roman
372 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

colonnade as an embellishment for broad avenues and open

squares, or as the termination of an architectural vista.
The Greek revival took little hold of the Parisian imagination.
Itsforms were too cold, too precise and fixed, too intractable to
modern requirements to appeal to the French taste. It counts
but one notable monument, the church of St. Vincent de Paul,
by Hittorff, who sought to apply to this design the principles of

FIO. 2IO. THE MADELEINE, PARIS.

Greek external polychromy; but the frescoes and ornaments

failed to withstand the Parisian climate, and were finally erased.
The Neo-Grec movement already referred to, initiated
by Due,
Duban, and Labrouste about 1830, aimed only to introduce into
modern design the spirit and refinement, the purity and delicacy
of Greek art, not its forms (Fig. 211). Its chief monuments were

the remodelling, by Due, of the Palais de Justice, of which

the new west facade and the hall behind it are the most striking
beautiful Library of the Ecole des Beaux- Arts,
features; the

by Duban; the Library of Ste. Genevieve, by Labrouste, in

 THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE.

which a long facade is treated without a pilaster or column, simple

arches over a massive basement forming the dominant motive,
while in the interior a system of iron construction with gla/ced
domes controls the

design; and the com-

memorative Colonne
Juillet,by Due, the
most elegant and ap-
propriate of all modern
memorial columns.
All these buildings, be-

gun between 1830 and

1850 and completed
at various dates, are

distinguished by a re-
markable purity and
freedom of conception
and detail, quite un-

by the artificial
fettered
trammels of the official
academic style then

prevalent.
THE CLASSIC RE-
VIVAL ELSEWHERE.
The other countries of Fir,. 21 1. DOORWAY, fiCOLE DKS BEAUX-ARTS,
PARIS.
Eurojxj have little to

show in the way of imitations of classic monuments or repro-

ductions of Roman colonnades. In Italy the church of S.
Francesco di Paola, at Naples, in quasi-imitation of the Pan-
theon at Rome, with wing-colonnades, and the Superga, at
Turin (1706, by Ivara); the facade of the San Carlo Theatre,
at Naples, and the Braccio Nuovo of tin- Vatican (1817, by

Stern) are the monuments which come the nearest to the

spirit and style of the Roman Revival. \Vt in each of these
374 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

there is a large element of originality and freedom of treat-

ment.
A reflection of the Munich school is seen in the modern public
buildings of Athens, designed in some cases by German architects,
and in others by native Greeks. The University, the Museum
buildings, the Academy of Art and Science, and other edifices
exemplify fairly successful efforts to adapt the severe details of
classicGreek art to modern
windowed structures. They
suffer somewhat from the

too liberal use of stucco in

place of marble, and from

the conscious affectation of
an extinct style. But they
are for the most part pleas-
ing and monumental de-

signs, appropriate to their

surroundings, and adding

greatly to the beauty of the
modern city.

212.- ISAAC S CATHEDRAL,

In RUSSIA, during and
ST. ST.
PETERSBURG. after the reign of Peter the
Great (1689-1725), there

appeared a curious mixture of styles. A style analogous to

'the Jesuit in Italy and the Churrigueresque in Spain was gen-
erally prevalent, but it was in many cases modified by Mus-
covite traditions into nondescript forms like those of the later

buildings of the
Kremlin, at Moscow, or the less extravagant
Citadel Church and Smolnoy Alonastery at St. Petersburg.
Along with this heavy and barbarous style, which prevails gener-
ally in the numerous palaces of the capital, finished in stucco with
atrocious details, a more severe and classical spirit is met with.
The church of the Greek Rite Petersburg combines a
at St.

Roman domical interior with an exterior of the Greek Doric

 THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. 375

order. The Church of Our Lady of Kazan has a semicircular

colonnade projecting from its transept, copying as nearly as may
l>e the colonnades in front of St. Peter's. But the greatest classic
monument in Russia is the Cathedral of St. Isaac (Fig. 212), at
St. Petersburg, a vast rectangular edifice with four Roman Co-
rinthian pedimental colonnades projecting from its faces, and a
dome with a peristyle crowning the whole. Despite many de-
fects of detail, and the use of cast iron for the dome, which pre-
tends to be of marble, this is one of the most impressive churches
of its size in Internally it displays the costliest materials
Europe.
in extraordinary profusion, while externally its noble colonnades

go far to redeem its bare attic and the material of its dome. The
Palace of the Grand Duke Michael, which reproduces, with
improvements, Gabriel's colonnades of the Garde Meuble at
Paris on its garden front, is a nobly planned and commendable

design, agreeably contrasting with the debased architecture of

many of the public buildings of the city. The Admiralty with
its Doric pilasters, and the New Museum, by von Klenze of Mu-
nich, in a skilfully modified Greek with effective loggias, are
style,
the only other monuments of the classic revival in Russia which
can find mention in a brief sketch like this. Both are notable
and in respects admirable buildings, in part redeeming the
many
vulgarity which is unfortunately so prevalent in the architecture
of St. Petersburg.

MONUMENTS: The principal monuments of the Classic Revival

have been referred to the foregoing text, but the following,
in

among others, are worthy of mention: Custom House, London, by

Laing, 181.3-17; Colleges of Physicians and of Surgeons. London, by
Smirkc and Barry, 1^5-35; University College, London, by H'il-
kins; Villa Greenougli, Regent's Park, London Library and Walker ;

Art Gallery, Liverpool; Public Library, Manchester; Potsdamer

Thor, Herlin, by Schmidt; Berlin Opera House, 1844, by Langhaus;
Old Public Library, Berlin.
 CHAPTER XXVI.
RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Chateau, Fergusson. Also

Barqui, L Architecture
1
moderne en France. Berlin und seine
Bauten (and a series of similar works on the modern buildings of
other German cities). Boileau, Les preludes de I' architecture du
XXe siecle. Chabat, La brique et la terre cuite. Daly, Architec-
ture privee du XIXe siecle. Gamier, Le nouvel Opera. Gourlier,
Choix d 'edifices publics. Jackson, Modern Gothic Architecture.
Jaffe, Neubauten in Grossbritanien. Lambert und Stahl, Mod-
erne Architektur. Licht, Architektur Dcutschlands; Architektur
der Gegenwart. Liibke, Denkmdler der Kunst. Liitzow und
Tischler, Wiener Neubauten. Muthesius, Die Neuere Kirchliche
Kunst in England. Narjoux, Monuments eleves par la "cille de
Paris, 1850-1880. Riickwardt, Fac,aden und Details moderner
Bauten. Sammelmappe heworragenden Concurrenz-Entu'iir/en.
Sedille, L J
Architecture moderne. Selfridge, Modern French Archi-
tecture. Statham, Modern Architecture. Villars, England, Scot-
land, and Ireland (tr. Henry Frith). Consult also Transactions
0} the Royal Institute of Britisli Architects, and the leading archi-
tectural journals of recent years.

MODERN CONDITIONS. The nineteenth century was pre-

eminently an age of industrial progress. Its most striking ad-
vances were along mechanical, scientific, and commercial lines.
As a result of this material progress the general conditions of
mankind in civilized countries have undoubtedly been greatly

bettered. Popular education and the printing-press have also

raised the intellectual level of society, making learning the
privilege of even the poorest. Intellectual, scientific, and com-
mercial pursuits have thus largely absorbed those energies which
in other ages found exercise in the creation of artistic forms and
 RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 377

objects. The critical and sceptical spirit, the spirit of utilitar-

ianism and realism, has tended to check the free and general de-

velopment of the creative imagination, at least in the plastic arts.

While in poetry and music there have been great and noble
achievements, the plastic arts, including architecture, have only
of late years attained a position at all worthy of the intellectual

advancement of the times.

Nevertheless the artistic spirit has never been wholly crushed
out by the untoward pressure of realism and commercialism.
Unfortunately it has repeatedly been directed in wrong channels.
Modern archaeology and the publication of the forms of historic
art by books and photographs have too exclusively fastened
attention upon the details of extinct styles as a source of inspira-
tion in design. The whole range of historic art is brought within
our survey, and while this has on the one hand tended toward
the confusion and multiplication of styles in modern work, it has
on the other sometimes led to a slavish adherence to historic

precedent or a literal copying of historic forms. Modern archi-

tecture has thus oscillated between the extremes of archaeological
servitude and of an unreasoning eclecticism. In the hands of
men of inferior training the results have been deplorable trav-
esties of all styles, or meaningless aggregations of ill-assorted
forms.
An important factor in this demoralization of architectural
design has been the development of new constructive methods,

especially in the use of iron and steel. has been impossible for
It

modern designers, in their treatment of style, to keep pace with

the rapid changes in the structural use of metal in architecture.
The roofs of vast span, largely composed of glass, which modern
methods of trussing have made possible- for railway stations,

armories, and exhibition buildings; the immense unencumbered

spaces which may be covered by them; the introduction and de-
velopment, especially in the United States, of the post-and-girdcr
system of construction for high buildings in which the external
3/8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

walls are a mere screen or filling-in; these have revolutionized

architecture so rapidly and completely that architects are still

struggling and groping to find the solution of many of the prob-

lems of style, scale, and composition which they have brought
forward.
Within the last forty years, however, architecture has, despite
these new conditions, made notable advances. The artistic
emulation of repeated international exhibitions, the multiplication
of museums and schools of art, the general advance in intelligence
and enlightenment, have all contributed to this artistic progress.
There appears to be more of the artistic and intellectual quality

in the average architecture of the present time, on both sides of the

Atlantic, than ever before since the beginning of the nineteenth

century. The futility of the archaeological revival of extinct

styles is
generally recognized. New conditions are gradually
procuring the solution of the very problems they raise. Historic
precedent sits more lightly on the architect than formerly, and
the essential unity of principle underlying all good design is

coming to be better understood.

FRANCE. It is in France, Germany (including Austria), and
England that the architectural progress of this period in Europe
has been most marked. We
have already noticed the results
of the classic revivals in these three countries. Speaking broadly,
it may be said that in France the influence of the Ecole dcs Beaux-

Arts, while has tended to give greater unity and consistency to

it

the national architecture, and has exerted a powerful influence

in behalf of refinement of taste and correctness of style, has also
stood in the way of a free development of new ideas. French
architecture has generally until recent years adhered to the princi-

ples of the Renaissance, though the style has been modified by

various influences. The first of these was the Neo-Grec move-
ment, alluded to in the last chapter, which broke the grip of
Roman tradition in matters of detail and gave greater elasticity
to the national style. Next should be mentioned the Gothic
 RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 379

movement represented by Viollet-le-Duc, Lassus, Ballu, and

their followers. Beginning about 1845, it produced compara-
tively few notable buildings, but gave a great impulse to the
study of mediaeval archaeology and the restoration of mediaeval
monuments. The churches of Stc. Clothilde and of St. Jean
de Belleville, at Paris, and the reconstruction of the Chateau de
Pierrefonds, were among its direct results.
Indirectly it led to a
freer and more rational treatment of constructive forms and
materials than had prevailed with the academic designers. The

GaJer/e

Fill. 213. PLAN OP LOUVRE AND TUILERIES, PARIS.

A, A, the Old Louvre, so called; B, />, the Xew Louvre.

church of St. Augustin, by Bollard, at Paris, illustrates this in

its dome and vaulting, and the College
use of iron and brick for the

Chaptal, by E. Train, in its decorative treatment of brick and

tileexternally. The
general adoption of iron for roof-trusses
and for the construction of markets and similar buildings tended
further in the same direction, the Halles Centrales at Paris,
by Baltard (1846), being a notable example. The French have
eversince this early masterpiece of ferric architecture led the world
in the artistic handling of construction in metal.

THE SECOND EMPIRE. The reign of Napoleon III. (1X52-70)

was a period of exceptional activity, especially in Paris. The
greatest monument of his reign was the completion of the Louvre
 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

and Tuileries, under Visconti and Lejuel, including the re-

modelling of the pavilions de Flore and de Marsan. The new

portions constitute the most notable example of modern French
architecture, and the manner
inwhich the two palaces were
united deserves high praise.
In spite of certain defects,
this work is marked by a
combination of dignity, rich-
ness, and refinement such as
is rarely found in palace
architecture (Figs. 213, 214).
The New Opera (1863-75),
by Gamier (d. 1898), stands
next to the Louvre in im-

portance as a national monu-

ment. It is by far the most

sumptuous building for

amusement in existence, but

in purity of detail and in the

balance and restraint of its

design it is inferior to the

work of Visconti and Lefuel
(Fig. 215). To this reign
FIG. 214. PAVILION* OP RICHELIEU,
LOUVRR. belong the Palais de 1'Indus-
trie, by Vicl, built for the ex-

hibitionof 1855, but demolished for that of 1900, and several great

railway stations (dare du Nord, by Hittorff, Gare de 1'Fst, Gare

d'Orleans, etc.), in which the modern French version of the
Renaissance was applied with considerable skill to buildings
largely constructed of iron and glass. Town halls and theatres
were erected in great numbers, and in decorative works like
fountains and monuments the French were particularly success-
ful. The fountains of St. Michel, Cuvier and Moliere, at
 RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 381

Paris, and of Longohamps, at Marseilles (Fig. 216), illustrate

the fertility of resourceand elegance of detailed treatment of the
French in this department. Mention should also here be made
by or under Napoleon III.,
of the extensive enterprises carried out
in rectifying and embellishing the street-plans of Paris and other

cities by new avenues and squares on a vast scale, adding greatly

to the monumental
splendor of these cities.
THE REPUBLIC.
Since the disasters of

1870 a number of im-

portant structures have
been erected, and
French architecture has
shown a remarkable
vitality and flexibility
under new conditions.
Its productions have in
general until recent

years been marked by

a refined taste and a
conspicuous absence of
eccentricity and excess;
but it has for the most

part trodden in well-

worn paths. Among

notable recent monu-
ments are, in church
architecture, the Sacre"-
Coeur, at Montmurtre,
by Alxidic, a votive church inspired from the Franco-Byzantine
style of Aquitania; in civil architecture the new Hotel de Ville,
at Paris, by Kallu and Dcpcrthcs, recalling the original structure
destroyed by the Commune, but in reality an original creation
382 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

of great merit; in scholastic architecture the new Ecole de Mede-

cine, and the new Sorbonne, by Sacconi; and in other branches
of the art the metal-and-glass exhibition buildings of 1878, 1889,
and 1900. In the last of these the striving for originality and
the effort to discard traditional forms reached the extreme, al-

though accompanied by much very clever detail and a masterly

KIG. 2l6. FOUNTAIN OF LONGCHAMPS, MARSF.ILLES.

use of color-decoration. To these should be added many note-

worthy theatres, town-halls, court-houses, and prcjectures in pro-
vincial and commemorative columns and monuments
cities,

almost without number. In street architecture there is now

much more variety and originality than formerly, especially in
private houses, and the reaction against the orders and against
traditional methods of design has of late been growing stronger.
The chief excellence of modern French architecture lies in its
 RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 383

rational planning, monumental spirit, and refinement of detail

(Fig. 217), and in the intimate association of decorative sculp-

ture and painting with structural design.

GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. German architecture has been
more affected during the past fifty years by the archaeological
spirit than has the French. A pronounced mediaeval revival
partly accompanied, partly followed the Greek revival in Ger-
many, and produced a number of churches and a few secular
buildings in the basilican, Romanesque, and Gothic styles. These
are less interesting
than those in the Greek
style, because mediaeval
forms are even more
foreign to modern needs
than the classic, being
specially appropriate
only to systems of de-

sign and construction

which are no longer

practicable. At Mu-
FIG. 217. MUSf.E GALLlgRA, PARIS.
nich the Auekirche, by
Ohlmiiller, in an attenuated Gothic style; the Byzantine Lud-
wigskirche, and Ziebland's Basilica following Early Christian
models; the Basilica by Hubsch, at Butach, and the Votive
Church at Vienna (1856) by H. von Ferstel (1828-1883) are
notable nee-medieval monuments. The last-named church may
be classed with Ste. Clothilde at Paris (see p. 379), and St. Pat-
rick'sCathedral at New York, all three being of approximately
the same size and general style, recalling
St. Ouen at Rouen.
They are correct and elaborate, but more or less cold and artificial.
More successful are many of the German theatres and concert
halls, in which Renaissance and forms have been freely
classic

used. In several of these the attempt has been made to express

by the external form the curvilinear plan of the auditorium, as in

384 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

the Dresden Theatre, by Semper (1841; Fig. 218), the theatre

at Carlsruhe,by Hiibsch,and the double winter-summer Victoria
Theatre, at Berlin, by Titz. But the practical and aesthetic
difficulties involved in this treatment have caused its general
abandonment. The Opera House at Vienna, by Siccardsburg

FIG. 2 I 8. THEATRE AT DRESDEN.

and Von der Niill (1861-69), ^ s its masses, and but

rectangular in
for a certain triviality of detail would rank among the most suc-
cessful buildings of its kind. The new Burgtheater in the same
city more elaborately ornate
is a structure in Renaissance style,
somewhat ilorid and overdone.
Modern German architecture is at its best in academic and
residential buildings. The Industrial Museum, at Berlin, by
Schinkel, in which brick is used in a rational and dignified design
without the orders; the Polytechnic School, at Zurich, by Sem-

per; university buildings, and especially buildings for technical

instruction, at ('arlsruhe, Stuttgart, Strasburg, Dresden, Leipzig,

Vienna, and other cities, show a monumental treatment of the

exterior and of the general distribution, combined with a care-

ful study of practical requirements. In administrative build-
 RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 385

ings the Germans have hardly been as successful; and the new
Parliament House, at Berlin, by P. \\'allot,\r\ spite of its splendor
and costliness, is heavy and unsatisfactory in detail. The larger
cities, especially Berlin, contain many excellent examples of
house architecture, mostly in the Renaissance style, sufficiently
monumental in design, though usually, like most German work,
inclined to heaviness of detail. The too free use of stucco in
imitation of stone open is also to criticism.

VIENNA. During the last forty years Vienna has undergone

a transformation which has made it the rival of Paris as a stately

VIC,. 2IQ. BLOCK OP DWELLINGS {M AH IK-THKKKSIKNHOP), VIENNA.

capital. The remodelling of the central portion, the creation of a

series of magnificent boulevards and squares, and the grouping
and municipal buildings about these upon a
of the chief state
monumental scheme of arrangement, have given the city an un-
usual aspect of splendor. Among t'
1
mo-4 important ivonu-
386 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

ments in this group are the Parliament House, by Hansen (see

p. 369), and the Town Hall, by F. Schmidt. This latter is a Neo-
Gothic edifice of great size and pretentiousness, but strangely
thin and meagre and quite out of harmony with its sur-
in detail,

roundings. The university and museums are massive piles

in Renaissance style; and it is the Renaissance rather than the
Gothic revival which prevails throughout the new city.
classic or

The great blocks of residences and apartments (Fig. 219), which

line its streets are highly ornate in their architecture, but for the
most part done in stucco, which fails after all to give the aspect
of solidity and durability which it seeks to counterfeit.
The city of Buda-Pesth has also in recent years undergone
a phenomenal transformation of a similar nature to that effected
in Vienna, but it possesses fewer monuments of conspicuous

architectural interest. The Synagogue is a rich and pleasing

edifice of brick in a modified Hispano-Moresque style. The
most notable monument of the city, and one of the most imposing
of modern legislative buildings in Europe, is the neo-Gothic
Parliament House by Stelndl, which, by its more massive
design, offers a somewhat striking contrast to the Vienna Town
Hall mentioned above.
GREAT BRITAIN. While the Anglo-Greek style was still
in process of development, a coterie of enthusiastic students of
Biitish mediaeval monuments archaeologists rather than archi-
tects initiated a movement for the revival of the national Gothic
architecture.* The first fruits of this movement, led by the two
Pugins, Brandon, Rickman, and others (about 1830-40) were seen
in countless pseudo-Gothic structures in which the pointed arches,

buttresses, and clustered shafts of mediaeval architecture were

*
There had, indeed, been an earlier effort to revive the Gothic
style in the famous Strawberry Hill mansion of Walpole in the
later years of tlie i8th century, and again in Beckharn's unlucky
"
experiment of Fonthill Abbey"; but these were individual and
abortive efforts.
 RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 387

imitated or parodied according to the designer's ability, with

frequent misapprehension of their proper use or significance.

This unintelligent misapplication of Gothic forms was, however,
confined to the earlier stages of the movement. With increasing
lightand experience came a more correct and consistent use of
the medkeval styles, dominated by a spirit of archaeological cor-

rectness. This spirit, stimulated by extensive enterprises in the

medkeval monuments of the United King-
restoration of the great

dom, was fatal to any free and original development of the style
along new lines. But it rescued church architecture from the
utter meanness and debasement into which it had fallen and
established a standard of taste which reacted on all other branches
of design.
THE VICTORIAN GOTHIC. Hi-twirn 1X50 and 1X70 the
388 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

striving after archaeological correctness gave place to the more

rational effort to adapt Gothic principles to modern requirements,
instead of merely copying extinct styles. This effort, prosecuted
by a number of architects of great intelligence, culture, and
earnestness (Sir Gilbert Scott, George Edmund Street, Alfred

Waterhouse, William B urges,

and others), resulted in a
number of extremely inter-

esting buildings. Chief

among these in size and cost
stand the Parliament
Houses at Westminster, be-
gun in 1839 by Sir diaries
Barry (1789-1850), in the

Perpendicular style. This

immense structure (Fig. 220),

imposing in its simple masses

and refined in its carefully
studied detail, is the most
successful monument of the
Victorian Gothic style. It

suffers, however, from a

somewhat confused plan, and
from the over-minuteness of
its decorative detail. It can-
not, on the whole, be claimed
as a successful vindication
of the claims of the pro-
moters of the style as to the

adaptability of Gothic forms

FIG. 221. ASSIZE COUKTS, MANCHESTER.
to structures planned and
DETAIL.
built after the modern fash-

ion. The Assize Courts at Manchester (Fig. 221), the New

Museum at Oxford, the gorgeous Albert Memorial, at Lon-
 RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 389

don, by Scott, and the New Law Courts at London, by Street,

are all conspicuous illustrations of the same truth. They are
conscientious, carefully studied designs in good taste, and yet
generally unsuited in
style to their purpose.
They are like labored
and scholarly verse in
a foreign tongue, cor-
rect in form and lan-

guage, but lacking the

naturalness and charm
of true and unfettered
inspiration. A later
essay of the same sort
in a slightly different
field is the Natural
History Museum at
South Kensington, by
Waterhoi4se (1879), an

imposing building in a

modified Romanesque
style (Fig. 222).
The church archi-
tecture which has been

really the finest prod-

uct of this movement
since 1880 is, by con- Pic;. 222. NATURAL HISTORY Ml'SKUM, LONDON".
trast with these secular

buildings, worthy of high praise. It is characterized by almost

unfailing good taste,and by a dignity and simplicity of design and

appropriateness of detail which can hardly be matched elsewhere
in modern ecclesiastical work. The examples are too numerous
to be individualized by special mention in so brief a notice.

OTHER WORKS. The Victorian (iothic style responded to

390 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

no deep and general movement of the popular taste, and, like the
Anglo-Greek style, was doomed to failure from the inherent in-
congruity between modern needs and mediaeval forms. Within
the last twenty years there has been a quite general return to
Renaissance principles, and the result is seen in a large number
of town-halls, exchanges,museums, and colleges, in which Ren-
aissance forms, with and without the orders, have been treated
with increasing freedom and skilful adaptation to the materials
and special requirements of each case. The Albert Memorial
Hall (1863, by General Scott) may be taken as an early instance
of thismovement, and the Imperial Institute (Colonial offices),
by Collcutt, the Oxford Town Hall and the new S. Kensington
Museum by Sir Aston Webb, as among later examples. In do-
mestic architecture the so-called Queen Anne style as practised by
Norman Shaw, Ernest George, and others, was for a while in
vogue, based on the brick architecture of Queen Anne's time, but

freely and often artistically altered to meet modern tastes and

needs. Many large mansions, as well as many schools and col-
leges, have been erected in a free version of the Tudor Gothic
with distinct success. But it is in the smaller houses of villages

and city suburbs that the English architects have in recent years

shown the most distinctive talent, and nowhere, unless occasion-

ally in the United States, are there to be seen such charming

examples of simple, appropriate, unostentatious design as in these

modest English houses of brick, timber and tile.
In its emancipation from the mistaken principles of archa'olo-
gical revivals, and in its evidences of improved taste and awakened
originality, contemporary British architecture shows promise of
good things to come. It is still inferior to the French in the monu-
mental quality, in technical resource and refinement of decora-

tive detail, but superior to it in picturesqueness and variety,

especially of external mass and effect.

ELSEWHERE IN EUROPE. In other European countries

recent architecture shows in general increasing freedom and
 RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 39!

improved taste, but both its opportunities and its performance

have been nowhere else as conspicuous as in France, Germany,
and England. The costly Bourse and the vast but overloaded
Palais de Justice at Brussels, by Polaerl, are neither of them con-

spicuous for refined and cultivated taste. A few buildings of note

in Switzerland, Russia, and Greece might find mention in a more
extended review of architecture, but cannot here even be enumer-
ated. In Italy, especially at Rome, Milan, Naples, and Turin,
there has been a great activity in building since 1870, but with
the exception of the to Victor Emmanuel and the
Monument
National Museum Rome, monumental arcades and passages
at
at Milan and Naples, and Cam pi Santi or monumental cemeteries
at Bologna, Genoa, and one or two other places, there has been

comparatively little of real importance built in Italy of late years.

L'ART NOUVEAU. 1896, and particularly since the
Since
Paris Exposition of 1900, a movement has manifested itself in
France and Belgium, and spread to Germany and Austria and
even measurably to England, looking toward a more personal
and original style of decorative and architectural design, in which
the traditions and historic styles of the past shall be ignored.
This movement has received from its adherents and the public
the name of "L'Art Nouveau," or, according to some, "L'Art

Moderne"; but, except in the minor arts,it can

hardly be
held to have created a really new style or to express any
really new principle in art. It is mainly a reaction against a too
slavish adherence to traditional forms and methods of design (see
pp. 364, 390), a striving to ignore or forget the past rather than a
reaching out after any well-understood, positive end; as such, it
possesses the negative strength of protest rather than the affirma-
tive strength of a vital principle. Its lack of cohesion is seen in

the division of its adherents into groups, some looking to nature

for inspiration, while others decry this as a mistaken quest; some
seeking to emphasize structural lines, and others to ignore them
altogether. All, however, are united in the avoidance of common-
392 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

place forms and historic styles, and this preoccupation has de-
veloped an amazing amount of originality and individualism of
style, frequently reaching the extreme of eccentricity. The re-
sults have therefore been, as might be expected, extremely varied
in merit, ranging from the most refined and reserved in style to
the most harshly bizarre and extravagant. As a rule, they have
been most successful in small objects jewelry, silverware, vases
and small furniture; and one most desirable feature of the move-
ment has been the stimulus it has given (especially in France and
"
England), to the organization and activity of arts-and-crafts"
societies, which occupy themselves with the encouragement of the
decorative and industrial arts and the diffusion of an improved
taste. In the field of the larger objects of design, in which the
dominance of form and of structural considerations is
traditional

proportionally more imperious, the struggle to evade these re-

strictions becomes more difficult and results usually in more

obvious and disagreeable eccentricities, which the greater size and

permanence of the object tend further to exaggerate. The least
successful achievements of the movement have accordingly been
in architecture. The buildings designed by its most fervent
disciples (e.g. the Pavilion Bleu at the Exposition of 1900, the
Castel Beranger, Paris, by //. Guimard, the houses of the artist

colony at Darmstadt by /. M. Olbricli, and others) are for the

most part characterized by extreme stiffness, eccentricity, or
ugliness. The requirements of construction and of human
habitation cannot easily be met without sometimes using the
forms which past experience has developed for the same ends;
and the negation of precedent, is not the surest path to beauty or
even reasonableness of design. It is interesting to notice that in

the intermediate field of furniture-design some of the best French

productions recall the style of Louis XV., modified by Japanese

ideas and spirit. This singular but not unpleasing combination
5s less surprising when we reflect that the style of Louis XV. was

itself a protest against the formalism of the heavy classic architec-

 RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 393

ture of preceding reigns, and achieved its highest successes in the

domain of furniture and interior decoration.
It may be fair to credit the new movement with one positive
characteristic in prevalent regard for line, especially for the
its

effect of long and swaying lines, whether in the contours or orna-

mentation of an object. This is especially noticeable in the

"
Belgian work, and in that of the Viennese Secessionists," who
have, however, carried eccentricity to a further point of extrava-
gance than any others.
The search for novelty and the desire to dispense wholly with
historic forms of design which are the chief marks of the Art
Nouveau, were emphatically displayed in many of the remark-
able buildings of the Paris Exhibition of 1900, in which a

striking fertility and facility of design in the decorative details

made more conspicuous the failure to improve upon the estab-
lished precedents of architectural style in the matters of propor-

tion, general composition, and contour.

scale, As usual the
metallic construction of these buildings was almost without

exception admirable, and the decorative details, taken by them-

selves, extremely clever and often beautiful, but the combined
result was not wholly satisfactory.
On the whole, although hardly constituting in itself a definite

style, the movement seems likely to exert on European architec-

ture an influence, direct and indirect, not unlike that of the Neo-
Grec movement of 1830 in France (p. 372), but even more lasting
and beneficial. It has already begun to break the hold of rigid
classical tradition in design; and recent buildings, especially
in Germany and Austria, like the works of the brilliant Otto
Wagner in Vienna, show a pleasing freedom of personal touch
without undue striving after eccentric novelty. Doubtless in
French and other European architecture the same result will in
time manifest itself.

In the United States the movement has not found a firm foot-
hold because there has been no dominant, enslaving tradition to
394 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

protest against. The fundamental spirit of the movement may

be recognized in the work of individual architects and decorative
artists in the United States, executed years before the movement

took recognizable form in Europe; and American decorative

design has generally been, at least since 1880 or 1885, sufficiently
free, individual and personal, to render unnecessary and impossi-
ble any concerted movement of artistic revolt against slavery to

precedent.
 CHAPTER XXVII.

ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Statham. Also,

Homes and their Gardens. Chandler,
Baker, American Country
The Colonial Architecture of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Vir-
ginia. Cleaveland and Campbell, American Landmarks. Cor-
ner and Soderholz, Colonial Architecture in New England.
Crane and Soderholz, Examples of Colonial Architecture in
Charleston and Savannah. Desmond and Croly, Stately Homes
in America. Dow, The American Renaissance. Drake, His-
toric Fields and Mansions oj Middlesex. Everett, Historic
Churchcsoj A merica; ThcGcorgian (" Colonial ") Period* Little,
Early Xcu> England Interiors. Monographs oj American Archi-
tecture.* Munn & Co., American Homes and Gardens. Schuy-
ler, American Architecture. Stevens and Cobb, Examples 0}
American Domestic Architecture. Van Rcnsselaer, //. //. Rich-
ardson and His Works. Wallis, Old Colonial Architecture and
Furniture.

GENERAL REMARKS. The colonial architecture of mod-

ern times presents a peculiar phenomenon The colonizing
nation, carrying into its new habitat the tastes and practices of a
long-established civilization, modifies these only with the utmost
reluctance, under the absolute compulsion of new conditions.
When the new home is virgin soil, destitute of cultivation, govern-
ment, or civilized inhabitants, the accompaniments and activities
of civilization introduced by the- colonists manifest themselves
at first in curious contrast to the primitive surroundings. The
struggle between organized life and chaos, the laborious sub-
*
Published by the American Architect ami Building News.
396 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

jugation of nature to the requirements of our complex modern

for a considerable period absorb the energies of the colonists.
life,

The amenities of culture, the higher intellectual life, the refine-

ments of art can, during this period, receive little attention.

Meanwhile a new national character is

being formed; the people
are undergoing the moral trainingupon which their subsequent
achievements must depend. With the conquest of brute nature,
however, and the gradual emergence of a more cultivated class,
with the growth of commerce and wealth and the consequent in-
crease of leisure, the humanities find more place in the colonial
life. The fine arts appear determined by
in scattered centres

peculiarly favorable conditions. For a long time they retain

the impress, and seek to reproduce the forms, of the art of the
mother country. But new conditions impose a new development.
Maturing commerce with other lands brings in foreign influences,
towhich the still unformed colonial art is peculiarly susceptible.
Only with political and commercial independence, fully devel-

oped internal resources, and a high national culture do the arts

finally attain, as it were, their majority, and enter upon a truly
national growth.
These facts are abundantly illustrated by the architectural
history of the United States. The only one among the British
colonies to attain complete political independence, it is the only
one among them whose architecture has as yet entered upon an
independent course of development, and this only within a com-
paratively recent period. Nor has even this development pro-
duced as yet a wholly independent national style. It has, how-

ever, originated new constructive methods, new types of build-

ings, and a distinctively American treatment of the composition

and the masses in many classes of buildings, the decorative de-

tails being still, part, derived from historic precedents.
for the most
The architecture of the other British colonies has retained more
of the provincial character, though producing from time to time
individual works of merit. In South America and Mexico the
 ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 397

only buildings of importance are Spanish, French, or German

in style, according to the
nationality or training of the architects
employed. The following sketch of American architecture refers,
therefore, exclusively to its
development in the United States.
FORMATIVE PERIOD. Buildings in stone were not under-
taken by the early English colonists. The more important
structures in the Southern and Dutch colonies were of brick

imported from Europe. Wood was, however, the material most

commonly employed, especially inNew England, and its use
determined in large measure the form and style of the colonial
architecture. There was little or no striving for architectural
elegance until the eighteenth century, when Wren's influence
asserted itself in a modest way in the Middle and Southern
colonies. The very simple and unpretentious town-hall at

Williamsburg, Va., and St. Michael's, Charleston, are attributed

to him; but the most that can be said for these, as for the brick

churches and manors of Virginia previous to 1725, is that they are

simple in design and pleasing in proportion, without special

architectural elegance. The same is true of the wooden houses
and churches of New England of the period, except that they
are even simpler in design.
From 1725 to 1775 increased population and wealth along
the coast brought about a great advance in architecture, especially
in churches and in the dwellings of the wealthy. During this
period, sometimes called the Georgian, was developed the Colo-
nial style, based on that of the reigns of Anne and the first two

Georges in England, and in church architecture on the models

set by Wren and Gibbs. All the details were, however, freely
modified by the general employment of wood. The scarcity of
architects trained in Old World traditions contributed to this

departure from classic precision of form. The style, especially

in interior design, reflected the cultured taste of the colonial

aristocracy in its refined treatment of the woodwork, much of

which appears to have been imported from England. But there
398 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

was little or no architecture of a truly monumental character.

Edifices of stone were singularly few, and administrative build-

to insufficient grants from the
ings were small and modest, owing
Crown, as well as to the poverty of the colonies.

The churches of this period include a number of interesting

designs, especially pleas-

. , ing in the forms of their
^ steeples. The "Old
South " at Boston (now
a museum), Trinity at

Newport, and St. Paul's

at New York one of the
few built of stone (1764)
are good examples of
the style. Christ Church
at Philadelphia (1727-35,

by Dr. Kearsley) is an-

other example, histori-

cally as well as architec-

turally interesting (Fig.

223); and there are

scores of other churches
FIG. 22,3. CHKIST CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA. almost e cj
u a11y note-

worthy, scattered
through New England, Maryland, Virginia, and the Middle
States.

DWELLINGS. These reflect better than the churches the

varying tastes of the different colonies. Maryland and Virginia
abound in fine brick manor-houses, set amid extensive grounds
walled in and entered through iron gates of artistic design. The
interior finish of these houses was often elaborate in conception
and admirably executed. Westover (1737), Carter's Grove
(1737) in Virginia, and the Hanvood and Hammond Houses at

Annapolis, Md. (1770), are examples. The majority of the New

 ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 399

England houses were of wood, more compact in plan, more varied

and picturesque in design than those of the South, but wanting
somewhat of their stateliness. The interior finish of wainscot,
cornices, stairs, and mantelpieces shows, however, the same
general style, in a skilful and artistic adaptation of classic forms

to the slender proportions of wood construction. Externally the

FIG. 224. CRAIOIE (LONGFELLOW) HOUSE, CAMBRIDGE.

orders appear in porches and in colossal pilasters, with well

designed entablatures, and windows of Italian model. The in-

fluence of the Adam and Sheraton furniture is doubtless to be
seen in these quaint and often charming versions of classic mo-
tives. The Hancock House, Boston (of stone, demolished); the
Sherburnc (or Warner) House, Portsmouth (1714); Craigie House,
Cambridge (1757, Tig. 224); and Rumford House, North Woburn
(Mass.), arc typical examples. The- roofs were- generally either

gambrelled or hipped; in the latter case the central portion was

nearly flat and was balustraded. Many of I he doorways show

notable elegance and refinement of design.
40O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

In the Middle States architectural activity was chiefly centred

in Philadelphia and New York, and one or two other towns,
where a number of manor-houses, still extant, attest the wealth
and taste of the time. noticeable that the veranda or piazza
It is

was confined to the Southern States, but that the climate seems
to have had little influence on the forms of roofs, except that the

gambrel roof is seldom seen south of Pennsylvania.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS. Of public and monumental architec-
ture this period has little to show. Large cities did not exist;
New York, Boston, and Philadelphia were hardly more than
overgrown villages. The public buildings court-houses and
town-halls were modest and inexpensive structures. The Old
State House and Faneuil Hall at Boston, the Town Hall at New-

port, (R. I.), and Independence Hall at Philadelphia, the best

known of those now extant, are not striking architecturally.
Monumental design was beyond the opportunities and means of
the colonies. It was in their churches, all of moderate size, and
in their dwellings that the colonial builders achieved their great-

est successes; and these works are quaint, charming, and re-

fined, rather than impressive or imposing.

Tothe latter part of the colonial period belong a number of

interesting buildings which remain as monuments of Spanish

rule in California, Florida, and the Southwest. The old Fort San

Marco, now Fort Marion (1656-1756), and the Catholic cathe-

dral (1793; after the fire of 1887 rebuilt in its original form with
the original facade uninjured), both at St. Augustine, Fla.;
the picturesque buildings of the California missions (mainly

1769-1800), the majority of them now in ruins; scattered Spanish

churches in California, Arizona, and New Mexico, and a few
unimportant secular buildings, display among their modern and
.American settings a picturesque and interesting Spanish aspect
and character, though from the point of view of architectural de-
tail they represent merely a chastened phase of the Churriguer-
esque style.
 ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 401

EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD. Between the Revolution

and the War of 1812, under the new conditions of independence
and self-government, architecture took on a more monumental
character. Buildings for the State and National administra-
tions were erected with the rapidly increasing resources of the

country. Stone was more generally used; colonnades, domes,

and cupolas or bell-towers, were adopted as indispensable fea-
tures of civic architecture. In church building the Wren-Gibbs

FIG. 22S- NATIONAL CAPITOL, WASHINGTON.

type continued to prevail, But with greater correctness of classic

forms. A number of excellent examples of these churches, the
work of the Connecticut architect Itltiel
Toume, are to be seen in
Hartford and NewHaven, and other towns in the Connecticut
valley. The gambrel roof tended to disappear from the houses
of this period, and there was some decline in the refinement and
delicacy of the details of architecture. The influence of the Louis
XVI. style is traceable in many cases, as in the New York City
Hall (1803-12, by McComb and Mangiri), one of the very best

designs of the time, and in the delicate stucco-work and interior

finish of many houses. The original Capitol at Washington
4O2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

the central portion of the present edifice by Thornton, Hallet,

and B. H. Latrobe (1793-1830; Fig. 225), the State House at
Boston (1795, by Buifinch}, and the University of Virginia, at
Charlottesville, by Thomas Jefferson (1817 somewhat remodelled
;

since a fire in 1895), are the most interesting examples of the clas-

sic tendencies of this period.

THE CLASSIC REVIVAL. The influence of the classic re-
vivals of Europe began
to appear before the
close of this period,
and reached its cul-

mination about 1830-

40. It left its impress
most strongly on our
Federal architecture
and the governmental
buildings of the States
and cities, although it

also invaded domestic

architecture, produc-
ing countless imita-

tions, in brick and

wooden houses, of

FIG. 226. THE OLD CUSTOM HOUSE, NKW YORK.'

Grecian colonnades
and porticos. One of
its first-fruits was the White House, or Executive Mansion, at

Washington, by Iloban (1792), recalling the large English coun-

try houses of the time. The Greek Revival, a reflection of the
movement England, began to displace the Roman types as
in

early as about 1820, and thereafter continued for nearly 30 years

to dominate the public architecture of the country. The Treas-
ury and Patent Office buildings at Washington, the Phila-
*
Remodelled for the National City Bank in 1008 by the addition
of two stories in a superposed Corinthian order.
 ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 403

delphia Mint, the Sub-treasury and Old Custom House at

New York (the latter erected originally for the Merchants' Ex-
change in 1841 by 7.Rogers; Fig. 226), and the Boston Custom
House are among the important Federal buildings of this period.
Several State capitols were also erected under the same influence;
and the Marine Fxchange and Girard College at Philadelphia
should also be mentioned as conspicuous examples of the pseudo-
Greek style. The last named building is in form a Corinthian
Greco-Roman temple, although too palpably an imitation im-
perfectly adapted to its modern functions, to be claimed as wholly
successful. These classic buildings were solidly and carefully
constructed, but lacked the freedom and appropriateness of
earlier buildings and the sculpture demanded by their classic
design. The Capitol at Washington was during this period
greatly enlarged by terminal wings with fine Corinthian porticos,
of Roman rather than Greek design. The Dome, by ll'altcr,
was not added until 1858-73; it is a successful and harmonious

composition, nobly completing the building. Unfortunately,

it is an afterthought, built of iron painted to simulate marble, the

substructure being inadequate to support a dome of masonry.

The Italian or Roman style which it exemplified, in time super-
seded the less tractable Greek style.
It ishowever worthy of remark that the Greek Revival pro-
duced on the whole more satisfactory results in the United States
than cither in England or Germany. The churches, town-halls,
State capitols and custom houses erected during this period arc
marked by excellent proportions and quiet and refined detail;
the windows are treated with frankness and yet with true apprecia-
tion of the spirit of Greek architecture; and even in the wooden
houses the mouldings are well profiled and the details designed
with excellent taste.
THE WAR PERIOD. The period from 1850 to 1876 was one
of intense jxilitical activity and rapid industrial progress. The
former culminated in the terrible upheaval of the civil war; the
404 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

latter in the completion of the Pacific Railroad (1869) and a re-

markable development of the mining resources and manufactures
of the country. It was a period of feverish commercial
activity,
but of artistic stagnation, and witnessed the erection of but few
buildings of architectural importance. A number of State capitols,
city halls and churches, of considerable size and cost but of in-
ferior design, attest the decline of public taste and architectural
skill during these years. The huge Municipal Building at

Philadelphia and the Capitol at Albany are full of errors of plan-

ning and detail which twenty-five years of elaboration have failed
to correct. Next to the dome of the Capitol at Washington, com-
pleted during this period, of which it is the most signal architect-
ural achievement, its most notable monument was the St. Pat-
rick's Cathedral at New
York, by Renwick; a Gothic church
which, if somewhat cold and mechanical in detail, is a stately
and well-considered design. Its west front and spires (completed
1886) are particularly successful. Trinity Church (1843, by R.
Upjohn) and Grace Church (1840, by Renwick), though of earlier

date, should be classed with this cathedral as worthy examples of

modern Gothic design. Indeed, the churches designed in this
style by a few thoroughly trained architects during this period are
the most creditable and worthy among its lesser productions.

In general an undiscriminating eclecticism of style prevailed,

unregulated by sober taste or technical training. The Federal
monuments of uninspired and mechan-
buildings by Mullett were
icaldesign based on French Renaissance motives. The New
York and Boston Post Offices and the State, Army and Navy
Department building at Washington are examples of this style.
THE ARTISTIC AWAKENING. Between 1870 and 1880 a
remarkable series of events exercised a powerful influence on
the artistic life of the United States. Two terrible conflagrations,

in Chicago (1871) and Boston (1872), gave unexampled opportu-

nities for architectural improvement and greatly stimulated the
public interest in the art. The feverish and abnormal industrial
 ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 405

activitywhich followed the war and the rapid growth of the

parvenu spirit were checked by the disastrous "panic" of 1873.
With the completion of the Pacific railways and the settlement
ofnew communities West, industrial prosperity, when it
in the

returned, was established on a firmer basis. An extraordinary

expansion of travel to Europe began to disseminate the seeds
of artistic culture throughout the country. The successful
establishment of schools of architecture in Boston (1866) and
other cities, and the opening or enlargement of art museums in

New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Detroit, Milwaukee,

and elsewhere, stimulated the artistic awakening which now
manifested itself. In architecture the personal influence of two
men, trained in the Paris Ecole des Beaux-Arts, was especially
felt of M. Hunt (1827-95) through
jR. his words and deeds

quiteTas much as through his works; and of H. H . Richardson

(1828-86) predominantly through his works. These two men,
with others of less fame but of high ideals and thorough culture,
did much to elevate architecture as an art in the public esteem.
Mention must also be made of the strong personal influence
of W R. Ware, through the training, in the two architectural
.

schools of which he was the organizer in Boston and New

York, of many gifted pupils who have since achieved high

reputation in the profession. To all these influences new force
was added by the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia (1876).
Here for the first time the American people were brought into
contact, in their own land, with the products of European and
Oriental art. It was to them an artistic revelation, whose results
were prompt and far-reaching. Beginning first in the domain of
industrial and decorative art, its stimulating influence rapidly
extended to painting and architecture, and with permanent con-
sequences. American students began to throng the centres of
Old World art, while the setting of higher standards of artistic
excellence home, and the development of important art-
at

industries, were other fruits of this artistic awakening. The

406 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Columbian Exhibition at Chicago in 1893, added a new impulse

to the movement, especially in architecture.
STYLE IN RECENT ARCHITECTURE. The rapid increase
in the number of
American archi-
tects trained in

Paris or under the

indirect influence
of the Ecole des
Beaux-Arts has
been an impor-

FIG. 227. TRINITY CHUKCH, BOSTON.

tant factor in recent architectural progress. Yet it has

by no
means imposed the French academic formula; upon American
architecture. The conditions, materials, and constructive pro-
cesses here prevailing, and above all the eclecticism of the public

taste, have prevented this. The French influence is

perceived
rather in a growing appreciation of monumental design in the

planning, composition, and setting of buildings, than in any direct

imitation of French models. The Gothic revival which prevailed
more or less widely from 1840 to 1875, as already noticed, and of
which the State Capitol at Hartford (Conn.), by A'. M. Upjohn,
 ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 407

and the Fine Arts Museum at Boston, were among the last im-
portant products, was generally confined to church architecture,
for which Gothic forms are still
largely employed, as in the Pro-
testant Cathedral of now building at Albany,
All Saints
N. Y. (by R. \V. Gibson}. For the most part the works of the
last twenty years show a more or less judicious eclecticism, the
choice of style being determined partly by the person and training
of the designer, partly by the nature of the building. The power-
fully conceived works of Richardson, in a free version of the
French Romanesque, for a time exercised a wide influence, es-

pecially among the younger architects. Trinity Church,

Boston (Fig. 227), his earliest important work; many public
libraries and business buildings, and finally the impressive
County Buildings at Pitts-

.
burgh (Pa.), all treated in
this style, are admirable
rather for the strong indi-

viduality of their designer,

PIC. 228. LIBRARY AT WOIU'RN', MASS.

displayed in their vigorous composition, than on account

of the

historic style he employed (Fig. 228). Flexible in his hands, it

proved intractable in those of many of his imitators, and was so

408 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

often travestied by inferior designers that it lost its vogue within

a few years after Richardson's death. The Chicago Columbian
Exhibition in which various architects collaborated, using Ren-
aissance motives, completed its extinction. Since 1893 the Ren-
aissance styles have generally prevailed, though here also a wide
eclecticism prevails as to the version or particular phase of these

styles to be employed. Meanwhile there are many more or less

successful ventures in other historic styles applied to public and

private edifices. Underlying this apparent confusion in the use
of historic styles, the careful observer may detect certain tenden-
cies crystallizing into definite form. New materials and methods
of construction, increased attention to detail, a growing sense of
monumental requirements, even the development of the elevator
as a substitute for the grand staircase, are leaving their mark on
the planning, the proportions, and the artistic composition of
American buildings, irrespective of the styles used. The art is

with us in a state of transition, and open to criticism in many

respects; but it appears to be full of life and promise for the

future.
COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS. This class of edifices has in

our great cities developed wholly new types, which have taken
shape under four imperative influences. These are the demand
for fire-proof construction, the demand for well-lighted offices,
the introduction of elevators, and the concentration of business
into limited areas, within which land has become inordinately
costly. These causes have led to the erection of buildings of
excessive height (Fig. 229); the more recent among them con-
structed with a framework of iron or steel columns and beams,
the visible walls being a mere filling-in. To render a building of

twenty stories attractive to the eye, especially when built on an

irregular site, is a difficult problem, of which a wholly satisfactory
solution has yet to be found. There have been, however, some
notable achievements in this line, in most of which the principle
has been clearly recognized that a lofty building should have a
 ARCHITECTURE IX THK UNITED STATES. 409

well-marked basement or pedestal and a somewhat ornate crown-

ing portion or capital, the intervening stories sen-ing as a die or
shaft and being treated with comparative simplicity. The diffi-

and of handling one hundred and fifty to three

culties of scale

hundred windows of uniform style, have been surmounted with

conspicuous skill (West Street Building [Cass Gilbert], Ameri-
can Surety Building [Bruce Price, 1847-1902], and Broadway
Chambers, New York; Ames Build-
ing, Boston; Carnegie Building, Pitts-

burgh; Union Trust, St. Louis). In

some cases, especially in Chicago and
the Middle West, the metallic frame-
work is suggested by slender piers
between the windows, rising uninter-
rupted from the basement to the top
story. In others, especially in New
York and the East, the walls are
treated as in ordinary masonry build-

ings. Since 1906 the tendency to-

ward excessive height has in New

York reached an extravagant extreme
in the Singer Building, 625 feet high,
no. 22Q.
"
TIMES " BUILDING,
and the Metropolitan Life Building, NEW YORK.
700 feet high. These towers are out
of scale with their own details and with surrounding buildings,
and belong almost more in the domain of engineering than of
architecture. In the details of American office-buildings every
is to be met with; but the Romanesque and the
variety of style
Renaissance, freely modified, predominate. The tendency to-
ward two or three well-marked types in the external compo-
sition of these buildings, as above suggested, indicates, however,
the evolution of a style in which the historic origin of the details
will l>e a secondary matter. Certain Chicago architects have

developed an original treatment of architectural forms by ex-

4io HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

aggerating some of the structural lines, by suppressing the

mouldings and more familiar historic forms, and by the free use
of flat surface ornament. The Schiller, Auditorium, and Fischer
Buildings, all at Chicago, Guaranty Building, Buffalo, and
Majestic Building, Detroit, all by L. H. Sullivan, are examples
of this personal style, which illustrates theuntrammelled free-
dom of the art in a land without traditions.

FIG. 230. COUNTRY HOUSE AT XVACK, N. Y.

DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. It is in this field that the

most characteristic and original phases of American architecture
are to be met with, particularly in rural and suburban residences.
In these the peculiar requirements of our varying climates and of
American domestic life have been studied and in large measure
met with great frankness and artistic appreciation. The broad
staircase-hall, serving often as a sort of family sitting-room, the

"piazza" or veranda, and a picturesque massing of 'steep roofs,

 ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 4! I

have been the controlling factors in the evolution of two or three

general types which appear in infinite variations. The material
most used is wood, but this has had less influence in the de-

termination of form than might have been expected. In recent

years, however, various forms of construction in tile and in con-

crete have begun to displace wood and shingle as a material
for rural houses. The artlessness of the planning, which is ar-
ranged to afford the maximum of convenience rather than to
conform to any traditional type, has been an element of great
artistic success. It has resulted in exteriors which are the
natural outgrowth of the interior arrangements, frankly ex-

pressed, without affectation of style (Fig. 230). The resulting

picturesqueness has, however, in many cases been treated as
an end instead of an incidental result, and the affectation of

picturesqueness has in such designs become as detrimental as

any affectation of style. In the internal treatment of American
houses there has also been a notable artistic advance, harmony

of color and domestic comfort and luxury being sought after

rather than monumental effects. A number of large city and

country houses designed on a palatial scale have, however, given

opportunity for a more elaborate architecture; notably the
Vanderbilt, Reid, Carnegie, Schwab, and Phipps residences at
New York, the great country-seat of Biltmore near Asheville
(N. C.), in the Francis I. style (by R. M. Hunt}, and many others.
Many of the more important among recent country houses follow
Colonial models with marked success. The style lends itself
to a certain dignity and elegance of treatment which are well
suited to large residences, and which are further enhanced in

many cases by grounds whose elaborate landscape gardening

shows notable progress in an art that was long almost wholly
neglected in this country.
OTHER BUILDINGS. American architects have generally
been less successful in public, administrative, and ecclesiastical

architecture than in commercial and domestic work. The pre-

412 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

ference for small parish churches, treated as audience-rooms

rather than as places of worship, has interfered with the develop-
ment of noble types of church-buildings. Yet there are signs of
improvement; and many of the more recent churches, whether in
Gothic style or in some form of the neo-classic, are marked by
great dignity of effect and sound construction. In semi-public
architecture, such as hotels, theatres, clubs, and libraries, there

Fit;. 231. COUNTRY HOUSE IN COLONIAL STYLE.

(From The American Architect.)

are many notable examples of successful design. The Ponce

de Leon Hotel at St. Augustine, a sumptuous and imposing pile
in a free version of the Spanish Plateresco ( Can ere andHast-
ings}; the Auditorium Theatre at Chicago, the Madison Square
Garden and the Casino Theatre at New York, all erected 1880-
90, marked each a notable advance in design over previous works
of the same kind. The Century, Metropolitan and University
Clubs at New York and the Boston Public Library (all by
.\fcKim, Mead and White), the Carnegie Library at Pittsburgh,
the Congressional Library at Washington, the Minnesota
 ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 413

State Capitol at St. Paul (Cass Gilbert} and the new New York
Public Library (Carrere and Hastings) exemplify in varying
degrees of excellence the increasing capacity of American archi-
tects for monumental design. The beginnings of this new taste
for monumental effects were shown in the buildings of the
Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893. These, in spite of
many faults of detail, constituted a scenic display of architectural

splendor such as had never before been seen on this side the
Atlantic. They further brought architecture into closer union
with the allied arts and formed an object lesson in the value of

appropriate landscape gardening as a setting to monumental

structures.
RECENT AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. The architectural
United States since the new century opened has by
activity of the
no means been confined to industrial and commercial architecture.
Indeed, while the erection of lofty office-buildings has continued
in the greatcommercial centres, the most notable architectural
enterprises of recent years have been in the field of educational
buildings, in both the East and West. In 1898 a great inter-
national competition resulted in the selection of the design of
Mr. E. Benard of Paris for a magnificent group of buildings for
the University of California on a scale of unexampled grand-

eur, and the erection of this colossal project has been begun.
In New York the university groups of Columbia University and
New York University, both by AfcKim, Mead and White in neo-
classic style (notably the Low Library of Columbia University),
and the striking neo-Gothic group of the City College by G.
B. Post, have been carried far toward completion an equally:

ambitious project, by Cope and Sleu'ardson, has been adopted

for the Washington University at St. Louis; and many other
universities and colleges have either added extensively to their
existing buildings or planned an entire rebuilding on new
designs. Among these the national military and naval academies
at West Point (Cram, Goodhne and Ferguson), and Annapolis
414 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

(Ernest Flagg), take the first rank in the extent and splendor of
the projected improvements. Museums and libraries have also
been erected or begun in various cities, and the New York
Public Library, already mentioned, but still uncompleted, will
rank in cost and beauty with those already erected in Boston
and Washington.
In other departments mention should be made of recent Fed-

eral buildings(custom-houses, post-offices, and court-houses)

erected under the provisions of the Tarsney act from designs
secured by competition among the leading architects of the coun-

try; among these the New York Custom House, by Cass Gil-
the most important, but other buildings, at Washington,
bert, is

Indianapolis, Cleveland and elsewhere, are also conspicuous,

and many of them worthy of high praise. The tendency to
award the designing of important public buildings, such as State
capitols, county court-houses, city halls, libraries, and hospitals,

by competition instead of by personal and political favor, has

resulted in a marked improvement in the quality of American

public architecture.

MONUMENTS. (Ch. =
church; Ho. =
house). I. COLONIAL: In
NEW ENGLAND.Cradock Ho., Medford, Mass., 1634; Witches'
Ho., Salem, 1640; Old Stone Ho., Guilford, Conn., 1640; Warner
Ho., Portsmouth, N. H., 1714; Peppcrell Ho., Kittery, Me.,
1725; Town House, Newport, R. I., by Munday, 1743; Hooper
Ho., Danvers, Mass., 1744; Vassall-Craigie Ho., Cambridge,
Mass., 1759; City Hall, Newport, R. I., 1760, by P. Harrison;
Langdon, Wentworth and Pierce houses, Portsmouth, N. H. ;

Ladd Ho., Marblehead Cowles Ho., Farmington, Conn., 1780;

;

Count Rumford Ho., No. Woburn, Mass., 1790; Hollcster Ho.,

Greenfield, Mass.,
1797. The "Old Ship" Church, Hingham,
Mass., Old South Church, Boston, 1729; Farmington Ch.,
1681 ;

Conn., 1750; Old North Ch. King's Chapel, Boston. The Old
;

State House, Boston, 1748?; Faneuil Hall, Boston, by P. Smibcrt,

1763; City Hall (Old State House), Hartford, Conn., 1812, by
Hulfinch. In MIDDLE STATES: Phillipse Manor, Yonkcrs, N. Y.,
1682; Independence Hall, Phila., by Hamilton, 1739; Bartram Ho.,
 ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 415

Philadelphia, 1730; Morris (Jumcl) Mansion, N. V. City, 1758;

Cortlandt Manor, N. Y. City, 1760?; Verplanck Ho., Fishkill, N. V.,
1740; Fraunces' Tavern, N. V. City, 1710; Pennsylvania Hospital,
Philadelphia, 1796. Old Swedes' Ch., Philadelphia, 1700; St.
Peter's Ch., Philadelphia, 1758; St. Paul's Ch., N. Y. City, 1764;
St. John's Ch., N. Y. City, 1807; Christ Church, Philadelphia, 1727,
restored 1836.
In SOUTHERN COLONIES. Shirley Ho., Va., 1700; Court House,
Williamsburg, Va., 1700; Stratford Ho., Va., 1730; Carter's Grove
and Westover, Va., 1737; Tulip Hill, Md., 1750; Bull Pringle Man-
sion, Charleston, S. C., 1765;Crane Ho., Harwood Ho., and Chase
Ho., Annapolis, Md., 1770; State House, Annapolis, 1772-85; Chews
Ho., Germantown, Pa., 1772; Mt. Vernon, Va., by G. Washington,
1784; Brandon, Va., 170x3; Sabine Hill, Va., 1/90; Tayloe Ho.
("Octagon"), Washington, D. C., 1800; Homewood, Baltimore,
Md., 1804; Whitehall, Md., 1804; St. Luke's, Smithtield, Va., 1632?-
1680? St. John's Ch., Hampton, Va., 1660 Christ Ch., Williamsburg,
; ;

Va., 1678; St. James' Ch., Goose Creek, Va., 1711; Bruton Parish
Ch., Va., 1715 (restored 1898) ;
St. Paul's, Norfolk, Va., 1730; St.

Phillip's, Charleston, S. C., 1733; St. Michael's, Charleston, S. C.,

1752.
II. THE White House, Washington, D. C., by
CLASSIC REVIVALS.
J. Hoban, 1795 Washington, D. C., begun 1793 by Thornton;
; Capitol,
cont. 1795 by Hallct, Hatficld, 1803 by Latrobc, 1817 by Bullfinch;
extended 1860 by Walter; Mass. State House, Boston, Mass., by
Bulfinch, 1795; Treasury Dep't, Patent Office, Washington, 1830-
45; Marine Exchange, Philadelphia, 1815, by Strickland; Girard
College, Philadelphia, 1847, by Walter; Schuylkill Water Works.
Philadelphia; Sub-Treasury, City Bank (Old Custom House, at
first Merchants' Exchange), 1844, by /. Rogers; St. Mark's Ch.,

in New York City; Custom House, Boston, Mass; State Capitol,

Columbus, O., 1833; many city halls, State capitols, banks and
churches in neo-Greek style.
III. THE GOTHIC Trinity Ch.. New York, 1843-46, by
REVIVAL.
R. Upjohn; Grace Ch., do., 1858, by /. Rcnwick; St. George's Ch.,
do., by /.. r.idlitz; St. Patrick's Cath., do. by / Kenwick, 1870-83;
Central Ch., Boston, 1868, by l\'. M. I'pjohn; Connecticut Capitol,
Hartford, 1876-78, by the same; Fine Arts Museum, Boston, 1876.
by Stur^is and lirigham.
(The monuments of the more recent architectural movements
are omitted because of their great number.)
 CHAPTER XXVIII.

ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.

INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Cole, Monographs 0} Ancient Monu-

ments of India. Conder, Notes on Japanese Architecture (in
Transactions of R. I. B. A., for 1886). Cram, Impressions oj
Japanese Architecture. Cunningham, Archaeological Sumey o)
India. Fergusson, Indian and Eastern Architecture; Picturesque
Illustrations of Indian Architecture. Le Bon, Les Monuments de
I'Inde. Morse, Japanese Houses. Stirling, Asiatic Researches.
Consult also the Journal and the Transactions of the Royal
Asiatic Society.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE. The architecture of the non-Moslem

countries and races of Asia has been reserved for this closing

chapter, in order not to interrupt the continuity of the history of

European styles, with which it has no affinity and scarcely even a
point of contact. Among them all, India alone has produced
monuments of great architectural importance. The buildings
ofChina and Japan, although interesting for their style, methods,
and detail, and so deserving at least of brief mention, are for the
most part of moderate size and of perishable materials. Outside
of these three countries there is little to interest the general stu-

dent of architecture.
INDIA: PERIODS. It is difficult to classify the non-Mohamme-
dan styles of India, owing to their frequently overlapping, both

geographically and artistically; while the lack of precise dates

in Indian literature makes the chronology of many of the monu-

ments more or less doubtful. The divisions given below are a

 ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 417

modification of thosefirst established

by Fergusson, and are pri-
marily based on the three great religions, with geographical sub-
divisions, as follows:
THE BUDDHIST STYLE, from the reign of Asoka, dr. 250
B.C., to the seventh century A.D. Its monuments occupy mainly
a broad band running northeast and southwest, between
the Indian Desert and the Dekkan. Offshoots of the style
are found as far north as Gandhara, and as far south as

Ceylon.
THE JAINA STYLE, akin to the preceding if not derived from it,
covering the same territory as well as southern India; from 1000
A.D. to the present time.
THE BRAHMAN or HINDU STYLES, extending over the whole

peninsula.They are sub-divided geographically into the NORTH-

ERN BRAHMAN, the CHALUKYAN in the Dekkan, and the DRAVID-
IAN in the south; this last style being coterminous with the popu-
lations speaking the Tamil and cognate languages. The monu-
ments of these mainly subsequent to the tenth century,
styles are

though a few date as far back as the seventh.

The great majority of Indian monuments are religious tem-
ples, shrines, and monasteries. Secular buildings do not appear
until after the Moslem conquests, and most of them are quite
modern.
GENERAL CHARACTER. All these styles possess certain
traits in common. While stone and brick are both used, sand-
stone predominating, the details are in large measure derived from
wooden prototypes. Structural lines are not followed in the
exterior treatment, purely decorative considerations prevailing.
Ornament is equally lavished on all parts of the building, and is
bewildering in its amount and complexity. Realistic and gro-

tesque sculpture is forming multiplied horizontal

freely used,
bands of extraordinary richness and minuteness of execution.
Spacious and lofty interiors are rarely attempted, but wonderful
effects are produced by seemingly endless repetition of columns
41 8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

in halls and corridors, and by external emphasis of important

parts of the plan by lofty tower-like piles of masonry.

The sources of the various Indian styles, the origin of the forms
used, the history of their development, are all wrapped in obscur-
ity. All the monuments show a fully developed style and great
command of technical resources from the outset. When, where,
and how these w ere attained
r
is as yet an unsolved mystery. In
all its phases previous to the Moslem conquest Indian architecture

appears like an indigenous art, borrowing little from foreign styles

and having little or no affinity with the arts of Occidental nations.
BUDDHIST STYLE. Although Buddhism originated in the
sixth century B.C., the earliest architectural remains of the style
date from its wide promulgation in India under Asoka (272-236

B.C.). Buddhist monuments comprise three chief classes of

structures: the si upas or topes, which are mounds more or less
domical in shape, enclosing relic-shrines of Buddha, or built to
mark some sacred spot; chaityas, or temple halls, cut in the
rock; and viharas, or monasteries. The style of the detail varies
considerably in these three classes, but is in general simpler and
more massive than in the other styles of India.
TOPES. These are found in groups, of which the most impor-
tant are at or near Bhilsa in central India, at Manikyala in the

northwest, at Amravati in the south, and in Ceylon at Ruan-

walliand Tuparamaya. The best known among them is the
Sanchi Tope, near Bhilsa, 120 feet in diameter and 56 feet high.
It is surrounded by a richly carved stone rail or fence, with gate-

ways workmanship, having three sculptured lintels

of elaborate

crossing the carved uprights. The tope at Manikyala is larger,

and dates from the seventh century. It is exceeded in size by
many in Ceylon, that at Abayagiri measuring 360 feet in
diameter. Few of the topes retain the tec, or model of a shrine,
which, like a lantern, once crowned each of them.
Besides the topes there are a few stupas of tower-like form,

square in plan, of. which the most famous is that at BuddhGaya,

 ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 419

near the sacred Bodhi tree, where Buddha attained divine light
in 588 B.C.
CHAITYA HALLS. The Buddhist speos-temples so far as
known the only extant halls of worship of that religion, except
one at Sanchi are mostly in the Bombay Presidency, at Ellora,
Karli, Ajanta, Nassick, and Bhaja. The earliest, that at Karli,
dates from 78 B.C., the latest (at Kllora), dr. 600 A.n.
They con-
sist uniformly of a broad nave in an and covered
ending apse, by
a roof like a barrel vault, and two narrow side aisles. In the apse
is the dagoba or relic shrine, shaped like a miniature tope. The
front of the cave was originally adorned with an open-work screen
or frame of wood, while the face of the rock about the opening
was carved into the semblance of a sumptuous structural facade.
Among the finest of these caverns is that at Karli, whose massive
columns and impressive scale recall Egyptian models, though the
resemblance is
superficial and has no historic significance. More
suggestive is the affinity of many of the columns which stand
before these caves to Persian prototypes (see Fig. 21). It is not

improbable that both Persian and classic forms were introduced

into India through the Bactrian kingdom 250 years B.C. Other-
wise we must seek for the origin of nearly all Buddhist forms in a
pre-existing wooden architecture, now wholly perished, though
its traditions may survive in the wooden screens in the fronts of

the caves. While some of these caverns are extremely simple,

as at Bhaja, others, especially at Nassick and Ajanta, are of

great splendor and complexity.

VIHARAS. Except at Gandhara in the Punjab, the structural
monasteries of the Buddhists were probably all of wood and
have long ago perished. The Gandhara monasteries of Jamal-
giri and Takht-i-Bahi present in plan three
or four courts sur-
rounded by cells. The centre of one court is in lx>th cases occu-
pied by a platform for an altar or shrine. Among the ruins there
have taen found a number of capitals whose strong resemblance
to the Corinthian type is now generally attributed to Byzantine
420 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

rather than Bactrian influences. These viharas may therefore

be assigned to the sixth or seventh century A.D.
The rock-cut viharas are found in the neighborhood of the
chaityas already described. Architecturally they are far more
elaborate than the chaityas. Those at Salsette, Ajanta, and
Bagh are particularly interesting, with pillared halls or courts,

cells, corridors, and shrines. The hall of the Great Vihara at

Bagh is 96 feet square, with 36 columns. Adjoining it is the
school-room, and the whole is fronted by a sumptuous rock-cut
colonnade 200 feet long. These caves were mostly hewn be-
tween the fifth and seventh centuries, at which time sculpture

was more prevalent in Buddhist works than previously, and

some of them are richly adorned with figures.
JAINA STYLE. The religion and the architecture of the
Jainas so closely resemble those of the Buddhists, that recent
authorities are disposed to treat the Jaina style as a mere varia-
tion or continuation of the Buddhist. Chronologically they are
separated by an interval of some three centuries, dr. 650-950
A.D., which have left us almost no monuments of either style.
The Jaina is moreover easily distinguished from the Buddhist
architecture by the great number and elaborateness of its struct-
ural monuments. The multiplication of statues of Tirthankhar
in the cells about the temple courts, the exuberance of sculpture,
the use of domes built in horizontal courses, and the imitation in
stone of wooden braces or struts are among its distinguishing
features.

JAINA TEMPLES. The earliest examples are on Mount Abu

in the Indian Desert. Built by Vimalah Sah in 1032, the chief
of these consist of a court measuring 140X90 feet, surrounded by
cells and a double colonnade. In the centre rises the shrine of
the god, containing his statue, and terminating in a lofty tower or
sikhra. An imposing columnar porch, cruciform in plan, pre-
cedes this cell (Fig. 232). The intersection of the arms is covered
by a dome supported on eight columns with stone brackets or
 ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 421

struts. The dome and columns are covered with profuse carving
and sculptured figures, and the total effect is one of remarkable
dignity and splendor. The temple of Sadri is much more ex-
tensive, twenty minor domes and one of larger size forming cruci-
form porches on all four sides of the central sikhra. The cells
alxmt the court are each covered by a small sikhra, and these,

FIG. 2.} 2. PORCH OF TEMPLE ON MOUNT ABU.

with the twenty-one domes (four of which are built in three

stories), all grouped about the central tower and adorned with
an astonishing variety of detail, constitute a monument of the

first importance. It was built by Khumlx> Rana, about M5-

At Girnar are several twelfth-century temples with enclosed in-

stead of open vestibules. One of these, that of Neminatha, re-

tains intact its court enclosure and cells, which in most other
cases have perished. The temple at Somnath resembles it, hut
is larger; the dome of its j>orch, } }
feet in diameter, is the largest
422 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

Jaina dome in India. Other notable temples are at Gwalior.

Khajuraho, and Parasnatha.

In all the Jaina temples the salient feature is the sikhra or
vimana. This a tower of approxi-
is

mately square plan, tapering by a grace-

ful curve toward a peculiar terminal

ornament shaped like a flattened melon.

Its whole surface is variegated by hori-
zontal bands and vertical breaks, cov-
ered with sculpture and carving. Next
in importance are the domes, built

wholly in horizontal courses and resting

on stone lintels carried by bracketed
columns. These same traits appear in
relatively modern examples, as at Delhi.
TOWERS. A similar predilection for

minutely broken surfaces marks the

towers which sometimes adjoin the

temples, as at Chittore (tower of Sri

Allat, thirteenth century), or were
erected as trophies of victory, like that
of Khumbo Rana in the same town

(Fig. 233). The combination of hori-

zontal and vertical lines, the distribution
of the openings and the rich ornamen-
tation of these towers are very inter-

esting, though lacking somewhat in

structural propriety of design.

Flfi. TOWER OF VIC-

HINDU STYLES NORTHERN BRAH-
:

233.
TORY, CHITTORE. MAN. The origin of this style is as yet
an unsolved problem. Its monuments
were mainly built between 600 and 1200 A.D., the oldest being
in Orissa, at Bhuwanesevar, Kanaruk, and Puri. In northern
India the temples are about equally divided between the two
 ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 423

forms of Brahmanism the worship of Vishnu or Vaishnavism,

and that of Siva or Shaivism and do not differ materially in
style. At in the Jaina style, the vimana is their most striking
feature, and this is,in most cases adorned with numerous reduced

copies of its own form ground in successive stages against its

sides and angles. This curious system of design appears in

nearly all the great temples, both of Vishnu and Siva. The
Jaina melon ornament is universal, surmounted generally by an
urn-shaped finial.

In plan the vimana shrine is preceded by two or three chaml>ers

square or polygonal, some with and some without columns. The
foremost of these is covered by a roof formed like a stepped

pyramid set cornerwise.The fine porch of the ruined temple

at Bindrabun cruciform in plan and forms the chief part of the
is

building, the shrine at the further end being relatively small and
its tower unfinished or ruined. In some modern examples the
antechamber is replaced by an open porch with a Saracenic dome,
as at Benares; in others the old type is completely abandoned, as
in the temple at Kantonnuggur (1704-22). This is a square
hall built of terra-cotta, with four three-arched porches and nine
towers,more Saracenic than Brahman in general aspect.
The Kandarya Mahadeo, at Khajuraho, is the most noted
example of the northern Brahman style, and one of the most
splendid structures extant.A strong and lofty basement sup-
ports an extraordinary mass of roofs, covering the six open
porches and the antechamber and hypostyle hall, which precede
the shrine, and rising in successive pyramidal masses until the
vimana is reached which covers the shrine. This is 116 feet
high, but seems much by reason of the small scale of its
loftier,

constituent parts and the marvellously minute decoration which

covers the whole structure. The vigor of its masses and the

grand stairways which lead up to it give a dignity unusual for its

size, 60 X IOQ feet in plan (dr. 1000 A.D.).

At Puri, in Orissa, the Temple of Jugganat, with its double
424 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

enclosure and numerous subordinate shrines, the Teli-ka-Mandir

at Gvvalior, Udaipur near Bhilsa, at Mukteswara
and temples at
in Orissa, at Chittore, Benares, and Barolli, are important exam-
ples. The few tombs erected subsequent to the Moslem con-
quest, combining Jaina bracket columns with Saracenic domes
and picturesquely situated palaces at Chittore (1450), Oudeypore
(1580), and Gwalior, should also be mentioned.
CHALUKYAN STYLE. Throughout a central zone crossing
the peninsula from sea to sea about the Dekkan, and extending
south to Mysore on the west, the Brahmans developed a distinct

style during the later centuries of the Chalukyan dynasty. Its

monuments are mainly comprised between 1050 and the Moham-

medan conquest in 1310. The most notable examples of the
style are found along the southwest coast, at Hullabid, Baillur,

and Somnathpur.
TEMPLES. Chalukyan architecture is exclusively religious
and temples are easily recognized. The plans comprise the
its

same elements as those of the Jainas, but the Chalukyan shrine

is
always star-shaped externally in plan, and the vimana takes
the form of a stepped pyramid instead of a curved outline. The
Jaina dome is, moreover, wholly wanting. All the details are of

extraordinary richness and beauty, and the breaking up of the

surfaces by rectangular projections is skilfully managed so as to

produce an effect of great apparent size with very moderate di-

mensions. All the known examples stand on raised platforms,

adding materially to their dignity. Some are double temples,

as at Hullabid (Fig. 234); others are triple in plan. A notice-
able feature of the style is the deeply cut stratification of the
lower part of the temples, each band or stratum bearing a dis-
tinct frieze of animals, figures or ornament, carved with masterly
skill. Pierced stone slabs filling the window openings are also
not uncommon.
The richest exemplars of the style are the temples of Baillur
and Somnathpur, and at Hullabid the Kait Iswara and the
 ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 425

incomplete Double Temple. The Kurti Stambha, or gate at

Worangul, and the Great Temple at Hamoncondah should also
be mentioned.
DRAVIDIAN STYLE. The Brahman monuments of south-
ern India exhibit a style almost as strongly marked as the Chaluk-

yan. This appears less

in their details than in
their general plan and
conception. The Dra-
vidian temples are not

single structures, but

aggregations of build-

ings of varied size and

form covering extensive
areas enclosed by walls
and entered through
gates made imposing
by lofty pylons called
gopuras. As if to em-
phasize these super-
ficial resemblances to

Egyptian models, the ".SE3

sanctuary is often low

and insignificant. It is

preceded by much more

imposing porches (man- KIG. 234. TEMPI
tapas) and hypostyle
halls or choultries, the latter being sometimes of extraordinary

extent, though seldom lofty. The choultric, sometimes called

the Hall of 1,000 Columns, is in some cases replaced by pillared
corridors of great length and splendor, as at Ramisseram and
Madura. The plans are in most cases wholly irregular, and the
architecture, so far from resembling the Egyptian in its scale
and massiveness, is marked by the utmost minuteness of orna-
426 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

ment and tenuity of detail, suggesting wood and stucco rather

than stone. The Great Hall at Chillambaram is but 10 to 12
feet high, and the corridors at Ramisseram, 700 feet long, are
but 30 feet high. The effect of ensemble of the Dravidian tem-

ples is
disappointing. They lack the emphasis of dominant
masses and the dignity of symmetrical and logical arrangement.
The very loftiness of the gopuras makes the buildings of the
group within seem low by contrast. In nearly every temple,
however, some one feature attracts merited admiration by its
splendor, extent or beauty. Such are the Choultrie built by
Tirumalla Nayak at Madura (1623-45), measuring 333 X 105
feet; the corridors already mentioned at Ramisseram and in the
Great Temple at Madura; the gopuras at Tarputry and Vel-
lore, and the Mantapa of Parvati at Chillambaram (1595-

1685). Very noticeable are the compound columns of this style,

consisting of square piers with slender shafts coupled to them
and supporting brackets, as at Chillambaram, Peroor, and
Vellore; the richly banded square piers, the grotesques of ram-
pant horses and monsters, and the endless labor bestowed upon
minute carving and ornament in superposed bands.
OTHER MONUMENTS. Other important temples are at

Tiruvalur, Seringham, Tinevelly, and Conjeveram, all alike

in general scheme of design, with enclosures varying from 300 to

1,000 feet in length and width. At Tanjore is a magnificent

temple with two courts, in the larger of which stands a pagoda or
shrine with a pyramidal vimana, unusual in Uravidian temples,
and beside it the smaller Shrine of Soubramanya (Fig. 235), a
structure of unusual beauty of detail. In both, the vertical lower

story with its pilasters and windows is curiously suggestive of

Renaissance design. The pagoda dates from the fourteenth,
the smaller temple from the fifteenth century.
ROCK-CUT RATHS. All the above temples were built subse-

quently to the twelfth century. The rock-cut shrines date in

some cases as far back as the seventh century; they are called
 ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 427

kylas and raths, and are not caves, but isolated edifices, imitating
structural designs, but hewn bodily from the rock. Those at

Mahavellii>ore are of diminutive size; but at Purudkul there

is an extensive temple with shrine, choultrie, and gopura sur-

rounded by a court
enclosure measuring
250X150 feet (ninth
century). More fa-

mous still is the elal>or-

ate Kylas at Ellora, of
about the same size as

the above, but more

complex, and complete

in its details.

235. SHKINH U'HHAMANVA. TANJ(

PALACES. At Madura, Tanjorc, and Vijayanagar are

Dravidian palaces, built after the Mohammedan conquest and
in a mixed style. The domical octagonal throne-room and the
Great Hall at Madura (seventeenth century), the most famous
edifices of the kind, were evidently inspired from (lothic models,
but how this came about is not known. The (Ireat Hall with
428 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

its pointed arched barrel vault of 67 feet span, its cusped arches,
round piers, vaulting shafts, and triforium, appears strangely
foreign to its surroundings.
CAMBODIA. The subject of Indian architecture cannot
be dismissed without at least brief mention of the immense temple
of NakhonWat in Cambodia. This stupendous creation covers
an area of a full square mile, with its concentric courts, its encir-

cling moat or causeways, porches, and shrines, domi-

lake, its

nated by a central structure 200 feet square with nine pagoda-like

towers. The corridors around the inner court have square
piers of almost classic Roman type. The rich carving, the per-
fect masonry, and the admirable composition of the whole leading
up to the central mass, indicate architectural ability of a high

order. Very remarkable also are the ruins in Java at Bora--

bador.
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. No purely Mongolian nation
appears ever to have erected buildings of first-rate importance.
It cannot be denied, however, that the Chinese are possessed of

considerable decorative skill and mechanical ingenuity; and

most prominent elements in their buildings.
these qualities are the
Great size and splendor, massiveness and originality of con-
struction, they do not possess. Built in large measure of.^yood,

cleverly framed and decorated with a certain richness of color and

ornament, with a large element of the grotesque in the decoration,
the Chinese temples, pagodas, and palaces are interesting rather
than impressive. There is not a single architectural monument
of imposing size or of great antiquity, so far as we know. The
celebrated Porcelain Tower of Nankin is no longer extant, hav-
ing been destroyed in the Topping rebellion in 1850. It was a
nine-storied polygonal pagoda 236 feet high, revetted with porce-

lain tiles,and was built in 1412. The largest of Chinese temples,

that of the Great Dragon at Pekin, is a circular structure of
moderate size, though its enclosure is nearly a mile square. Pa-

godas with diminishing stories, elaborately carved entrance gates

 ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE JAPAN. 429

and successive terraces are mainly relied upon for effect. They
show little structural art, but much clever ornament. Like the
monasteries and the vast lamaseries of Thibet, they belong to the
Buddhist religion.
Aside from the ingenious framing and bracketing of the car-
pentry, the most striking peculiarity of Chinese buildings is their
broad-spreading tiled roofs. These invariably slope downward
ina curve, and the tiling, with its hip-ridges, crestings, and fmials
in terra-cotta or metal, adds materially to the picturesqueness of
the general effect. Color and gilding are freely used, and in some
cases as in a summer pavilion at Pekin porcelain tiling covers
the walls, with brilliant effect. The chief wonder is that this
resource of the architectural decorator has 'not been further devel-

oped in China, where porcelain and earthenware are otherwise

treated with such remarkable skill.

JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. Apparently associated in race

with the Chinese and Koreans, the Japanese are far more artistic
in temperament than either of their neighbors. The refinement
and have given it a wide reputa-
originality of their decorative art
tion. Unfortunately the prevalence of earthquakes has com-
bined with the influence of the traditional habits of the people to

prevent the maturing of a truly monumental architecture. Ex-

cept for the terraces, gates, and enclosures of their palaces and
temples, wood is the predominant building material. It is used

substantially as in China, the framing, dovetailing, bracketing,

broad eaves and tiled roofs of Japan closely resembling those of
China. The chief difference is in the greater refinement and

delicacy of the Japanese details and the more monumental dis-

position of the temple terraces, the beauty of which is greatly

enhanced by landscape gardening. The gateways recall
skilful

somewhat those of the Sanchi Tope in India (p. 418), but are
commonly of wood. Owing to the danger from earthquakes,
lofty towers and pagodas are rarely seen.
The domestic architecture of Japan, though interesting for its
43O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

arrangements, and for its sensible and artistic use of the most

flimsy materials, is too trivial in scale, detail and construction to

receive more than passing reference. Even the great palace at
Tokio,* covering an immense area, is almost entirely composed
of one-storied buildings of wood, with little of splendor or architec-
tural dignity.

MONUMENTS: (additional to those in text).

BUDDHIST: Topes
at Sanchi, Sonari, Satdara,Andher, in Central India at Sarnath, ;

near Benares at Jelalabad and Salsette in Ceylon at Anuradhapura,

; ;

Tuparamaya, Lankaramaya. Grotto temples (chaityas), mainly in

Bombay and Bengal Presidencies at Behar, especially the Lomash ;

Rishi. and Cuttack; at Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajunta, and Ellora (Wis-

wakarma Cave); in Salsette, the Kenheri Cave. Vilharas Struc- :

tural at Nalanda and Sarnath, demolished rock-cut in Bengal, at ;

Cuttack, Udayagiri (the Ganesa) ;

in the west, many at Ajanta,
also at Bagh, Bedsa, Bhaja, Nassick (the Nahapana, Yadnya Sri,
etc.), Salsette, Ellora (the Dekrivaria, etc.). In Nepal, stupas of
Swayanbunath and Bouddhama.
JAINA Temples at Aiwulli, Kanaruc (Black Pagoda), and
:

Purudkul groups of temples at Palitana, Girnar, Mount Abu,

;

Somnath, Parisnath the Sas Bahu at Gwalior, 1093; Parswanatha

;

and Ganthai (650) at Khajuraho; temple at Gyraspore, 7th cen-

tury; modern temples at Ahmedabad (Huttising), Delhi, and Sona-
ghur; in the south at Moodbidri, Sravana Belgula; towers at
Chittore.
NORTHERN BRAHMAN: Temples, Parasumareswara (500 A.D.),
Mukteswara, and Great Temple (600-650), all at Bhuwaneswar,
among many others of Papanatha at Purudkul grotto temples at
; ;

Dhumnar, Ellora, and Poonah; temples at Chandravati, Udaipur,

and Amritsur (the last modern) tombs of Singram Sing and ;

others at Oudeypore; of Rajah Baktawar at Ulwar, and others at

Goverdhun ghats or landings at Benares and elsewhere.
;

CHALUKYAN: Temples at Buchropully and ?lamoncondah, 1163;

ruins at Kalyani grottoes of Hazar Khutri.
;

DRAVIDIAN : Rock-cut temples (raths) at Mahavellipore ; Tiger

*See Transactions R. I. B. A., 52d year, 1886, article by R. J.

Conder, pp. 185-214.
 ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE JAPAN. 43!

Cave atSaluvan Kuppan; temples at Pittadkul (Purudkul), Tiru-

valur, Combaconum, Vellore, Peroor, Vijayanagar; pavilions at
Tanjore and Vijayanagar.
There are also many temples in the Kashmir Valley difficult of

assignment to any of the above styles and religions.

 GLOSSARY
OF TERMS NOT DEFINED IN THE TEXT.

ALCAZAR (Span., from Arabic Al CARTOUCHE (Fr.), an ornament

Kasr}, a palace or castle, espe- shaped like a shield or oval.
cially of a governing official. In Egyptian hieroglyphics, the
ARC HI VOLT, a band or group of oval encircling the name of a
mouldings decorating the wall- king.
face of an arch or a transverse
; CAVETTO, a moulding of concave,
arch projecting slightly from quarter-round section.
the surface of a barrel or CHEVRON, a V-shaped ornament.
groined vault. CHRYSELEPHANTINE, of ivory and
ASTYLAR, without columns. gold; used of statues in which
the nude portions are of ivory
BALNEA, a Roman bathing estab- and the draperies of gold.
lishment, less extensive than CONSOLE, a large scroll-shaped
the thermae. bracket or ornament having
BEL ETAGE, the principal story of its broadest curve at the bot-
a building, containing the re- tom.
ception rooms and saloons ; CORINTHIANESOUE, resembling
usually the second story (first the Corinthian ;
used of capi-
above the ground story). talshaving corner-volutes and
BROKEN ENTABLATURE, an entab- acanthus leaves, but combined
lature which projects forward otherwise than in the classic
over each column or pilaster, Corinthian type.
returning back to the wall and
running along with diminished
projection between the col- EMPAISTIC, made of, or overlaid
umns, as in the Arch of Con- with, sheet-metal beaten or
stantine (Fig. 63). hammered into decorative pat-
terns.
CANTONED PIERS, piers adorned KXKDR.I-:, curved scats of stone;
with columns or pilasters at niches or recesses, sometimes
the corners or on the outer of considerable si/e, provided
faces. with seats for the public.
434 GLOSSARY OF TERMS NOT DEFINED IN TEXT.

FENESTRATION, the whole system and dedicated to the Virgin

or arrangement of windows Mary any chapel to the Virgin
;

and openings in an architect- may receive the name.

ural composition.
FOUR-PART. A four-part vault is MEZZANINE, a low, intermediate
a groined vault formed by the story.
intersection of two barrel MUEDDIN (or muezzin}, a Mo-
vaults. diagonal edges or
Its hammedan mosque-official who
groins divide it into four sec- calls to prayer.

tions, triangular in plan, each

called a compartment. NARTHEX, a porch or vestibule
running across the front of a
GIGANTOMACHIA, a group or com- basilica or church.

position representing the myth- NEO-GOTHIC, ) in a style which

ical combat between the gods NEO-MEDI.EVAL, ] seeks to revive

and the giants. and adapt or apply to modern
uses the forms of the Middle
HALF-TIMBERED, constructed with Ages.
a timber framework showing

externally, and filled in with OCULUS, a circular opening, espe-

masonry or brickwork or lath- cially in the crown of a dome.
and-plaster. OGEE ARCH, one composed of two
juxtaposed S-shaped or wavy
IMAUM, imam, a Mohammedan curves, meeting in a point at
priest. the top.

KAABAH, the sacred shrine at PAL.ESTRA, an establishment

Mecca, a nearly cubical struct- among the ancient Greeks for
ure hung with black cloth. physical training.
KARAFAH, a region in Cairo con- PAVILION (Fr. pavilion), ordi-
taining the so-called tombs of narily a light open structure
the Khalifs. of ornate design. As applied
to architectural composition, a

LACONICUM, the sweat-room in a projecting section of a facade,

Roman bath ; usually of dom- usually rectangular in plan,
ical design in the larger and having its own distinct
thcrmcc. mass of roof.
LADY CHAPEL, in many cathe- PRESBYTERY, the eastern part of
drals the central or axial the choir, beyond the choir
chapel of the chcz>ct, usually stallsor choir proper, reserved
longer and richer than the rest. for the officiating clergy, and
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS NOT DEFINED IN TEXT. 435

raised a step or two higher deeply grooved or bevelled

than the choir itself. joints.

QUARRY ORNAMENT, any orna- SOFFIT, the under-side of an

ment covering a surface with architrave, beam, arch, or
two series of reticulated lines corona.
enclosing approximately quad- SPANDRIL, 'the triangular wall-
rangular spaces or meshes. space between two contiguous
QUATREFOIL, with four leaves or arches.
foils; composed of four arcs SOUINCH, a bit of conical vault-
of circles meeting in cusps ing in the angles of a
filling

pointing inward. square so as to provide an

QUOINS, slightly projecting blocks octagonal or circular base for
of stone, alternately long and a dome or lantern.
short, decorating or strength- STOA, an open colonnade for
ening a corner or angle of a public resort.
facade.
TEPIDARIUM, the hot-water hall
RETRO-CHOIR, any space east of or chamber of a Roman bath.
the apse or presbytery of a TYMPANUM, the flat space com-
church, especially a chapel or prised between the horizontal
enlarged ambulatory. and raking cornices of a pedi-
REVETMENT, a veneering or ment, or between a lintel and
sheathing. the arch over it.

RUSTICATION, treatment of the

masonry with blocks having VOUSSOIR, any one of the radial
roughly broken faces, or with stones composing an arch.
 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS.
The surname is in all cases followed by a comma.
Architects now living (1909) are designated either by the date of
birth and a dash ( ), or by the abbreviation contemp., for
contemporary.

ABADIE, Paul (1812-84) 381 Barry, Sir Charles (1789-1850)

Adam, Robert (1727-92) 341 388
Agnolo (Baglioni), Baccio d' Basevi, George (1790-1850 ?)
(1462-1543) 295 366
Agnolo (Baglioni), Gabriele d' Battista,Juan (i6th cent.) 358
( 1 5th- 1 6th cent.) 291 Benard, mile (contemp.) 413
Alan of Walsingham (I4th cent.) Benci di Cione (d. 1388) 271
228 Benedetto da Majano (1442-97)
Alberti, Leo Battista (1404-73) 285, 286
281, 284, 285 Bernardo di Lorenzo, (i^th cent.)
Alessi, Galeazzo (1500-72) 303, 286
304, 306 Bernini, Lorenzo (1589-1680)
Ammanati, Bartolommeo (1511- 300, 307. 326
92) 303- .105 Berruguete, Alonso (1480-1561)
Anthemius of Tralles (6th cent.) 356. 35- 359
127 Bianchi, (i6th cent.) 307
Antonio da San Gallo, see SAN Bianchi, (i8th-igth cent.) 310
GALLO Bondone, Giotto di (1267-1337)
Antonio, Master (i3th cent.) 264 263. 268
Arnolfo di Cainbio, (1232-1303) Borromini, Francesco (1599-
262 1667) 307, 308, 30*;, 356
Arras, Matthew of (i4th cent. ) Borset. ( i6th cent. ) 34.'

249 Bramante I.a/.xari, Donato (1444-

1514) 293. -'94. ->( >5. -2>8. -'99.

BACCIO D' ACNOI.O BACI.IOM 304. 3-'8

(1462-1543) 295 Brandon, Julm Raphael (1817-
Ballu, Theodore (1817-85) 379,
ri'is-iio (or Ri//o), Antonio (d.
Baltard, Victor (1805-74) 379 1498) 288, 289
(437)
438 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS.

Brongniart, Alex. Theodore Cortona, Domenico di (Bocca-

(1739-1813) 371 dor) (d. 1549) 321
Brunelleschi, Filippo di Ser Cosmati, The (i3th cent.) 269
(1377-1444) 280, 281, 284, 285, Cossutius, (2d cent. B.C.) 69
293 Cram, Ralph A. (contemp.) 413
Bulfinch, Charles (1763-1844) 402 Cronaca, Simone (Porlainolo)
Bullant, Jean (1515-78) 323 (1457-1508) 285, 295
Buon, Bartolommeo (i6th cent.)
288 DANCE, GEORGE (1695-1768) 341,
Buonarotti, Michel Angelo (Ag- 365
nolo) (1475-1564) 100,293,297, Dance, George (1741-1825) 341
298, 299, 300, 303 De Brosse, Salomon (1560-1626)
Burges, William (1827-81) 388 3-'5
De Cotte, Robert (i7th cent.)
CALLICRATES, (5th cent. B.C.) 64 325
Cambio, Arnolfo di (1232-1303) De Fabris, (d. 1887) 266
260 De Key, Lieven (late i6th cent.)
Campbell, Colin (d. 1727) 341 344
Campello, (i3th cent.) 260 De Keyser, Hendrik (1565-1621)
Caprarola, Cola da (i6th cent.) 344
298 Delia Porta, Giacomo (1541-
Caprino, Meo del (1430-1501) 1604) 297, 299, 303, 304
Carrere, John M. (1854 ) 412, Delia Robbia, Luca (1400-82) 286
413, 4M Delia Stella, Paolo (i6th cent.)
Chalgrin, Jean F. T. (1739-1811) 347
370 De rOrme, Philibert (1515-70)
Chambers, Sir William (1726- 323, 324
96) 341 Deperthes, L. (igth cent.) 381
Chambiges, Pierre (d. 1544) 320 Derrand, Francois (i7th cent.)
Chrismas, Gerard (i6th-i7th 325
cent.) 335 Desiderio da Settignano (1428-
Christodoulos, (isth cent.) 150 64) 286
Churrigtiera, Don Josef (d. 1725) De Tessin, Nicodcmus (1654-
356 1728) 344
Civitale, Mattco (1435-1501) 286 De Vric-ndt (or Floris), Corne-
Cola da Caprarola (i6th cent.) lius (1518-75) 342
298 Diego de Siloe (early i6th cent.)
Collcutt, Thomas (contemp.) 356
390 Domenico di Cortona (d. 1549)
Colnmbe, Michel (1430-1512) 316 323
Cope, Charles F. (d. 1902) 413 Donatello (Donato Nicolo di
 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS. 439
Betto Bardi) (cir. 1382-1466) Era Sisto (1310 cent.) 261
280 Fuga. Ferdinando (1699-1784)
Dosio, Giovanni Antonio (1533- 3io
1610) 295 Flagg, Ernest (contemp.) 414
Duban, Felix (1797-1870) 372
Due, Louis Joseph (1802-79) 372, GABRIEL, JACO.I-ES A.N(;E (1698-
373
Du Cerceau, Jean Batiste (1545- Gabriele d'Angolo, (Baglione)
1602) 324 (I5th-i6th cent.) 291
Gaddi, Taddeo (Mth cent.) 268
EDIXGTOX, Bishop (i4th cent.) Gadyer, Pierre ( i6th cent.) 321
230 Galilei, Alessandro (1691-1737)
Egaz, Enrique de (see below) 3io
Elmes, James (1782-1862) 367 Gamier, Charles (1825-98) 380
Enrique de Egaz, (i6th cent.) George, Ernest (contemp.) 390
356 Giacomo della Porta, see Delia
Erlach, Fischer von (1650-1723) Porta
354.367 Giacomo di Pietrasanta, (i5th
Erwin von Steinbach, (i3th-i4th [
cent.) 290
cent.) 246, 248 (iibbs, James (1683-1754) 340,
365. 397. 40i
FAIX, PIERRE (early i6th cent.) Gibson, Robert \V. (1857) 407
317 Gilbert, Cass (1857) 409, 413,
Federighi, Antonio (d. 1490) 286 414
Ferguson (contemp.) 413 Giocondo, Fra (d. cir. 1517) 291
von (1828-83) 383
Ferstel, H. Giotto di Bondone. (1267-1337)
Fiesole, Mino da ( 1430-84) 286 263. 268
Filarete,Antonio (1400-68 ?) 287 Giuliano da Majano (1432-90)
Fischer von Erlach, (1650-1723) 291
354 Giuliano da San Gallo (1445-
Flitcroft, Henry (160)7-1769) 341 1510) 283, 205, 299
j

'

Floris (De Vriendt) Cornelius Giulio Romano, (1492-1546) 293,

<
'518-75) 34-' ->( )7- 35"
Fontaine, Pierre L. F. (1702- Goodhue (contemp.) 413
1853) Goujon, Ji-an (1510-72) 323. 327
Fontana, Dotnenico (1543-1607) Guimard, llenri (contemp.) 392
299, 304, 3 (itimiel, Pedro (Kith cent.) 357

Fontana, Giovanni (i6th-i7tb

cent.) 30*; HAI.I.KT, STKPIIKN (ETIKXNK)
Fra Giocr-ndo (d. cir. 1517) 291 (late iStb cent.) 402
Fra Ristoro (
13111 cent.) 201 lleiisen. 'riieophil (1813-90) 369
440 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS.

Hastings, Thomas (1856 ) 412, Juan Battista (i6th cent.) 358

4U Juckher of Cologne, (i5th cent.)
Have, Theodore (i6th-i7th cent.)
335
Hawksmoor, (1666-1736) 340 KEARSLEY, DR. (i8th cent.) 398
Hendrik de Keyser, (1565-1621) Kent, William (1685-1748) 341
344 Keyser, Hendrik de (1565-1621)
Henri de Narbonne, (i4th cent.) 344
Henry of Gmiind, (i4th cent.) Klenze, Leo von (1784-1864) 368,
260 369, 375
Herrera, Francisco (1622-85) 360
Herrera. Juan d' (1530-1597) LABROUSTE, HENRI P. F. (1801-
356. 358, 359 75) 372
Ilittorff,Jacques Ignace (1793- Lassus, Jean B. A. (1807-57) 379
1867) 372, 380 Latrobe. Benjamin H. (1762-
Hoban, Thomas (? 1760-1817 ?) 1820) 402
402 Laurana, Francesco (i5th cent.)
Hiibsch, Heinrich (1795-1863) 3i6
383, 384 Laurana, Luciano (d. 1483) 291
Hunt, Richard Morris (1828-95) Le Breton, Gilles (d. 1552) 319
405, 411 Le Due, Gabriel (i7th-i8th cent.)
329
Lefuel, Hector M. (1810-80) 380
ICTINUS, (5th cent. B.C.) 64, 67 Lemercier, Jacques (1590-1654)
Inigo Jones, (1572-1652) 336,340, 3-25- 3-'9

341 Lemercier, Pierre (i6th cent.)

Isodorus of Miletus, (6th cent.) 3i8
127 Le Muet (i7th cent.) 329
Ivara (or Juvara), Ferdinando Le Nepveti, Pierre (Trinqueau)
(1685-1735) 360, 373 (d. 1538) 321
Lescot, Pierre (1515-78) 321,
322, 327
JACOBUS OF MERAN, (i3th cent.) Le Van, (or Lcvau) Louis (1612-
260 1670) 325. 326, 329
Jansen, Bernard (i6th-i7th cent.) Lieven de Key, ( i6th cent.) 344
335 Ligorio, Pirro ( d. cir. 1586) 297
Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826) Lippi, Annibale (2d half i6th
402 cent.) 297
John of Padua, (i6th cent.) 335 Lira. Valentino di ( i6th cent.)
Jones, Inigo (1572-1652) 336, 340, 351
341 Lombardi, Antonio (d. 1516) 288
 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS. 441

Lombard!, Martino (i6th cent.) McKim, Charles F. (contemp.)

288 412, 413
Lombardi, Moro (iSth cent.) 288 Mead, W. Rutherford (contemp.)
Lombardi, Pietro (1433-1515) 412,413
288,290 Meo del Caprino, (1430-1501)
Lombardi, Tullio (d. 1532) 288, 290
298 Meran, Jacobus of (i3th cent.)
Longhena, Baldassare (1604-82) 260
308,309 Metezeau, Louis (1559-1615) 324
Lorenzo, Bernardo di (i^th cent.) Michel Angelo (see Buonarotti)
286 Michelozzi, Michelozzo (1397-
Louis, Victor (1731-1800) 370 1472) 284, 287
Luca della Robbia, (1400-82) 286 Mino da Fiesole, (1430-84) 286
Ludwig, Friedrich (i7th-i8th Mnesicles, (51)1 cent. n.c. ) 66
cent.) 360 Mullen, A. B. (d. 1890) 404
Lunghi, Martino (the Elder) (late
i6th cent.) 309 NARBONNE, HENRI DE (i4th-i5th
cent.) 254
Nepveu, Pierre le (Trinqueau)
MACHUCA (i6th cent.) 359 (d. 1538) 321
Maderna, Carlo (1556-1629) 300,
307. 308, 309 OHMULLER, DANIEL J. (1791-
Maitani, Lorenzo (late I3th 1839) 383
cent.) 265 Olhrich, J. M. (d. 1908) 392
Majano, Benedetto da (1442-97)
285,286 PALLADIO, ANDREA (1518-80) 303,
Majano, Giuliano da (1432-90) 304, 326, 336. 358
290, 291 Percier. Charles (1764-1838) 370
Mangin, L. (iSth-igth cent.) 401 Perrault, Claude (1613-88) 327
Mansart, Frangois (1598-1666) Peruzzi, Baldassare (1484-1536)
329 273, 296. 299
Mansart, Jules Hardouin (1647- Phidias, (5th ce;it. n.r.) 64
1708) 326, 328, 329 Philibert de I'Unne, (1515-70)
Marchionne, (late i8th cent.) 310 323
Marini, Giovanni 07th cent.) Pietrasanta, Giacomo di ( 2d half
347 1
5th cent. ) 2<)O. 2<)i

Martino, Pietro di 291 1'intelli. I'.accio (d. dr. 1492)

Matteo Cicitali, (1435-1501) jS6
Matthew of Arras, (d. 1352) _'4<) Pisano, Giovanni (d. 1320) 265
McComb, John (I7th-i8th cent.) Pi>ano. Niivolo 1207-78) 277
(

401 Polaert, (late njth cent.) 391

442 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS.

Post, George B. (1838) 413 Satyrus, (4th cent. B.C.) 72

Poyet, (early igth cent.) 371 Scamozzi, Vincenzo (1552-1616)
Price, Bruce (1847-1902) 409 304, 341
Pugin, Augustus (1762-1832) Schinkel, Friedrich (1781-1841)
386 368, 369, 384
Pugin, A. Welby (1812-52) 386 Schmidt, (late i8th cent.) 367
Pythius, (4th cent. B.C.) 72 Schmidt, Friedrich (1825-91)
386
RAPHAEL SANZIO (D'URBINO) Scott, (General) (igih cent.)
(1483-1520) 293, 295, 296, 298, 390
299 Scott, Sir Gilbert (1811-78) 388,
Remvick, James (1818-95) 404 389
Revett, Nicholas (1721-1804) 364, Semper, Ottfried (1803-79) 384
367 Sens, William of (d. 1180) 223
Richardson, Henry Hobson ( 1828- Servandoni (1695-1776) 330
86) 405, 407, 408 Settingnano, Desiderio da (1428-
Rickman, Thomas (1776-1841) 1464) 286
386 Shaw, Norman (contemp.) 390
Ristoro, Fra (i3thcent.) 261 Siccardsburg,August S. von
Rizzo, Antonio (d. 1498) 288, 289 (1813-64) 384
Rocco Lurago, (i6th cent.) 307 Siloe, Diego di (early i6th cent.)

Rogers, Isaiah (ipth cent.) 403 356

Romano, Giulio (1494-1546) 293, Smirke, Robert (1781-1867) 366
297 Smithson, Robert (early I7th
Rossellini, Bernardo (1409-64) cent.) 335
290 Soane, Sir John (1753-1857) 341,
Ruiz, Fernando (i6th cent.) 359 366
Soufflot, J. J. (1709-80) 330
SACCONI, GIUSEPPE (d. 1905) 382 Steindl, (contemp.) 386
Salvi, Niccola (1699-1751) 310 Steinbach, Erwin von (i3th-i4th
Sammichele, Michele (1489-1554) cent.) 246, 248
298, 303, 305, 337 Stella, Paolo della (i6th cent.)
San Gallo, Antonio da (the 347
Elder) (1455-1534) 298 Stern, Raphael (early igth cent.)
San Gallo, Antonio da (the 3'0, 373
Younger) (1485-1546) 293,296, Stewardson, John (d. 1896) ^13
299, 310 Street, George Edmund (1824-
San Gallo, Giuliano da (1445- 81) 388
1516) 283, 295, 299 Stuart, James (1713-88) 364.
Sansovino, Giacopo Tatti (1479- 367
1570) 293, 298, 303, 305, 309 Stuhlcr, (ujth cent.) 368
 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS. 443

Sullivan, Louis H. (contemp.) Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da

410 (1507-72) 293. 296, 303, 304, 305
Vignon, Barthelemy (1762-1820)
370
TALENTI, FRANCESCO DI (d. 1370)
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene Emman-
264, 268
uel (1814-79) 219,379, 371
Talenti, Simone di (late I4th
Vischer, Kaspar (i6th cent.) 351
cent.) 271
Vischer, Peter (1465 ?-i529) 355
Tessin, Nicodemus de (I7th-i8th
Visconti, Louis T. J. (1791-1853)
cent.) 344
380, 386
Thomson, Alexander (1817-75)
Vitoni, Ventura (1442-1522) 298
367
Vitruvius Pollio, (ist cent. B.C.)
Thornton (end of i8th cent.) 402
57, 7-'- 78
Thorpe, John (early I7th cent.)
Von der Null (1812-68) 384
335
Von Kleuze, Leo (1784-1864)
Titz, (igth cent.) 384
368, 369, 375
Torregiano, (1472-1522) 335
Towne, Ithiel (iSth-igth cent.) WAGNER, OTTO (contemp.) 393
401 Wallot, Jean (i6th cent.) 334,
Trevigi, (i6th cent.) 335 342
Train, mile (igth cent.) 379 Wallot, Paul (igth cent.) 385
Walsingham, Alan of (i4th
UPJOHN, RICHARD (1802-78) 404 cent.) 228
Upjohn, Richard M. (1828-1904) Walter, Thomas Ustick (1804-
406 87) 403
Ware, William Robert (1832)
VAL DEL VIRA (isth cent.) 356 405
Waterhouse, Alfred (i9th cent.)
Valentino di Lira (i6th cent.)
3NK, 389
351
Webb, Sir Aston (contemp.) 39X)
Van Aken (i6th cent.) 351
White, Stanford ( d. i<)O7) 412,
Van Brugh, Sir John (1666-1726)
413
340
Wilkins, William ( 1778-1839) 367
Van Noort, William (i6th cent.)
William of Sens, (d. nSo) 223
343
William of Wykeham. (1324-
Van Noye, Sebastian ( i6th cent.)
1404) 230
343
\\'ood, ( iStli cent.) 341
Van Vitelli, Luigi (1700-73) 309
Wren. Sir C'liri-topluT ( 1632-
Vasari, Giorgio (1512-74) io_>,
i/.'.O 337. 33<>. 3-40. 3<>5, 397.
262, note
401
Viart, Charles ( d. 15.17) .517

Viel, (i9th cent.) 380 XiKiti.AND, (,1800-73) 383

 INDEX.
THE buildings are arranged according to location. Those which
appear only in the lists of monuments at the ends of chapters
are omitted. Numerals in parentheses refer to illustrations.

ABAYAGIRI. Tope 418 ALBY Cathedral 169, 188, 208, 214,

ABBEVILLE. Wulfrand 211, 216
St. 254 ("6)
ABOU-SIMBEL (see IPSAMBOUL) ALCALA DE HEXARES (Alcala).
ABI>SEIR. Stepped pyramid 9 Archbishop's Palace 358. Col-
ABYDOS. Columns 12. Temple lege 357- Tombs in cathedral
19, 21. Tombs 12 (5) 360
ADDEH. Grotto-temple 22 ALCANTARA 108. Bridge 167
ADRIANOPLE 151. Mosque of Se- ALENCON Cathedral 211. 215
lim 151 ALEXANDRIA TROAS. Pala?stra 72
Churches in 157, 267 ALGIERS 92, 108, 119. Mosques
Sculptures 58. Aphesa 140
temple 63. Temple of Zeus, of ALLAHABAD. Akbar's Palace 148
Athena 63 note ALTEXBI'RG Cathedral 246. Town
AFRICA, North. Arab works 140 hall 35-'

AGRA 148, 149. Pearl Mosque AMADA. Columns 12

148. Taj Mahal 148 (87) AMBOISE. Castle 316

AGRIGENTUM. Zeus temple 56 AMIENS Cathedral 193, 200, 204,
note, 62 (33) 206, 208, 209, 223, 224, 236, 248
AHMEDABAD 147 (125) ; west front 210, 211, 215.
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. Minster (Pa- 231
latine Chapel) 174. Palace of AMRAVATI. Tope 418
Charlemagne 178 AM s r M Hours e (Ex-
KRDA .

AIZANOI. Zeus temple 68. The- change), Hanse House, Town

atre 71 hall 330
AJANTA. Brahman chaityas 419; ANCY I.E I'KANC. Chateau 323
vihares 420 ANKT. Chateau 323
AJMIK 147 ANGERS. Cathedral St. Maurice
AI.HANO. Tomb 89 203. I
lospiuil St. Jean 217
ALBANY. All Saints' Cathedral ANGORA Aucyra 18
( ) 1

407. Capitol 404 ANGOI-LKMK. Catliedral 166

446 INDEX.

ANI 134 (Herodes Atticus) 69, 71, 72.

ANNAPOLIS. Harwood and Ham- Parthenon 59, 64, 131, 368
mond Houses 398. Naval (Frontispiece, 31 d, 34). Pro-
Academy 413 pylsea 59, 66, 69, 367 (37).
ANTIOCH 116 Stoa of Attalus 68. Temple of
ANTIPHELLUS. Theatre 70. Nike Apteros 56 note, 65, 66.
Tombs 73 Temple of Olympian Zeus 69
ANTWERP. Cathedral 193, 251. (39)- Theatre of Dionysus 70,
Town hall 342, 344 71. Theseum 63. Tower of
AQUITANIA. Churches 166, 170, Winds (Clepsydra of Cyrrhes-
182, 381 tes) 53, 68. University 374
ARANJUEZ. Palace 360 ATTICA 51, 56
AREZZO. Cathedral 261. Sta. AUDENARDE (see OuDENARDE)
Maria della Pieve 159 AUGSBURG. Town hall 352
ARGOS. Gates 45 AUSTRIA 364
ARIZONA. Spanish churches 400 AUTUN. City Gates 108. Cathe-
ARLES. St. Trophime 167. St. dral 169
Gilles 167 AUVERGNE. Apsidal Chapels in
ARMENIA. Vaulting 123. By- 207
zantine churches 134 AUXERRE. Cathedral 200, 204
ASCHAFFENBURG. Church 247 AVIGNON. Notre Dame des Doms
ASHEVILLE. Biltmore House 411 166
ASIA MINOR 53, 56, 58, 63, 67, 71, AVILA. S. Vincente 188, 253 ;

72, 108, 118, 123 tombs in 360

ASPENDUS. Theatre 71 AZAY-LE-RIDEAU. Chateau 321
ASSEBONA. Temple 22
ASSISI. Church of St. Francis BAALBEC (Heliopolis) 84, 108.

(S. Francesco) 261, 262, 263 Circular Temple 94. Temple

Assos 56. Public square 70. of Sun 92
Temple 62 BAB-EL-MOLOUK. Tombs 14
ASSYRIA. Character of monu- BABYLON 31
ments 29 BAGDAD 145, 146
ASTI. Church 261 BACH. Viharas, Great Vihara
ASTORGA. Rood-screen 360 420
ATHENS. Academy 374. Acro- BAILLUR. Temples 424
polis 64, 70. Agora Gate 69. BAM BERG. Church 248
Arch of Hadrian 64. Cathe- BARCELONA. Cathedral 193, 254.
dral 134. Choragic Monument Sta. Maria del Pi 254
of Lysicrates 67, 367 (30, 38). BARI. Cathedral 162
Ercctheum 65 (32, 35, 36). Mu- BAKOLLI. Hindu temple 424
seum 374. Odeon of Regilla BASLE. Spalenthor 250
 INDEX. 447

(Phigalaea). Temple of BILTMORE HOUSE 4!!

Apollo Epicurius 67 BINDRABUN. Ruined temple 423
BATALHA. Church, mausoleum BIRS NIMROUD. Stepped pyramid
256 3i
BATH. Public buildings 365 BLENHEIM HOUSE 340 (195)
BAVARIA 350, 368 BLOIS. Chateau 219, 317, 319, 329
BAYEUX. Cathedral 200, 208 (180, 181)
BAYONNE. Cathedral 200 BOHEMIA 346, 347
BEAI-GENCY. Town hall 322 BOKHARA 146
BEAUMESNIL. Chateau 324 BOLOGNA 157. Brick houses 272.
BEAUNE. Hospital 217 Campo Santo 391. Churches
BEAUVAIS. Cathedral 193, 203, 282, 298. Fountains 309. Frati
214, 241 ; chapels 208 ;
choir di S. Spirito 284. Local style
215, 223; size 209 288. PALACES :
Bevilacqua
BEIT-EL- WALL Rock-cut Temple 288; Communale (town hall)
22 271 ; Fava 288. Renaissance
BELEM. Church 256, 360. Clois- churches 282. 298. S. Fran-
ter, tower 360 cesco 261, 268. S. Petronio
BELGIUM 251, 252, 342 262, 263, 264, 268. Sta. Maria
BENARES. Hindu temples 423, dei Servi 268
424 Bombay Presidency 419
BENI HASSAN. Columns 12, 24, BONN. Minster 177. Baptistery
51. Specs Artemidos 22. Tombs 1/7
H (6,7) BORABAUOR (Java). Great Tem-
BERGAMO. Town hall 271 ple 428
BERLIN. Brandenburg Gate 367. BORDEAUX. Cathedral spires 212.
Museum
Industrial 368 (207). Grand Theatre 370.
New Museum 368. Parliament BOSTON (England). St. Bo-
House ( Reichrathsgebiiude) tolph's tower 237
385. Theatres 309, 384 BOSTON (Mass., U. S. A.). Ames
BETHLEHEM. Church of the Na- Building 409. Custom House
tivity 115 403. Faneuil Hall 400. Fine
BHAJA. Chaityas 419 Arts Museum (old) 407.Han-
BHILSA Topes 418, 429
424. cock House 399. Old State
BHUWANESWAR. Hindu temples House 400. Old South Church
422 398. Public Library 412, 414.
BlDAK 146 State House 402. Trinity
BIJAPUR 147. Tomb Malimud
of Church 407 (227 )

148, 153 (86). Jttmma Musjid BOURG-EN-BRESSE. Bron Church

148. Mogul architecture 149, 216
'53 BOURGES. Cathedral 193, _>oo,
448 INDEX.

202, 204, 208, 209, 253 chapels ;

E*tienne (Abbaye aux Hom-
207; size 209; portals 211. mes) and Ste. Trinite (Abbaye
House of Jacques Coeur 217, aux Dames) 170; St. Pierre
219 (132) 318. Hotel d'licoville 322
BOURNAZEL. Chateau 321 CAHORS. Cathedral 165
BOVVDEN PARK 367 CASERTA VECCHIA 162
BOZRAH. Cathedral 117 (70) CAIRO 136. Karafah (Tombs of
BRANDENBURG. St. Catherine 245, Khalifs) 137, 138. Mohamme-
249. St. Godehard 249 dan monuments (list) 153.
BREMEN. Town hall 250, 352 Mosque of Amrou 136, 137; of
BRESCIA. Sta. Maria dei Miracoli Barkouk of El Muayyad 137;
;

297 of Ibn Touloun 136; of KaYt

BRIEG. Piastenschloss 351 Bey 137 (82) of Kalaoun 137;
;

BRISTOL. Cathedral, piers 180. of Sultan Hassan 137, 138 (81)

St.Mary's Redcliffe 237 CALIFORNIA. Spanish missions
BRUGES. Ancien Greffe 342. Cloth and churches 400. University
hall 352. Ste. Anne 343. Town of 413
hall 252 CAMBODIA. Temple of Nakhon
BRUNSWICK. Burg Dankwarde- Wat 428
rode 178. Town hall 250 CAMBRAY. Cathedral 200
BRUSA 150. (See list 154) CAMBRIDGE (England). Caius
BRUSSELS. Bourse 391. Cathe- College, Gate of Honor 335.
dral (Ste. Gudule) 251. Palais Fitzwilliam Museum 366. King's
de Justice 391. Renaissance College Chapel 227, 231, 238.
houses 343 (197). Town hall Trinity College Library 340
252 CAMBRIDGE (Mass., U. S. A.).
BUBASTIS. Temple 14 Craigie (Longfellow) House
BUDA-PESTH. Parliament House, 399 (224)
Synagogue 386 CANTERBURY. Cathedral 213, 226;
BUDDH GAYA. Tope central tower 232 chapels 235
or stupa 418 ; ;

BUFFALO. Guaranty Building 410 transepts 235 minor works 239 ;

BULACH. Basilica 383 CAPRAROLA. Palace 305

BURGUNDY. Cathedrals in 200 CAPUA. Amphitheatre 102
BURGH LEY HOUSE 335 (191) CARIA 72. (See HALICARNASSUS)
BURGOS. Cathedral 253 chapels CARINTHIA 346, 347
;

256 (150) CARLTON HOUSE 367

BURY. Chateau 321 CARLSRUHE. Theatre 384. Uni-
BYZANTIUM 92, 120. See CON- versity buildings 384
STANTINOPLE CARTER'S GROVE 398
CASAMARI. Abbey ruins 260
CAEN. Churches 169, 180. St. CASERTA. Palace 309
 INDEX. 449
CASTLE HOWARD 340 CLEVELAND (Ohio, U. S. A.).
CERISY-LA-FORET. Church 180 Public buildings 414
CEYLON 417. Topes 418 CLUNY. Abbey church 168.
CHAISE-DIEU. Cloister 216 Houses 217. Hotel de (at
CHALONS (Chalons-sur-Marne). Paris) 219
Cathedral 208 CNOSSUS 43. Palace of Minos 47
CHALVAU. Chateau 321 COBLENTZ. Church of St. Castor
CHAMBORD. Chateau 320 (182, 242
183) COIMBRA. Sta. Cruz 360
CHANTILLY. (" Petit Chateau ") COLES HILL 337
323 COLOGNE. Apostles' Church 176,
CHARLESTON. Michael's 397
St. 247 (104). Cathedral 193, 195,
CHARLOTTESVILLE. University of 208, 246, 247, 248; plan 193,
Virginia 402 247 (146); spires 245, 246;
CHARLTON HALL 335 vaulting 244. Great St. Mar-
CHARLTON-ON-OXMORE. Plate tin's 176, 247. Romanesque
tracery (113) houses 178. St. Mary-in-the-
CHARTRES. Cathedral 200, 201, Capitol 176
206 chapels 207 size 209 W.
; ; ;
COMO. Broletto (town hall) 271.
front 210; transept porches 211 Campanile 164.
(131) ; spires 212; capital from COMPIKGNE. Town hall 257
(127 c). Hospital 217 COMPOSTELLA. St. lagO l82
CHEMNITZ. Cathedral 253 CONJEVERAM. Dravidian temple
CHENONCEAUX. Chateau 321, 323 426
CHIARAVALLE. Certosa 260, 266 CONSTANTINE. Amphitheatre 92
CHICAGO. Auditorium Building CONSTANTINOPLE 120, 126. By-
410, 412. Columbian Exposi- monuments (list) 134.
zantine
tion 406, 408, 413. Fischer, CHURCHES: of the Apostles
Schiller Buildings 410 132; of Divine Wisdom (Hagia
CHICHESTER. Cathedral aisles Sophia, St. Sophia) in, 123,
236; spires 233; vaulting 225 124, 127, 131, 133. 150, 151 (72,
CHIHUAHUA. Church 360 76, 77, 78) ; of Mone tes Cho-

CHILLAMIIARAM. Dravidian tem- ras 132; of St. Bacchus 127:

ple, Great Hall, Mantapa of of St. John Studius (Kmir
Parvati 426 Akhor mosque) 118; of St.

CHISWICK. Villa 336, 337 Sergius 117, i->7, 128 (74).

CHITTOKK. Hindu temples 424. Cisterns 124. Farly Christian
Palace 424. Towers 422 (231) monuments (list) 119. FOUN-
CI.ERMONT (Clermont-Ferrand). TAINS 152; of Ahmet III. 15.'.

Cathedral 200, 208, 215. Notre MOSOUKS 150: of Ahmet II

Dame du Port 167, 207 (98, 99) ( Alimediyeh ) 150 (89); of

450 INDEX.

Kahire Djami 132; of Mehmet DELOS. Gates 45. Portico of

II. 150, 151 (88) ;
of Osman Philip 68
III. (Nouri Osman) 151 of ; DENDERAH. Temple of Hathor
Soliman (Suleimaniyeh) 151 17. Group of temples 22, 23,
(go) of Yeni Djami
; 150. 24. Hathoric columns 24
PALACES 153. Tchinli Kiosque DERRI. Temple 22
(Imperial Museum) 153; sar- DETROIT. Majestic Building 410
cophagi in 68. TOMBS, tomb of DIEPPE. Church of St. Jacques
Roxelana 152 216
COPENHAGEN. Christiansburg344. DIJON. St. Michel 318
Exchange, Fredericksborg 344 DOL. Cathedral, east end 208
CORDOVA 141. Great Mosque 142, DRESDEN. Castle, Georgenfliigel
M3 (84) 350. Church of St. Mary
CORINTH. Apollo temple 62 (Marienkirche) 354 (201).
COUTANCES. Cathedral 200 chap- ; Theatre 384 (218). University
els208; spires 212 buildings 384. Zwinger Palace
COVENTRY. St. Michael's 237 354 (200)
CRACOW. Castle 346 chapel of ; DRUGELTE. Circular church 177
Jagellons 346 DUBLIN. Public buildings 365
CREMONA. Town hall 271 DURHAM. Cathedral 179, 180,
CRETE 47 (see CNOSSUS) 224, 229 (105) central tower ;

CTESIPHON. Tak Kesra 145 232 ; Chapel of Nine Altars 235

CYPRUS 138

DAMASCUS. Mosque of El-Walid EARL'S BARTON. Saxon tower 178

136 ECOUEN. Chateau 323
DANDOUR. Temple 19 EDFOU. Great temple 16, 17, 22
DANTZIC. Town hall 352 (9, 10, 14). Peripteral temple
DARMSTADT. Houses of artist 22
colony 392 EDINBURGH. High School, Royal
DASHOUR. Pyramid 9 Institution 366. Monuments to
DEIR-EL- BAHARI. Tomb-temple Burns and Dugald Stewart 367.
of Hatasu 15, 21 University 341
DEIR-EL-MEDINEH. Temple of EGYPT. Early Christian buildings
Hathor 19 1 1 8. Tombs 10, II
DEKKAN 417, 424 EL DJEM 108
DELHI. Jaina temples 422. Jum- ELEPHANTINE. Temple of Ame-
ma Musjid 148. Mogul archi- nophis III. 22
tecture 149. Palace of Shah EL KAH. Temple of Amenophis
Jehan 148. Pathan arches, etc. III. 18

148 EI.EUSIS. Propylaea 70

 INDEX. 451

ELLORA. Chaityas 419. Kylas of Santa Croce 263 ; Paz/i

427 chapel in same 281 ; pulpit in
ELNE. Cloister 172, 216 286; Marsupini tomb in 286;
ELY. Cathedral 224; choir vault of San Lorenzo, and Old Sac-
226; clearstory 229; interior risty of same 281 of San ;

233 Lady Chapel 238 minor

; ; Michele (Or San Michele)
works 239; octagon 228, 238; 268; of San Miniato 115, 162;
size 236 ;
towers 232 of Sta. Maria Novella 261, 263;
EPHESUS. Temple of Artemis facade of same 281 fountain ;

(Artemisium) 67; Ionic order in sacristy of same 286 of San ;

53. Palaestra 72 Spirito 281 Loggia dei (166).

EPIDAURUS. Theatre 71 Lanzi 271. Loggia di San
ERECH 31 Paolo 285. Minor works 286.
ESCURIAL 358, 359, 360 Ospedale degli Innocenti 285.
ESNEH. Hathoric columns 24. PALACES: Bartolini, Gondi,
Temple 22, 108 Guadagni, Larclerel, Pandoltini,
ESSEN. Nun's choir 175 all 295; Pitti 284, 305. 325;
ESSLINGEN. Church spire 245 Riccardi 284. 285,295 286,
ETCHMIADZIN. Byzantine build- (167) ;
Rucellai 285, 287; Ser-
ings 134 ristori 295 Strozzi 285, 295
;

ETRURIA. Tombs 88. Temples (168); Palazzo Vecchio 271

89 (160)
EVREUX. Cathedral 200 FLUSHING. Town hall (hotel de
EWERBY. Church 237 ville) 342
EXETER. Cathedral 226 (134) FONTAINEBLEAU. Palace 318. 324
EZRA. Church of St. George 117 FONTEVRAULT. Abbey church 166
FONTFROIDE. Cloister 216
FERAIG. Rock-cut temple 22 FONTHILL ABBEY 386 note
FERRARA. Cathedral 266, 308, 311. FOSSANOVA. Abbey ruins 260
Churches 282, 298. Palaces FRANCE. Romanesque monu-
Scrofa, Roverella 288 ments (list) 173; Gothic monu-
FIROUZABAD. Sassanian buildings ments (list) 219, 220 Renais-
144 sance monuments (list) 332,
FLORENCE. Bargello 271. Rnp- 333
tistery 162. Campanile 164. FRANKFORT. Salt House 354
268, 270 (1528, 159). Cathe- FREIBURG. Cathedral 244. 245.
dral ( Duomo, Sta. Maria del 248 ;
spire 245
Fiore) 262, 263, 264, 268; dome FREIBURG IM FR/.GFIIIRCK. Golden
279 (152, 164, 165); facade Portal -'.47

266; marble incrustations 268; FRIT/LAR. Church 248

nave 262 (148). CHURCHKS: FUUIA. Monastery 175, 1/7
452 INDEX.

FURNESS. Abbey, pointed arches GLASGOW. Churches in Greek

223 style 367
FUTTEHPORE SlKHRI. MoSQUC of GLOUCESTER. Cathedral 180, 224,
Akbar, etc. 148 225, 226 central tower 232
; ;

cloister 227; east window 231 ;

Lady Chapel 238

GANDHARA. Buddhist monaster- GOSLAR. Kaiserburg 178
ies 419 GOURNAH. Columns 24. Temple
GAILLON. Chateau 316 21
GELNHAUSEN. Abbey church 247. GRAN. Cruciform chapel 346
Castle ruins 178 GRANADA 141. Alhambra 142, 143,
GENOA. Campo Santo 391. Ca- 144, 359 (83, 85). Cathedral
thedral, west front 266. Log- 356, 358 ;
tombs in same 360.
gia dei Banchi 306. PALACES : Palace of Charles V. 359 (204)
Balbi, Brignole, Cambiasi, GRANGE HOUSE 367
Doria-Tursi (Municipio), Du- GREAT BRITAIN. Norman monu-
razzo (Reale), Guistiniani, ments (list) 183. Gothic
Lercari, Pallavicini, Sauli, Uni- monuments (list ) 240. Re-
versity, all 306, 307. Sta. Ma- naissance monuments 345
ria di Carignano 304 GUADALAJARA. Infantada 357
GERASA 108 GUJERAT 146
GERMANY. Mediaeval 174. Ro- GWALIOR. Jaina temples 422.
manesque monuments (list) Palace 424. Teli-ka-mandir
182. Gothic monuments (list) 424. Tombs 424
256. Renaissance monuments
(list) 361
GERNRODE. Romanesque church HADDON HALL 334
175 HAGUE, THE. Town hall 343
GERONA. Cathedral 188, 259 HALBERSTADT. Cathedral 249.
GHENT (Gand). Cloth hall 252 Town hall 250
GHEKF HOSSEIN. Rock-cut tem- HALICARNASSUS. Ionic order 53.
ple 22 Mausoleum 4, 56 note, 72 (41)
GHERTASHI (Kardassy). Temple HAMELSCHENBURG. Castle
22 (Schlos) 348, 352 (198
GHIZEH. Pyramids 4; Pyramid HAMONCONDAH. Temple 425
of Cheops 7 (i, 2) of Cheph-; HAMPTON COURT 334, 339
ren 8; of Mycerinus 8, 9; HARDWICKE HALL 335
Sphinx, Sphinx temple 10 (3, HARTFORD (Conn., U. S. A.).
4) Churches 401. State Capitol
GIRNAR. Jaina temples, Temple 406
of Neminatha 421 HATFIEI.D HOUSE 335
 INDEX. 453

HAURAN. Roman works in the ISSOIRE. Church of St. Paul 167,

92. Domestic buildings 117 207
HECKLINGEN. Church 175 ITALY. Early Christian monu-
HEIDELBERG. Castle 351 (199). ments (list) 118-119. Roman-
Ritter House 354 esque monuments (list) 172-
HEILSBERG. Castle 250. 173. Gothic monuments (list)
HELDBURG. Castle 350 273-274. Renaissance monu-
HENGREAVE HALL 334 ments (list) 311-313
HERCULANUM 87. Amphithea-
tre 92. Houses 106. Theatre JAEN. Cathedral 356, 358
(61). Wall paintings 87 JAMALGIRI. Buddhist monastery
HEREFORD. Cathedral 180, 224, 419
236 JAPAN 429
HIERAPOLIS. Early Christian JAUNPORE 146
buildings 118 JEDBURGH. Abbey 181
HILDESHEIM 175. Kaiserhaus JERUSALEM. Castle of Antonia
354. Renaissance houses 353. 40. Church of the Ascension
St. Godehard 175. Town hall 115. Early Christian churches
250. Wedekindsches Haus 354 in. El Aksah 136. Golden
HOLLAND HOUSE 335 Gate 40. Herod's temple 40,
HOWARD CASTLE 340 83. Mosque of Omar (Dome
HcLLABio. Temples 424; double of the Rock, Kubbet-es-Sakh-
temple 424, 425 (234) Kait rah) 116,
136. Octagonal
Iswara 424 church on temple site 116.
Solomon's temple 40. Tomb
ICONICM (Konieh). Ruins 149 of Absalom 40; of the Kings
IFFLEY. Church 181 (107) 39 of Zechariah 39. Wall of
;

IONA. Abbey church 181 Lamentations 40. Zerubbabel's

INDIA 146-149. Moslem monu- temple 41
ments (list) 154. Non-Mos-
lem monuments (list) 430 KAIROUAN (Cyrene). Mosques
INDIANAPOLIS. Public buildings 140
414 KALABSHE. Columns 11. Tem-
INNSBRUCK. Schloss Ambras ple 22
.347 KALB LOUZEH. Church 116 (69)
IPSAMBOUL (Abou-simbel). Grot- KALBURGAH 146
to temples 21 ( 13) KANARUK. Hindu temples 422
IRELAND. Celtic towers 178 KANTONNUGGUR. Hindu temple
ISPAHAN. Mcidan (Meidan- 4-M
Shah) 145. Mesjid Shah, Ba- KARDASSY (Ghertashi). Temple
zaar, Medress 146 22, 108
454 INDEX.

KARLI. Chaityas 419 LE MANS. Cathedral 200, 203

KARLSTEIN. Castle 280 208, 209 (123) ;
tomb in 316
KARNAK 19, 50. Ancient temple LEON. Cathedral 193, 254. Pan-
13. Great Temple and Hypo- teon of S. Isidore 181, 182
style Hall xxiii., 13, 17, 18, 19, LE PUY (Puy-en-Velay). Abbey
20, 23, 24, 36 (n, 12). Polyg- (now cathedral) 207; cloister
onal columns 12, 13. Temple 216
ofKhonsu 16, 20 LEIPZIG. Fiirstenhaus 354
KASCHAU. Cathedral 250 LEMGO. Town hall 352
KASR. Mound 31 LEYDEN. Town hall 344
KEDDLESTONE HALL 341 LICHFIELD. Cathedral 226, 229,
KELAT SEMAN. Church of St. 223 (140); spire 233; west
Simeon Stylites, small double front 239 (139)
church 117 LIEGE. Archbishop's palace 342.
KELSO. Abbey 181 Church of St. Jacques 251
KHAJURAHO. Jaina temples 422. LIMBURG-ON-THE-HARDT. Church
Kandarya Mahadeo 423 175
KHORSABAD. Palace of Sargon LIMBURG-ON-LAHN. Cathedral of
31. City Gate 32 (19) St. George 244 (144). Abbey
KIRKSTALL. Abbey, pointed arches church 177
223 LIMOGES. Cathedral 200, 208, 214,
KONIGSBERG. Church 249 215
KOYUNJIK. Palaces of Assur- LINCOLN. Cathedral 224, 226, 229,
bani-pal and Sennacherib 31 230, 236; chapter house 228;
KUTTENBERG. Church of St. Bar- central tower 232 ; interior 233 ;

bara 244, 245 west front 231

LISBON. Sta. Cruz near 360
LISIEUX. Cathedral 200
LAACH. Abbey 176 LIVERPOOL. St. George's Hall 367
LABYRINTH of Moeris (Fayoum) (206)
26 LOIRE VALLEY. Churches, vault-
LAMBESSA 108 ing 167. (For chateaux of this
LA MUETTE. Chateau 321 valley see Azay-le-Rideau,
LANDSHUT. Residenz 350. St. Blois, Chambord, Chenon-
Martin's 245, 249 ceaux)
LANGRES. Cathedral 169 LOMISARUY. Romanesque monu-
LAOX. Cathedral 200, 208, 209, ments 157-160
21 1 ; grotesques 213; porches LONDON. Albert Memorial 388.
2t i ; towers 212 Albert Memorial Hall 300.
LAVAL. Cathedral (La Trinitc) Bank of England 341, 365.
203 British Museum 366 (205) ;
 INDEX. 455

Elgin marbles in 58; mauso- dral (S. Martino) 161, 262 263,
leum fragments in 72. Cathe- 265 (154) tempietto in same
;

dral of St. Paul 337-339 (*9 2 286; tomb of P. di Noceto in

193). CHURCHES: Bow same 266 (169). Minor works
Church 339; St.
George's, 286, 287. Palazzo Pretorio, Pal.
Bloomsbury 340; St. Martin's- Bernardini 287. S. Frediano,
in-the-Fields 340 (196); St. S. Michele 161

Mary's, Woolnoth 340; St. LUPIANA. Monastery 358

Pancras's 367; St. Paul's, Co- 50. LUXOR
Temple 19, 19, 20.

vent Garden 337; St. Ste- Osirid piers 24

phen's, Walbrook 339; St. Ste- Luz. Church 360
phen's Chapel, Westminster LYCIA. Tombs 37, 38, 39, 53
338 Temple Church 223
; ;

Westminster Abbey 224, 226, MADRID. Escurial 358, 359, 360.

2 35 239 (142) chapter house
;
First palace 358. New palace
228; Henry VII. 's chapel 195, 359
227, 231, 233 (141). Green- MADRID (Boulogne). Chateau
wich Hospital 340. Mansion 321
House 341, 365. Middle Tem- MADURA. Choultrie of Tirumalla
ple Hall 238. Natural History Nayak 426. Great Hall 427.
Museum 389 (222). New Law Great Temple, corridors 425,
Courts 389. Newgate Prison 426. Palace 427
341. Parliament Houses 238, MAFRA. Palace 360
388 Royal Exchange
(220). MAGDEBURG. Cathedral 193, 246,
365. Somerset House 337, 340, 248
341. South Kensington Mu- MAHAVELLIPORE. Raths 427
seum, new building 390. West- MAHRISCH-TRUBAU. Castle por-
minster Abbey (see above). tal 346
Westminster Hall 237. White- MAISONS. Chateau 329
hall Palace 336; Banqueting MALAGA. Alcazar 142, 143. Ca-
Hall of same 337 (192) thedral 356
LONGLEAT HOUSE 335 MALINES (Mechlin). Cathedral
Lot'TH. Church 237 of >t. Rombaut 251. Cloth hall
LOUVAIN. Cathedral 251, 252. 252. Hotel du Saumon 342
Town hall 252 (149) MANCHESTER. Cathedral 236. As-
LUBECK. Cathedral of St. Mary size Courts 388 (221)
246, 247, 249. City Gates 250. MANIKYALA. Tope 418
St. Catherine's 249. Town hall MANRF.SA. Collegiate Church 254
250 MANTINKA. Theatre 70
LUCCA. Arcadcd church facades MANTUA. Campanile 270. Church
115. Campanile 270. Cathe- of S. Andrea 281. Early Re-
456 INDEX.

naissance palaces 288. Palazzo dale Maggiorc 287, 293. S.

del Te 293 Ambrogio 158, 159, 163 (91).
MARBURG. St. Elizabeth 245, 246 San Eustorgio, Portinari
(i45) Chapel in, 287. S. Gottardo,
MARCH. Church ceiling 238 campanile of 163. S. Lorenzo
MARIENBURG. Castle, Great Hall 127 note, 133. Sta. Maria delle
256 Grazie 283, 293. S. Satiro 164;
MARIENWERDER. Castle 250 sacristy of 293
MARSEILLES. Chapel of St. La- MILETUS. Temple of Apollo
zare 316. Fountain of Long- Didymaeus 53, 67 (28)
champs 381 (216) MINDEN. Cathedral 249
MARYLAND. Manor houses, MODENA 164
churches 398 MCERIS. Labyrinth 26
MASHITA. Palace of Chosroes MOISSAC. Cloister 172, 216
MS MOLFETTA l62
MAULBRONN. Monastery 178 MONREALE. Churches,
cathedral,
MAYENCE. Cathedral 176 cloisters 162
MEAUX. Cathedral 214 MONS. Cathedral, St. Wandru
MECCA. Kaabah 136 251, 252
MEDINA. Mosque 136 MONTEPULCIANO. Church of S.
MEDINA DE Rio SECO. Rood- Biagio 298, 310
screen 360 MONTMAJOUR. Cloister 172, 216
MEDINET ABOU. Osirid piers 24 MONT ST. MICHEL. Abbey 169,
(15). Pavilion of Rameses III. 170, 216; cloister of same
26. Peripteraltemple 22. Tomb- 216
temple of Rameses III. 15, 19, MORET. House of Francis I. 322
21 Moscow. The Kremlin 374
MEIDOUM. Stepped pyramid 9. MOSUL 33, 146

Temple II MOUNT ABU. Jaina temples,

MEISSEN. Albrechtsburg 250 Temple of Vimalah Sah 420
MERGE. Pyramids 9 (232)
MERV 146 MOUNT ATHOS. Monastery 134
MESOPOTAMIA. Building mate- MUGHEIR. Temple of Sin or
rials 28 Hurki 30
MESSINA. Cathedral ceiling 162. MUJELIBEH. Mound 31
Fountains 309 MuKTESWARA. Hindu temples
METZ. Cathedral 249 424
MIDDELBURG. Town hall 252 MiJLHAUSEN. Town hall 352
MILAN 157. Arcade 391. Cathe- MUNICH 368, 374. Auekirche 383.
dral 248, 260, 262, 265, 267, 269. Basilica 383. Cathedral 247.
Domical churches 283. Ospe- Fraucnkirche 245. Glyptothek
 INDEX. 457

369. Ludwigskirche 383. Pro- NEWCASTLE. St.Nicholas 237

pylaea 369 (208). Ruhmeshalle NEW HAVEN (Conn., U. S. A.).
368. St. Michael's 352 Churches 401
MONSTER. Church 248. Town NEW MEXICO. Spanish churches
hall 250 400
MUNZENBERG. Castle rtlillS 178 NEWPORT (R. I., U. S. A.). Town

MYCEN.E 47. Fortifications 44 hall 400. Trinity Church 398

(23). Lion Gate 45, 46 (22). NEW YORK 405. American Surety
Tholos of Atreus 45, 46, 148 Building, Broadway Chambers
(24, 25). Tombs 4 409. Carnegie house 411. Ca-
MYLASSA. Tomb 72. sino theatre 412. Cathedral of
MYRA. Theatre 70. Tombs 73 St. Patrick 404. Century Club
MYSORE 424 412. City College 413. City
Hall 401. Columbia University
413. Custom House, Old 403
NAKHON WAT 413 (226) New 414. Grace Church
;

NAKSH-I-ROUSTAM (Persepolis) 404. Law Library of Colum-

36. Tomb of Darius 37 bia University 413. Madison
NANCY. Ducal Palace 219, 317 Square Garden 412. Metro-
NANKIN. Porcelain tower 428 politan Club 412. Metro-
NAPLES. Arcade 391. Arch of politan Life
Building 409.
Alphonso 291. Church of Phipps house 411. Post Office
Gesii Nuovo 308; of S. Fran- 404. Public Library 413, 414.
cesco di Paolo 310, 373; of S. Schwab house 411. Singer
Lorenzo 268; of S. Severo Building 409. St. Patrick's
(178). Minor works 286. Pa- Cathedral 404. St. Paul's
lazzo Cuomo, Pal. Gravina, Church 398. Sub-Treasury
Porta Capuana 291. Royal 403. Times Building (229).
Museum 509. Royal Palace Trinity Church 404. Univer-
310. Theatre San Carlo 310, sity Club 412. University of
373. Towers 310, 31 1 New York 413. Vanderbilt
NARBONNE. Cathedral 200, 208, house 411. West Street Build-
214, 215 ing 409
NASSICK. Chaityas 419 NlCOMEDIA ISO
NAUKRATIS 43 NiMES 108. Amphitheatre 92.
NAL'MBI:R<;. Church 246, 248 Maison Carree 93. Pont du
NETHERLANDS 250. Gothic monu- Gard 107
ments (list) 257 NiMRofi). Palaces of Assur-
NEUWEILER. Church of St. Peter nazir-pal, Esarhaddon and
and St. Paul 248 Shalmaneser 31, 32
NEVEKS. St. Ktienne 167 NINEVEH 31
458 INDEX.

NIPPUR (Niffer). Ruins 29, 31.OSNABRUCK. Church 248

Mycenaean house 44 note OTTMARSHEIM. Church 175
NORMANDY 169, 171, 212. Ro- OUDENARDE. Town hall 2$2
manesque clearstories 167. Ro- OUDEYPORE. Hindu temples, pal-
manesque churches 179, 180. aces 424
Cathedrals of 200 OURSCAMP. Hospital 217
NORTH GERMANY. Brick churches OXFORD. All Souls College 340.
249 Cathedral (Christ Church) 224,
NORTH WOBURN. Rum ford 227. Christ Church Hall 237,
House 399 238. Divinity School 227. Mer-
NORWICH. Cathedral 179, 180, ton College Chapel 238. New
224, 227. St. Stephen's 237, Museum 388. Radcliffe Li-
238 brary 340. Sheldonian Thea-
NOYON. Cathedral 200, 203, 204, tre 340. Town hall 390

206, 208, 209, 251

NUBIA. Early Christian build-
ings 118 PADERBORN. Town hall 352
NUREMBERG 243. Frauenkirche, PADUA. Arena chapel 263. Cam-
St. Lorenz and St. Sebald panile 164. Palazzo del Con-
churches 250. Funk, Hirsch- siglio 291
vogel and Peller houses 354. P.-ESTUM. Basilica 70. Temples
Renaissance houses 353. Shrine 62
of St. Sebald 355. Town PAILLY. Chateau 323
hall 352 PALERMO. Cathedral 162, 163,
308. Churches of Eremitani,
OLYMPIA. Altis, Echo Hall 70. La Mortorana 162. La Ziza,
Heraion 51, Philippeion
63. la Cuba 144
56. Sculptures 58. Temple of PALMYRA 84, 108. Temple of the
Zeus 63 Sun 92. Ceiling panels (50 a)
OPPENHEIM. St. Catherine's 244, PARASNATHA. Jaina temples 422
247, 249 PARIS. Arch of Triumph of the
ORANGE 108. Theatre 101 Carrousel 370, 371 ;
of 1'Etoile
ORCHOMENOS. Beehive tomb, 3?o, 37 1 (209). Bourse 371.
ceiling 47 Castel Beranger 392. Cathedral
ORISSA. Hindu temples, 422, 423, (Notre Dame) 193, 200, 201,

424 203, 204, 205, 253 (119, 120,

ORLEANS. Houses 322. Town 127) ; capital from (129 b) ;

hall (hotel de ville) 317 chapels 207, 208; early carving

ORLEANSVILLE 108 (117); grotesques 213; rose
ORVIETO. Cathedral 262, 264, 265 ;
windows 206, 215; size 209,
facade 265 236; west front 210, 231 (127).
 INDEX. 459

CHURCHES Chapel and Dome

: Bourbon (Corps Legislatif)
of the Invalides
328 (187) ; 371; Pal. de I'lndustrie 380;
Madeleine 370, 371 (210) Pan- ; palace and baths of Julian
theon 330, 370 (189, 190); 108; Pal. de Justice 372; Lou-
Sacre Coeur at Montmartre vre and Tuileries 219, 323,
381 ; Sainte Chapelle 188, 206, 324, 325, 326, 327, 370, 379,
228 (109, 124); capital from 380 (184, 213, 214) ; Luxem-
same (129 a) ;
Sorbonne 325; burg 325 (185); Pal. Royal
St. Augustin 379 ; Ste. Clothilde 329, 370. Pavilion Bleu at Ex-
379, 383 ; St. Iitienne du Mont, position of 1900 392. PLACES :

St. Eustache 318; St. Jean de (Squares) : de la Concorde

Belleville 379; St. Merri, St. 330, 331 Royale (now des
;

Severin 216; St. Paul-St. Louis Vosges) 324; Vendome 328.

325 ;
St. Roch 325 ;
St. Sulpice Railway stations (de 1'Est, du
325, 370 (188) ;
Vincent de
St. Nord, d'Orleans) 380. Sor-
Paul 372; Val-de-Grace 329. bonne church 325 new aca- ;

College Chaptal 378. Colon- demic buildings 382

nades of Garde-Meuble 370, PATRINGTON. Church 237
375. Column of July (Col- PAULINZELLE. Romanesque
onne de Corps
Juillet) 373. church 175
Legislatif (Palais Bourbon) PAVIA 157. Certosa 260, 266, 267,
371. cole des Beaux- Arts 364, 268, 283, 288 (157, 158).
378, 405; door of same (211) ; Church of S. Michele 158, 159
library 372 Ecole de Medecine,
; (92). Domical churches 283
new buildings 372. Exhibitions PEKING. Summer pavilion 429.
382; of 1900 382, 392, 393. Temple of Great Dragon 428.
Fountains Cuvier, Moliere, St. PERGAMON (Pergamus). Altar
Michel 380. Halles Centrales of Eumenes II. 68. Christian
378. H6tel-de-Ville (town buildings 1 18.

hall) 321; new buildings 381. PERIGUEUX. St. Front 166 (94,
HOTELS : C arnavalet (de 97)
Ligeris) 322, 329; de Cluny PEROOV. Temple 426
219; des Invalides 328; Lam- PERSEPOLIS 35, 145. Columns 36,
bert 329. House of Francis I. 37 (21). Hall of Xerxes 36,
(Maison Francois I.) 322. 37. Palaces 70
Library of Beaux-Arts 372; PERSIA 123. Moslem buildings
of Ste. Genevieve 372. Louvre 145, 156 (list 154). Sassauian
(see PALACES). Museum buildings 144, 145 (see also
(Musee) Gallicra (217). PERSEPOLIS)
Opera House (Nouvel Optra) PERTGIA. Oratory of S. Bernar-
380 (215). I'ALACES: Palai* dino 284. Town hall (Pal.
460 INDEX.

Communale 274. Roman gates POITIERS. Cathedral 200, 203, 208

88 POLA. Amphitheatre 91, 102
PETERBOROUGH. Cathedral 180, POMPEII. Amphitheatre 92.
224, 225 ; retro-choir 227 ; west Baths 86.Houses 73, 106, 107.
front 231, 232 House of Pansa (65). Thea-
PETRA. Necropolis 108 tre 101. Tombs 104. Wall
PHIGAL.EA (Bassae). Gate 45. paintings 87
Sculptures 58. Temple of PONPOSA. Campanile 163
Apollo Epicurus 67 PONT DU CARD. Bridge 107
PHILADEPHIA. Centennial Ex- PORTSMOUTH (N. H., U. S. A.).
hibition 405. Christ Church Sherburne (Warner) House
397 (223). Girard College 399
403. Independence Hall 400. PORTUGAL 360. Gothic monu-
Marine Exchange, Mint, 403. ments (list) 258. Renaissance
Municipal buildings 404 monuments (list) 361
PHILAE 108. Great Temple (of POTSDAM. St. Nicholas Church
Isis), peripteral temple 22 368
PIACENZA 157. Campanile 163 PRAGUE. Belvedere 347. Cathe-
(93). Cathedral 159 (93). dral 244, 246, 247, 249. Palace
Town hall 271 on Hradschin, Schloss Stern,
PIASTENSCHLOSS (at Brieg) 351 Waldstein palace 347
PIENZA 286. Pal. Piccolomini, PRATO. Churches 161, 298. Ma-
etc. 287 donna delle Carceri 283
PIERREFONDS. Chateau 219, 371 PRENTZLAU. Church 249
PIRAEUS. Arsenal 70 PRIEUE. Ionic Order 53 Pro- ;

PISA. Baptistery 161 (94). Ca- pylaea 70

thedral (Duomo) 161 (94,95). PROVENCE 165
Churches 115, 266; minor PROVINS. Houses 217
works of early Renaissance in PURI. Temples 422. Temple of
same 277, 286. Leaning Tower Jugganat 423
161, 164 (94). Sta. Maria della PURUDKUL. Rock-cut raths 427
Spina 269 PUY-EN-VELAY (see LE PUY)
PISTOIA. Campanile 270.
Churches 161. Podesta, Pal.
Communale 271. Sta. Maria RAGLAN. Castle 334
dell'Umilta 298 RAMESSEUM (Thebes). Tomb-
PITTSBURGH. Carnegie Building temple of Rameses II. 15, 19,

409. Carnegie Library 411. 21, 23, 24 (8)

County buildings 407 RAMISSERAM. Temple, corridors
PLAGNITZ. Castle 351 425, 426
PLASSENBURG. Castle 351 RATISBON (Regensburg). Ca-
 INDEX. 461

thedral 244, 246, 249. Town ("Minerva Medica") 122

hall 250. Walhalla368 note, 127; of Titus 86, 91, 99,
RAVENNA 114. Baptistery of St. 105. Bridges 107. Campaniles
John 126. Byzantine monu- 163; of Campidoglio (capitol)
ments (list) 134. Cathedral 310. Capitol 91 palaces on ;

308. Early Christian monu- same 304. Castle of St. Angelo

ments S.
118. Apollinare 104. CHURCHES : in general
Nuovo, Apollinare in Classe
S. ill, 298; church of Gesu 305;
115, 163, S. Vitale 117, 122, 127, Sistine Chapel of Vatican 293 ;

174 (73, 75) Sta. Agnese (basilica) 113;

REGGIO. Amphitheatre 91 (modern church) 308; S.
REIMS Cathedral 193, 200,
108. Agostino 291 ; S. Clemente
204, 205, 206, 208; portals 211, 114; Sta. Castanza ill (66);
212; size 209; towers 212; west St. John Lateran 113, 308, 310;
front 211, 216, 231 cloisters of same 285 S. Lo- ;

RHAMNUS. Themis temple 56 renzo 113, 114; S. Lorenzo in

note Miranda 93; S. Marco, porch
RIMINI. S. Francesco 282 290; Sta. Maria degli Angeli
ROCHESTER. Cathedral 229 100; Sta. Maria dell' Anima,
RODEZ. Cathedral 200, 214 tower 311; Sta. Maria Mag-
ROME. Ancient monuments (list) giore 113, 310; chapel of Six-
108. AMPHITHEATRES: Fla- tus V. in same 301 Sta. Ma- ;

vian (colosseum) 91, 92, 103, ria della Pace 295 Sta. Maria ;

290 (45, 62) ;

of Statilius Tau- del Popolo 291 Chigi chapel ;

rus 101. ARCHES: in general in same 298 tombs in same

;

76, 91, 102; of Constantine 81, 286; Sta. Maria della Vittoria
!O3 (63) ;
of Septimius Se- 308; Sta. Maria Sopra Minerva
vertis 103; of Titus 91, 103; of 261; St. Paul-beyond-the-
Trajan 97, 103. Atrium Vestae Walls 113, 285 (67, 68) ;
St.

106. BASILICAS general : in Peter's, original basilica 113;

76, 97; Basilica /Emilia 98; of existing church of 279, 280,
Constantine xxiii. 82, 98, 99 293, 294, 298, 303, 304, 328 (174,
(50 b. 58, 59) Julian 98; Sem-; 175, 176) ;
colonnade of same
pronian 98; of Trajan (or Ul- 300, 307, 375 ; sacristy of same
pian) 92, 97, 98 (57). (For 310; S. Pietro in Montorio,
early Christian basilicas see Tempietto in court of 293 S. ;

churches.) BATHS (Thermae) : Stefano Rotondo 136. Circus

in general 76, 92, 98 of ;
of Caligula and Nero 102, 113;
Agrippa 91, 99; of Caracalla Circus Maximus 102. Cloaca
87, 92, 100 (60) of Diocle-
;
Maxima 82, 90. Colosseum or
tian 92, 100; of Gallic-tins Flavian Amphitheatre (see
462 INDEX.

AMPHITHEATRES). COLUMNS: Braccio Nuovo 295, 310, 373;

of Marcus Aurelius 103 of ;
Casino del gardens Papa in

Trajan 97, 103. Early Chris- 297 Court of S. Damaso 295

; ;

tian monuments in; list of Giardino della Pigna 104; Li-

same n& FORA: in general brary 295 Loggie 294; note,
96; of Augustus 91, 96; of 295 Scala Reggia 310.
;
Pa-
Julius, Nerva, Vespasian 96 ; lazzo di Venezia 290. Pan-
Forum Romanum (or Mag- theon 83, 91, 92, 94, 96, 99, 113,
num) 96, 98, 103; of Trajan 118, 122, 124, 127, 131, 310, 373
96, 97,98 (57). FOUNTAINS: (54 55. 56). Pons /Elius
Fonte (or Acqua) Felice, (Ponte S. Angelo) 107. Porta
Fonte (or Acqua) Paolina Maggiore 108. Portico of
309; Fountain of Trevi 309, Octavia 91. Septa Julia 91.
310. HOUSES : in general 104, Septizonium 105. TEMPLES :

106, 107; of Vestals (Atrium of Castor and Pollux (Dios-

Vestse) 94, 106; of Livia (or curi) 85, 91, 93 (44) of Con- ;

Germanicus) 106. Lateran, cord 93 of Faustina 93

;
of ;

carved ornament from Museum Fortuna Virilis 89, 90, 93 (51) ;

" "
of (49) ;palace of 304. Mau- of Hercules or Vesta 90 ;

soleum of Augustus, of Ha- of Julius 93 of Jupiter Capito-

;

drian 104. Minor works of linus 69, 89, 91 of Jupiter ;

Renaissance in Rome 291. Stator so-called (see T. of

Monument of Victor Emman- Castor and Pollux) ;
of Jupiter
uel 391. Museo delle Terme, Tonans 91 of Mars Ultor 91
; ;

"
paintings 107. National Mu- of "Minerva Medica (Baths
seum 391. PALACES (ancient) : of Gallienus) 122 note, 127; of
of Caesars on Palatine 86, Peace 98; of Trajan 97; of
91, 104; of Nero (Golden Venus and Rome 94 (53) of ;

House) 91, 99, 105; Septi- Vesta in Forum 94; of "Vesta"

zonium PALACES (Renais-
105. or Hercules 90. THEATRES :

sance) general 296; Al-

: in in general 100; of Marcellus

temps 296; Barberini 309, 310; 91, 101 (42) ;

of Mummius
of Capitol 304; Cancelleria 100; of Pompey 101. TOMBS:
294, 296; Corsini 310; Farncse 86,104; of Augustus, of Caius
296, 304 (172, 173) ;
Farnesina Sextius, of Cecilia Metella, of
296; Giraud 294 (171) ; Laute, Hadrian 104; of Helena 118.

Massimi, Palma 296; Lateran, VILLAS: in general 105, 107,

Quirinal 304; Sacchetti 296; 297 ; Albani, Borghese 309 ;

Sapienza (University) 305. Lante, Madama, Medici, Pia,

VATICAN: Belvedere (greater Pope Julius 297
and lesser courts of) 295; ROSENROKG. Castle 344
 INDEX. 463

ROSHEIM. Church fagade 177 SAMOS. Gate 45

ROTHENBURG. Town hall 352 SANCHI. Brahman temple 419.
ROUEN 316. Cathedral 195, 200, Tope 418
204, 208; open gable (130); SAN GOLGANO. Abbey ruins 260
rose windows 215 ; size of 209; SAN ILDEFONSO. Palace 360
west front 210. Hotel Bourg- SARAGOSSA. Casa de Zaporte 357
theroude 322. Palais de Justice (203)
217. St. Maclou 216. St. SAXONY 175
Ouen 216, 383; rose window SCHALABURG. Castle 347
from same (215) SCHETTSTADT. Cathedral 244
ROUHEIHA. Early Christian SCHLOSS HAMELSCHENBURG 348,
church 116 352 (198)
ROYAL DOMAIN 167 SCHLOSS PORZIA at Spital 346
RUANWALLI. Topes 418 SCHLOSS STERN at Prague 347
RUE. Chapel of St. Esprit 216 SCHWARZ-RHEINDORF. Church 176
RUSSIA 374. Byzantine monu- SCHWEINFURTH. Town hail 352
ments 134 SciNDE 146
SECUNDRA. Tomb of Akbar 148
SEDINGA. Hathoric columns 24
SADRI.Temple 421 SEEZ. Cathedral 200
SAKKARAH. Pyramid 8 SEGOVIA. Cathedral 193, 254, 356.
SALAMANCA. Casa de las Conchas Church of S. Millan, of Temp-
357. Cathedral (old) 182,253; lars 182

(new) 254, 356. Collegio de SELINUS. Temples 49, 56 note;

las Irlandeses 358. Monastery northern temple 62 Zeus tem-
;

of S. Girolamo 356. S. Domin- ple 62

go 356. University 357 portal ;
SEMNEH. Pavilion 26
of same (202) SENLIS. Cathedral 200, 203, 212
SALISBURY. Cathedral 224, 225, SENS. Archbishop's palace 322.
229, 233 (132) ; chapter house Cathedral 206, 209, 223
228 (137); cloister (137); SERBISTAN. Sassanian buildings
spire 232, 233, 237 ; transepts 144
235 west front 232.
; Market SERINGHAM. Temple 426
cross 239 SEVILLE 141. Alcazar 142, 143.
SALONICA. Church of St. George Casa de Pilato (House of Pi-
118. Other monuments (list) late) 142, 358. Cathedral 248,
134 254, 262, 359. Giralda 142, 143,
SALSETTE. Viharas 420 359
SALZBURG. Church of St. Fran- SFAX. Mosques 140
cis 246 SHF.PREE.Pathan arches 148
SAMARKHAND 146 SMERBURNE. Church vaulting 227
464 INDEX.

SHREWSBURY. Abbey 180 dral) 200, 201, 203, 205, 206

SICILY 62. Moslem buildings 144, (123) ;
tomb of Louis XII. in
162 same 322 of Francis I. 323 ;

SIDON. Sarcophagi from 68 ST. GERMAIN-EN-LAYE. Chateau

SIENNA. Brick houses 272. Cam- 319; royal chapel in same 207
panile 270. Cathedral (Duomo) ST. GILLES (near Aries). Church
261, 264, 265, 266 (155) ;
west 167
front 265 Loggia del
(155). ST.Louis (Mo., U. S. A.) Union .

Papa 286. Minor works 277, Trust Building 409. Washing-

286. PALACES Buonsignori
: ton University 413
272; Del Governo, Piccolomini, ST. PAUL (Minn., U. S. A.).
Spannocchi 286; Grotanelli Minnesota State Capitol 413
272; Pal. Pubblico 271; Sara- ST. PETERSBURG 374, 375. Ad-
ceni 272. Renaissance churches miralty 375. Cathedral of St.
298. S. Giovanni in Fonte Isaac 375 (212). CHURCHES:
264 of the Citadel, of the Greek
SILCHESTER. Roman villa 108 Rite 374; of Our Lady of Ka-
SILSILEH. Grotto temple 22 zan 375. New Museum, Palace
SIVAS. Ruins in 148 of Grand Duke Michael 375.
SOISSONS Cathedral 200, 203, 206, Smolnoy Monastery 377
208, 248 ST. REMY 108. Tombs 104
SOMNATH. Jaina temple 421 STABILE 92
SOMNATHPUR. Temples 424 STENDAL. Cathedral 245
SOUTHWELL. Minster 180; carv- STOCKHOLM. Palace 344
ing from same (118) STRASBURG. Cathedral 248 pul- ;

SPAIN 141, 355. Gothic monu- pit in same (116) spire of ;

ments (list) 257. Romanesque same 243, 245, 246, 248. Uni-
churches 181, 182 versity buildings 384
SPALATO. Palace of Diocletian STUTTGART. Old Castle 351.
92, 105, 114 (64) Technical School 384
SPITAL. Schloss Porzia 347 STYRIA 347
SPIRES (Speyer). Cathedral 176 SULLY. Chateau 323
(103) SULTANIYEH. Tomb 145
ST. ALBAN'S. Tombs, etc., in SUNIUM. PropyL-ea 70
Abbey 239 SUSA 145. Palaces 35, 38
ST.AUGUSTINE. Fort Marion (S. SYRACUSE. Theatre 71
Marco) 400. Hotel Ponce de SYRIA 92, 114, 122. Early Chris-
Leon 412. Cathedral 400 tian churches 115, 116, 117; list
ST. BENOIT - SUR - LOIRE. Ante- of same 1 19
church 179
ST. DENIS. Abbey (now cathe- TABRIZ. Ruined mosque 145
 INDEX. 465

TAFKHAH. Early Christian TOULOUSE. Cathedral 207, 214.

church 116 Church of St. Sernin 167, 204
TAKT-I-BAHI. Monastery 419 (too). Houses 323
TANGERMUNDE. Church 249 TOURNAY. Cathedral 193, 251 ;

TANJORE. Great temple 426. rood-screen in same 342

Palaces 427. Shrine of Sou- TOURS 316. Cathedral 200, 208,
bramanya 426 (235) 2ll tomb of children of
;

TARPUTRY. Gopura 426 Charles VIII. in same 316;

TEBESSA 108 towers of same 319; west front
TEHERAN 146 of same 216
TEL-EL-AMARNA 27 TRACSNITZ. Castle 350
TELMISSUS. Tomb 39 TREVES (Trier). Cathedral 177.
TEWKESBURY. Abbey 180, 226 Frauenkirche (Liebfraucn-
d35) kirche. Church of Our Lady)
THEBES. Amenopheum 15. Ram- 193, 247, 248 (147). Porta
esseum 15 (8) Nigra 108
THIBET. Lamaseries 429 TROY 44
43,
THORICUS. Gate 45. Stoa Diple TROYES. Cathedral 200, 204, 208 ;

70 fac,ade 216; size of same 209;

TIBUR. See TIVOLI west portals 211. Ste. Made-
TlMGAD IO8 leine 216. St. Urbain 215
TINNEVELLY. Dravidian templesTRUNCH. Church ceiling 238
426 TUCSON. Church 360
TIRUVALUR. Dravidian temples TUPARAMAYA. Topes 418
426 TURIN. Church of La Superga
TIRYNS 43, 44, 45, 47 373
TIVOLI. Circular temple 90, 366 TURKEY 149. Monuments (list)
154
TI.EMCEN. Mosques 140 TUSCULUM. Amphitheatre 92
TODI. Madonna della Consola- TYROL 346, 347
zione 298
UDAIPUR (near Bhilsa). Hindu
TOKIO. Great Palace 430
TOLEDO temples 424
141. Archbishop's Palace
Ui M. Cathedral (Minster) 243,
358. Cathedral 193, 253. Gate
244, 248; spire of same 246
of S. Martino 358. Hospital of T
I R 30
Sta. Cruz 356. S. Juan de los
URIUNO. Ducal palace 291
Reyes 256
UTRECHT. Cathedral 249
TONNERRE. Hospital 217
TORCELI.O. Campanile 163 VALENCIA 141. Cathedral 254
TORGAT. Ilartcnfels Castle 350 VALLADOLID. Cathedral 358. S.
TOKO. Collegiate church 182 Gregorio, portal (151)
466 INDEX.

VELLORE. Gopnra 426 Canossa 305 del Consiglio ;

VENDOME. Cathedral, portal 211 291 Pompei, Verzi 305. Tombs ;

VENETIA 157, 267, 311 of Scaligers 269

VENICE 305. Gothic style in 260, VERSAILLES. Palace 326. Petit
272, 273 tracery 268.
;
Cam- Trianon 370
paniles 163 ;
of St. Mark, of S. VEZELAY. Abbey church 168, 170,
Giorgio Maggiore 311. 179, 201, 206
CHURCHES Frari S. M. (Glo- VICENZA 305, 306.
: Basilica 306.
riosa dei Frari) 261 ;
Reden- PALACES : in
general 288, 305 ;

tore 304; S. Giobbe 289; S. Barbarano, Chieregati, Prefet-

Giorgio dei Grechi 298 ;
S. izzio, Tiene, Valmarano 306.
Giorgio Maggiore 304, 311 ;
SS. Villa Capra 306, 336
Giovanni e Paolo 261 ;
Sta. VIENNA 354, 355, 385. Arsenal
Maria Formosa 298; S. M. dei at Wiener Neustadt 347. Burg-
Miracoli 288, 289; S. M. della theater 384. Cathedral (St.
Salute 308 (179); St. Mark's Stephen) 244, 245, 246,250;
132, 164, 273, 289 (79, 80) Li- ; spire of same 245. Church of
brary of same 305 (177) S. ;
St. Charles Borromeo 367. Im-
Salvatore 298 S. Zaccaria 288.
; perial Library 354. Imperial
Doge's Palace 273, 289 (162). Palace, portal 347. Museums
Minor works 291. PALACES :
384. Opera house 384. Pal-
in general 273, 289; Ca d'Oro, aces 354. Parliament House
Cavalli, Contarini-Fasan 273 ; (Reichsrathsgebaude) 369, 384.
Cornaro (Corner de Ca Residence block (Maria-There-
Grande) 305; Dario 290; Du- sienhof) 386 (219). Sta. Ma-
cale (Doge's Palace) 273, 289 ria in Gestade 250. Town hall

(162); Foscari 273; Grimani 386. University 384, 386. Vo-

305; Pesaro 309; Pisano 273; tiv-Kirche 383
Rezzonico Vendramini VlJAYANAGAR. Palace 427
309;
(Vendramin-Calergi) 290 VINCENNES. Royal chapel 207
(170) ; Zorzi, capital from VITERBO. Fountains 309. Houses
(163). Scuola di S. Marco 272. Town hall (Pal. Com-
288 munale) 271. Villa Lante 297
VEKCELLI. S. Andrea 261, 268 VOLTERRA. (Volaterrre). Gate
VEKNEUIL. Chateau 323
VERONA 157, 163. Amphitheatre
91, 102. Campanile 163, 270.
Church of Sta. Anastasia 261, WALTHAM. Abbey 180. Elea-
263; of S. Zcno 159, 1 60, 163, nor's Cross 239
177. Gates 305. PALACES: WARFIELU. St. Michael's, win-
in general 288; Bcvilacqua, dow (114)
 INDEX. 467
WARKA (Erech). Palace ter- WINDSOR. St. George's Chapel
races 31 227,231, 238 (138)
WARTBURG. Castle 178 WISMAR. Castle (Fiirstenhof)
WASHINGTON (D. C, U. S. A.). 350. City Gates 250
Capitol 401, 404 (225)
403, ;
WOBURN. Public Library (228)
dome 403. Congressional Li- WOLLATON HALL 335
brary 412, 414. Patent Office WOLFENBUTTEL. Marieiikirche
402. State, Army and Navy 352
Building 404. Treasury 402. WOLTERTON. Castle 334
White House 402 WORANGUL. Kurti Stambha 425
WELLS. Cathedral 226, 230, 236; WORCESTER. Cathedral 236
chapter house 228 (136) ;
west WORMS. Minster (cathedral) 176
front 232 (102)
WESTMINSTER. See LONDON WURZBURG. University Church
WESTONZOYLAND. Ceiling of St. 353
Mary's (143)
WESTOVER. House 398 XANTEN. Church 247
WEST POINT (N. Y., U. S. A.). XANTHUS. Nereid monument 72
Military Academy 413
WIENER-NEUSTADT. See VIENNA YORK. Cathedral 105, 229, 231 ;

WILLIAM SBURG (Va., U. S. A.). chapter house 228; minor works

Town hall 397 in 229; tower 232; west front
WILTON HOUSE 337 231
WINCHESTER. Cathedral 180, 224, YPRES. Cloth hall 252
226, 230, 233 (106) tombs, etc.,
;

in same 239. Market Cross ZURICH. Polytechnic School 384

239 ZWETTL. Abbey 245, 246, 247
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