UNIT–I : NUMBER SYSTEMS

CHAPTER-1
REAL NUMBERS
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
Concepts Covered  Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:

Topic-1 For any two positive integers a and b,

We have HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b) = a × b
a× b a× b
or HCF (a, b) = or LCM (a, b) =
LCM ( a , b) HCF ( a , b)

Revision Notes
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
Every composite number can be expressed as a product of primes and this factorisation is unique, apart from the

order in which the prime factors occur. Fundamental theorem of arithmetic is also called a Unique Factorization
Theorem.
Composite number = Product of prime numbers

Or
Any integer greater than 1 can either be a prime numbers or can be written as a unique product of prime

numbers. e.g.,
(i) 2 × 11 = 22 is the same as 11 × 2 = 22.

(ii) 6 can be written as 2 × 3 or 3 × 2, where 2 and 3 are prime numbers.
(iii) 15 can be written as 3 × 5 or 5 × 3, where 3 and 5 are prime numbers.

The prime factorization of a natural number is unique, except to the order of its factors.

e.g., 12 detained by multiplying the prime numbers 2, 2 and 3 together,

12 = 2 × 2 × 3

We would probably write it as

12 = 22 × 3

By using Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, we shall find the HCF and LCM of given numbers (two or more).
This method is also called Prime Factorization Method.

Prime Factorization Method to find HCF and LCM:
(i) Find all the prime factors of given numbers.

(ii) HCF of two or more numbers = Product of the smallest power of each common prime factor, involved in the

numbers.
(iii) LCM of two or more numbers = Product of the greatest power of each prime factor, involved in the numbers.

Key Words
Highest Common Factor (HCF): The HCF of two or more numbers is the highest number among all the
common factors of the given numbers.
Prime Numbers: A number that can be divided exactly only by itself and 1.

Fundamental Facts
(1) The Euclidean algorithm is useful for reducing a common fraction to lowest terms.
714 51 × 14 14
For example: = = .
765 51 × 15 15

(2) The concept of LCM is important to solve problem related to racetracks, traffic light etc.
(3) In Mathematics problem, where we pair two objects against each other, the LCM value is useful in optimizing
the quantities of the given objects.

 2 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

Example
Find the LCM of 40, 36 and 126 by applying the prime factorization method.

Step 1. Factorise each of the given positive integers such as:

40 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5

36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3

and 126 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 7


Step 2. Express them as a product of powers of primes in ascending order of magnitudes of primes:

40 = 23 × 5, 36 = 22 × 32 and 126 = 2 × 32 × 7

Step 3. To find LCM, list all prime factors of 40, 36 and 126 with their greatest exponents as:

\ LCM = 23 × 32 × 5 × 7


=8×9×5×7

= 2520.

Mnemonics
Concept: Euclid's Division Lemma (a = bq + r)
Mnemonics: Alibaba's best product quotation is assent reward.
Interpretation:
Alibaba's A = a
best B = b
quotation Q = q
assets A = addition of bq and r
reward R = r
Then a = b × q + r.

Irrational Numbers
Topic-2
Concepts Covered  Rational & Irrational Numbers.

Revision Notes
p
Rational Numbers: A number in the form , where p and q are co-prime numbers and q ≠ 0, is known as
q
rational number.
3 2
For example: 2, – 3, , − , etc. are rational numbers.
7 5

p
Irrational Numbers: A number is called irrational if it cannot be written in the form q , where p and q are integers

and q ≠ 0. For example, 2 , 3 , 5 , π are irrational numbers.

Let p be a prime number. If p divides a2, then p divides a, where a is a positive integer.
The sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is irrational.
The product and quotient of a non-zero rational and an irrational number is irrational.

Key Words
Co-Prime Numbers: Co-prime numbers are those numbers that have only one common
factor. For example: 3 and 5, 11 and 13 etc.

Fundamental Facts
(1) The discovery of irrational numbers is usually attributed to Pythagoras, more specifically to
the Pythagorean Hippasus of metapontum who produced a proof of the irrationality of 2 .
(2) Irrational number are numbers that cannot be expressed as the ratio of two whole numbers.

 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 3

Example
Show that 2 3 + 7 is an irrational number.

a
Step 1. Let 2 3 + 7 be a rational number. Since, a rational number can be expressed as , where
b

b ≠ 0 and a & b are integers.
a
Step 2. Then 2 3 +7 =
b

a
or 2 3 = −7
b


1a 
or 3 = −7
2  b 


Here, L.H.S. = 3 is an irrational.

1a 
But, R.H.S. = − 7  is a rational.
2  b 

So, it is not possible.

Step 3. Hence, our assumption that 2 3 + 7 is a rational is incorrect.

Hence, 2 3 + 7 is an irrational number.

UNIT–II : ALGEBRA
CHAPTER-2
POLYNOMIALS

Revision Notes
Polynomial: An algebraic expression in the form of anxn + an–1xn–1 +.........+ a2x2+a1x + a0, (where n is a whole
number and a0, a1, a2, ........., an are real numbers) is called a polynomial in one variable x of degree n.
Value of a Polynomial at a given point: If p(x) is a polynomial in x and ‘α’ is any real number, then the value
obtained by putting x = α in p(x), is called the value of p(x) at x = α.
Zero of a Polynomial: A real number k is said to be a zero of a polynomial p(x), if p(k) = 0.
Geometrically, the zeroes of a polynomial p(x) are precisely the X-coordinates of the points, where the graph of y
= p(x) intersects the X-axis.
(i) A linear polynomial has one and only one zero.
(ii) A quadratic polynomial has at most two zeroes.
(iii) A cubic polynomial has at most three zeroes.
(iv) In general, a polynomial of degree n has at most n zeroes.
Graphs of Different types of Polynomials:
Linear Polynomial: The graph of a linear polynomial p(x) = ax + b is a straight line that intersects X-axis at
l
one point only.
Quadratic Polynomial: (i) Graph of a quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c is a parabola which opens
l
upwards, if a > 0 and intersects X-axis at a maximum of two distinct points.
(ii) Graph of a quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c is a parabola which opens downwards, if a < 0 and

  
intersects X-axis at a maximum of two distinct points.
Cubic polynomial: Graph of cubic polynomial p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d intersects X-axis at a maximum of three
l
distinct points.
 4 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

Relationship between the Zeroes and the Coefficients of a Polynomial:

(i) Zero of a linear polynomial

(-1)1 Constant term

=
Coefficient of x

−b
If ax + b is a given linear polynomial, then zero of linear polynomial is
a
(ii) In a quadratic polynomial,
Sum of zeroes of a quadratic polynomial

(-1)1 Coefficient of x
=
Coefficient of x 2

Product of zeroes of a quadratic polynomial

(-1)2 Constant term
=
Coefficient of x 2

∴If α and b are the zeroes of a quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c, then

b c
α+ = − and α =
a a

β
β
(iii) If α, and γ are the zeroes of a cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then
β
b b c c d d
α+ + γ = (–1)1
= – , α + γ + γα = (–1)2 = and α γ = (–1)3 =–
a a a a a a

β
β
β
β
Discriminant of a Quadratic Polynomial: For f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 0, b2 – 4ac is called its discriminant D.
The discriminant D determines the nature of roots/zeroes of a quadratic polynomial.
Case I: If D > 0, graph of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c will intersect the X-axis at two distinct points, x-coordinates of points
of intersection with X-axis is known as ‘zeroes’ of f (x).

∴ f (x) will have two zeroes and we can say that roots/zeroes of the two given polynomials are real and unequal.
Case II: If D = 0, graph of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c will touch the X-axis at one point only.

∴ f (x) will have only one ‘zero’ and we can say that roots/zeroes of the given polynomial are real and equal.
Case III: If D < 0, graph of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c will neither touch nor intersect the X-axis.
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 5

∴ f (x) will not have any real zero.

Key Words
Distinct: The term distinct number is used to refer to a number in a set that is not equal to another number.
Graph: A diagram that represents the variation of a variable in comparison with that of one or more other
variables.
Polynomial: An expression of more than two algebraic terms, especially the sum of several terms that
contain different powers of the same variable(s).

Key Formulae
 Relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients of a Polynomial:
S. Type of Maximum
General form Relationship between zeroes and coefficients
No. polynomial Number of zeroes

b
1. Linear ax + b, where a ≠ 0 1 k =– , i.e., k = - Constant term
a Coefficient of x
2. Quadratic ax2 + bx + c, where 2 Sum of zeroes,
a≠0 - Coefficient of x b
(α + ) = =–
Coefficient of x 2 a
β
Product of zeroes,
Constant term c
(α ) = =
Coefficient of x 2 a
β
3. Cubic ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, 3 Sum of zeroes,
where a ≠ 0
-Coefficient of x 2 b
(α + + γ) = 3
=–
Coefficient of x a
β
Product of sum of zeroes taken two at a time,
Coefficient of x c
(α + γ + γα) = =
3 a
β
β
Coefficient of x
Product of zeroes,
- Constant term d
(α γ) = =–
Coefficient of x 3 a
β
6 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

Fundamental Facts
(1) Polynomial are also an essential tool in
describing and predicting traffic patterns so
appropriate traffic control measures, such as
traffic lights, can be implemented.
(2) Economists use polynomials to model
economic growth patterns, and medical
researchers used them to describe the
behaviour of bacterial colonies.

Mnemonics
c
Concept: .b =
a
a
Mnemonics: Amitabh Bachchan went
Canada by aeroplane.
Interpretation:
Amitabh’s A ⇒ Alpha (a)
Bachchan's B ⇒ Beta (b)
Canada’s C ⇒ Constant (c)
By for Divide by and aeroplane’s a
⇒ Variable.

Example 1

If (x + a) is a factor of 2x2 + 2ax + 5x + 10, then find a. Also find its zeroes.

Solution: Let p(x) = 2x2 + 2ax + 5x + 10

Step 1. If (x + a) is a factor of p(x), then – a is a zero of p(x).

p (– a) = 0

\

Step 2. Putting x = – a in p(x), we get 2(–a)2 + 2a(–a) + 5(–a) + 10 = 0

⇒ 2a2 – 2a2 – 5a + 10 = 0


⇒ 5a = 10


⇒ a = 2.


Step 3. Putting the value of a = 2 in p(x),

p(x) = 2x2 + 4x + 5x + 10

= 2x(x + 2) + 5(x + 2)

= (x + 2)(2x + 5)

Step 4. For finding zero, we get, p(x) = 0

(x + 2)(2x + 5) = 0

\

Either, x+2=0⇒x=–2

5
or, 2x + 5 = 0 ⇒ x = − .
2


5
Hence, – 2 and − are zeroes of p(x).
2

 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 7

CHAPTER-3
PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES
Graphical Solution of Linear Equations in two
variables
Topic-1 Concepts Covered  To Solve the equations by graphical method.
 Possibilities of solutions and consistency/inconsistency.
 Conditions of unique solution/infinite number of solutions/ no Solutions.

Revision Notes
Linear equation in two variables: An equation in the form of ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers
and a and b are not zero, is called a linear equation in two variables x and y.
General form of a pair of linear equations in two variables is:

a1x + b1y + c1 = 0

and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0,
where a1, a2, b1, b2, c1 and c2 are real numbers, such that

a1, b1 ≠ 0 and a2, b2 ≠ 0.
e.g., 3x – y + 7 = 0,
and 7x + y = 3
are linear equations in two variables x and y.

There are two methods of solving simultaneous linear equations in two variables:

(i) Graphical method, and
(ii) Algebraic methods.
1. Graphical Method:
(i) Express one variable (say y) in terms of the other variable x, y = ax + b, for the given equation.
(ii) Take at least two values of independent variable x and find the corresponding values of dependent variable y,
take integral values only.
(iii) Plot these values on the graph paper in order to represent these equation.
(iv) If the lines intersect at a distinct point, then point of intersection will be the unique solution for given
equations. In this case, the pair of linear equations is consistent.
a1 b1
If ≠ , then the pair of linear equations is consistent with a unique solution.
a 2 b2

Intersecting Lines
(v) If the lines representing the linear equations coincides, then system of equations has infinitely many
solutions. In this case, the pair of linear equations is consistent and dependent.
a b c
If 1 = 1 = 1 , then the pair of linear equations is consistent with infinitely many solutions.
a 2 b2 c 2

 8 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

Coincident Lines
(vi) If the lines representing the pair of linear equations are parallel, then the system of equations has no solution
and is called inconsistent.
a b c
If 1 = 1 ≠ 1 , then the pair of linear equations is inconsistent with no solution.
a 2 b2 c 2

Parallel Lines
Possibilities of solutions and Inconsistency:

a1 b1 c1 Compare the Graphical Algebraic Conditions for

Pair of lines
a2 b2 c2 ratios representation interpretation solvability

1 -2 0 a1 b1 Exactly one
x – 2y = 0 ≠ Intersecting System is
3 -4 -20 a 2 b2 solution or
3x – 4y – 20 = 0 lines consistent
Unique solution

2x + 3y – 9 = 0 2 3 -9 a1 b1 c1 Coincident
= = Infinitely many System is
4 6 -18 a 2 b2 c 2
4x + 6y – 18 = 0 lines solutions consistent

x + 2y – 4 = 0 1 2 -4 a1 b1 c1 Parallel System is
= ≠ No solution
2x + 4y – 12 = 0 2 4 -12 a 2 b2 c 2 lines inconsistent

Key Words
Variable: A quantity that may assume any one of a set of values.
Equation: An equation is a formula that expresses the equality of two expressions by connecting them
with equal sign.
Solution: Process of solving a problem.

Fundamental Facts
(1) A linear equation in two variable is represented geometrically by a line whose points make up the
collection of solutions of the equation.
(2) To graph a linear equations in two variables by plotting the points.
(3) In case of two variables, each solution may be interpreted as the cartesian coordinates of a point of the
Euclidean plane.
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 9

Key Formulae
If a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 is a pair of linear equations in two variables x and y such
that:
(i) System has unique solution
a1 b
if ≠ 1
a2 b2

(ii) System has infinite number of solutions
a1 b1 c1
if = =
a2 b2 c2

(iii) System has no solution
a1 b1 c1
if = ≠
a2 b2 c 2

Fundamental
Facts
Concept: Algebra Methods
a1 b1
System has unique solution ≠
a 2 b2

Mnemonics: For unique feature Audi A1 and A2 are not same as BMW B1 and B2
Interpretations:
A1 = a1

A2 = a2

B1 = b1

B2 = b2

Algebraic Methods to Solve Pair of Linear
Equations
Topic-2 Concept Covered  Solve the linear equation algebraically by Substitution and
Elimination method.
 To solving word problems.

Revision Notes
Algebraic Method: We can solve the linear equations algebraically by substitution method and elimination
method.
1. Substitution Method:
(i) Find the value of one variable (say y) in terms of the other variable i.e., x from either of the equations.

(ii) Substitute this value of y in other equation and reduce it to an equation in one variable.

(iii) Solve the equation so obtained and find the value of x.

(iv) Put this value of x in one of the equations to get the value of variable y.

2. Elimination Method:
(i) Multiply given equations with suitable constants, make either the x-coefficients or the y-coefficients of the

two equations equal.
(ii) Subtract or add one equation from the other to get an equation in one variable.

(iii) Solve the equation so obtained to get the value of the variable.

(iv) Put this value in any one of the equation to get the value of the second variable.

 10 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

Note:

(a) If in step (ii), we obtain a true equation involving no variable, then the original pair of equations has

infinitely many solutions.
(b) If in step (ii), we obtain a false equation involving no variable, then the original pair of equations has no

solution i.e., it is inconsistent.
Steps to be followed for solving word problems
S. No. Problem type Steps to be followed
1. Age Problems If the problem involves finding out the ages of two persons, take the present
age of one person as x and of the other as y. Then, ‘a’ years ago, age of 1st
person was ‘x – a’ years and that of 2nd person was ‘y – a’ and after ‘b’ years,
age of 1st person will be ‘x + b’ years and that of 2nd person will be ‘y + b’ years.
Formulate the equations and then solve them.
2. Problems based on Let the digit in unit’s place be x and that in ten’s place be y. The two-digit
Numbers and Digits number is given by 10y + x. On interchanging the positions of the digits, the
digit in unit’s place becomes y and in ten’s place becomes x. The two digit
number becomes 10x + y.
Formulate the equations and then solve them.
3. Problems based on Let the numerator of the fraction be x and denominator be y, then the fraction
Fractions is x .
y
Formulate the linear equations on the basis of conditions given and solve for x
and y to get the value of the fraction.
4. Problems based on Distance
Distance, Speed and Speed = Time
Time
Distance
or Distance = Speed × Time and Time = .
Speed

To solve the problems related to speed of boat going downstream and upstream,
let the speed of boat in still water be x km/h and speed of stream be y km/h. Then,
the speed of boat in downstream = (x + y) km/h and speed of boat in upstream
= (x – y) km/h.
5. Problems based For solving specific questions based on commercial mathematics,
on commercial To the fare of 1 full ticket may be taken as ` x and the reservation charges
l
Mathematics may be taken as ` y, so that one full fare = x + y and one half fare
x
= + y.
2

To solve the questions of profit and loss, take the cost price of 1st article as
l
` x and that of 2nd article as ` y.
To solve the questions based on simple interest, take the amount invested
l
as ` x at some rate of interest and ` y at some other rate of interest as per
given in question.
6. Problems based Make use of angle sum property of a triangle (∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180°) in
l
on Geometry and case of a triangle.
Mensuration In case of a parallelogram, opposite angles are equal and in case of a cyclic
l
quadrilateral, opposite angles are supplementary.

Fundamental Facts
(1) Algebraic expressions are the mathematical equations consisting of variables, constants,
terms and coefficients.
(2) An equation is a statement indicating that two algebraic expressions are equal.
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 11

CHAPTER-4
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Revision Notes
Solution of Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation in variable x is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
The values of x that satisfy the equation are called the solutions or roots or zeros of the equation.
A real number a is said to be a solution/root or zero of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, if aa2 + ba + c = 0.
A quadratic equation can be solved by the following algebraic methods:
(i) By factorization (splitting the middle term),
(ii) Making perfect squares and
(iii) Using quadratic formula.
If ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0 can be reduced to the product of two linear factors, then the roots of the quadratic
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be found by equating each factor to zero.
Method for factorization of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0.
(i) Find the product of a and c i.e., “ac”
(ii) Find a pair of numbers b1 and b2 whose product is “ac”and whose sum is “b” (if you can’t find such number, it
can’t be factorized).
(iii) Split the middle term using b1 and b2, that expresses the term bx as b1x ± b2x. Now factorize, by grouping the
pairs of terms.
Roots of the quadratic equation can be found by equating each linear factor to zero. Since, product of two numbers
is zero, then either or both of them are zero.
Key Words
Equation: The process of equating one thing with another.
Quadratic: The term quadratic describes something that pertains to squares, to the operation of squaring, to
terms of second degree etc.
Roots: A solution to an equation, usually expressed as a number or an algebraic.
Solution of a Quadratic equation using Quadratic formula
The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0; a ≠ 0 can be find using the following formula:
-b ± b 2 - 4 ac
x= 2a

The above result is known as quadratic formula or Sridharacharya Formula.
Here, b2 – 4ac ≥ 0, for real roots.
The Old-Babylonians (400 BC) stated and solved problems involving quadratic equations.
The Greek mathematician Euclid developed a geometrical approach for finding out roots, which are solutions of
quadratic equations.
Brahmagupta (C.E. 598-665) gave an explicit formula to solve a quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Sridharacharya (C.E. 1025) derived the quadratic formula for solving a quadratic equation by the method of
completing the perfect square.
An Arab mathematician Al-Khwarizmi (about C.E. 800) studied quadratic equations of different types.
Abraham bar Hiyya Ha-nasi, in his book ‘Liber Embadorum’ published in Europe in C.E. 1145 gave complete solutions
of different quadratic equations.
Discriminant and Nature of Roots
For the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, the expression b2 – 4ac is known as discriminant i.e., Discriminant D =
b2 – 4ac.
Nature of roots of a quadratic equation:
(i) If b2 – 4ac > 0, the quadratic equation has two distinct real roots.
(ii) If b2 – 4ac = 0, the quadratic equation has two equal real roots.
(iii) If b2 – 4ac < 0, the quadratic equation has no real roots.
 12 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

Fundamental Facts
(1) Quadratic equations are second order polynomials. This means that the highest power of the variable is two.
(2) Many physical and mathematical problems are in the form of quadratic equations.
(3) An equation in the form of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is called as a quadratic equation. It has two roots. Both of them
may be real, equal or imaginary.

- b + b 2 - 4 ac - b - b 2 - 4 ac
The real roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0 are and , where b2 – 4ac > 0.
2a 2a

-b -b
Roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0 are and , where b2 – 4ac = 0
2a 2a
Quadratic identities:
(i) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

(ii) (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2

(iii) a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b)

Discriminant D = b2 – 4ac.

Example 1
Solve 6x2 – 23x – 35 = 0 by quadratic formula.

Step 1. Given: 6x2 – 23x – 35 = 0

Comparing with ax2 + bx + c = 0, we get a = 6, b = – 23 and c = – 35

Step 2. Take formula.

−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x=
2a

Step 3. Putting the values of a, b, and c.

( −23) ± ( −23)2 − 4 × 6 × ( −35)
x=
2×6

23 ± 529 + 840
=
12

23 ± 1369
=
12

23 ± 37
=
12

23 + 37 23 − 37
Step 4. Now, required value of x, x= ,
12 12

60 14
= ,−
12 12

7
= 5, − .
6

Example 2
Find the value of k for which the equation 4x2 + kx + 25 = 0 has equal roots.

Step 1. Given: 4x2 + kx + 25 = 0

Comparing above equation with ax2 + bx + c = 0, a = 4, b = k and c = 25

 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 13

Step 2. Condition for equal roots is D = 0.

i.e., b2 – 4ac = 0


Step 3. Substituting the values of a, b and c in above condition.

(k)2 – 4 × 4 × 25 = 0

⇒ k2 – 400 = 0


⇒ (k) – (20)2 = 0
2


⇒ (k + 20) (k – 20) = 0


⇒ k = 20 or – 20.


Mnemonics
Concept: To Find the roots of quadratic
−b ± b2 − 4 ac .
equation,
2a
Mnemonics: A negative Boy could not decided if he did or didn't want to go to a Radical party. The Boy was
Square so he missed out on 4 Awesome Chicks.
This was all over by 2 a.m.
Interpretation:
A negative Boy = (– b)
he did or didn't want to go = (+/–)
to a Radical party = ( )
2
Boy was Square = (b )
missed out = (–)
4 Awesome = 4a
Chicks =c
all over = Divided by
2 a.m. = 2a

CHAPTER-5
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS

To Find nth Term of the Arithmetic Progression

Topic-1 Concepts Covered  Define first term, common difference.
 Define finite and infinite A.P.
 Formula for finding nth term of an A.P.

Revision Notes

An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers in which each term is obtained by adding or subtracting a
fixed number d to the preceding term, except the first term.
The difference between the two successive terms of an A.P. is called the common difference.
Each number in the sequence of arithmetic progression is called a term of an A.P.
The arithmetic progression having finite number of terms is called a finite arithmetic progression.
The arithmetic progression having infinite number of terms is called an infinite arithmetic progression.
A list of numbers a1, a2, a3, …… is an A.P., if the differences a2 – a1, a3 – a2, a4 – a3, … give the same value i.e., ak+1 – ak
is same for all different values of k.
The general form of an A.P. is a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, …..
14 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

If the A.P. a, a + d, a + 2d,………, l is reversed to l, l – d, l – 2d, ………, a, the common difference changes to negative
of original sequence common difference.

Key Formulae
The general (nth) term of an A.P. is expressed as:
an= a + (n – 1)d. ......... from the starting.
where, a is the first term and d is the common difference.
The general (nth) term of an A.P. l, l – d, l – 2d,…….., a is given by:
an= l + (n – 1)(– d) = l – (n – 1)d .......... from the end.
where, l is the last term, d is the common difference and n is the number of terms.

Key Words
Term: A term is a word or expression used with a particular meaning.
Sequence: A sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order
matters.

Fundamental
Facts
(1) An A.P. or arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference between the consecutive
terms is constant.
(2) The 7th Century Indian Mathematician and astronomer Brahmagupta is the father of Arithmetic.
(3) If a constant is added or subtracted from each term of an A.P., the resulting sequence is also an A.P.
(4) If each term of an A.P. is multiplied or divided by a non-zero constant, the resulting sequence is also an A.P.
(5) If the nth term is in linear form i.e., an + b = an, the sequence is in A.P.
(6) If the terms are selected at a regular interval, the given sequence is in A.P.
(7) If three consecutive numbers a, b and c are in A.P., the sum two numbers is twice the middle number i.e., 2b
= a + c.
(8) A sequence is defined as an ordered list of numbers.
The first, second and third terms of a sequence are denoted by t1, t2 and t3 respectively.
(9) If the terms of sequence are connected with plus (+) or minus (–), the pattern is called a series.
Example: 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ........ is a series.
(10) The sequence of numbers 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,...... was discovered by a famous Italian Mathematician Leonasalo
Fibonacci, when he was dealing with the problem of rabbit population.
(11) If the terms of a sequence or a series are written under specific conditions, then the sequence or series is
called a progression.

Mnemonics
Concept: nth Term of Arithmetic Progression n = a + (n – 1)d.
Mnemonics: Nokia Offers Additional Programmers in English To Attract Positive New One Buyer Daily
Interpretation:
Nokia's 'N' is nth term.
Offer's 'O' is of

Additional's 'A' is Arithmetic Programmer's 'P' is Progression

In's 'I' is is.

English's 'E' is Equal

To's 'T' is To

Attract's 'A' is a

Positive's 'P' is +

New's 'N' is n

One buyer is – 1

Daily's 'D' is d

 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 15

Example
Which term of the A.P. 6, 13, 20, 27,....... is 98 more than its 24th term ?

Step 1. The given A.P. is 6, 13, 20, 27,.............

Here, first term, a=6

common difference, d = 13 – 6 = 20 – 13 = 7

Step 2. According to question: an = a24 + 98

⇒ a + (n + 1)d = a + (24 – 1) d + 98


⇒ 7(n – 1) = 23 × 7 + 98


⇒ n – 1 = 23 + 14


⇒ n = 38


Hence, 38th term is the required term.

Sum of n Terms of an Arithmetic Progression
Topic-2 Concepts Covered  Understand the formula t find the sum of n terms of A.P.
 Students will be able to recall some patterns which occur in their daily life.

Revision Notes
Sum of n terms of an A.P. is given by:

n
Sn= [2a + (n – 1)d]
2

where, a is the first term, d is the common difference and n is the total number of terms.
Sum of n terms of an A.P. when first and last term is given.
n
Sn = [a + l]
2

where, a is the first term and l is the last term.

The nth term of an A.P. is the difference of the sum of first n terms and the sum to first (n – 1) terms of it. i.e.,
an = Sn – Sn – 1.

Fundamental Facts
(1) To find the sum of n terms of an A.P., we use a formula first founded by
Johann carl friedrich Gauss in the 19th century.
(2) A.P. can be applied in real life by analysing a certain pattern, for example,
A.P. is used in straight line depreciation.

UNIT–III : CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

CHAPTER-6
LINES (IN TWO-DIMENSIONS)

Revision Notes
Two perpendicular number lines intersecting at origin are called co-ordinate axes. The horizontal line is the X-axis
(denoted by X'OX) and the vertical line is the Y-axis (denoted by Y'OY).
16 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

Key Words
Axis: A line, used as a reference to determine position, symmetry and rotation.
Point: To indicate the presence or position of.
Plane: A level or flat surface.

The point of intersection of X-axis and Y-axis is called origin and denoted by O.
Cartesian plane is a plane obtained by putting the co-ordinate axes perpendicular to each other in the plane. It is
also called co-ordinate plane or XY-plane.
The X-co-ordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from Y-axis.
The y-co-ordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from X-axis.
The point where the X-axis and the Y-axis intersect has co-ordinate point (0, 0).
The abscissa of a point is the X-coordinate of the point.
The ordinate of a point is the Y-coordinate of the point.
If the abscissa of a point is x and the ordinate of the point is y, then (x, y) is called the co-ordinates of the point.
The axes divide the Cartesian plane into four parts called the quadrants (one fourth part), numbered I, II, III and IV
anti-clockwise from OX.
The co-ordinates of a point on the X-axis are of the form (x, 0) and that of the point on Y-axis are (0, y).
Sign of co-ordinates depicts the quadrant in which it lies. The co-ordinates of a point are of the form (+, +) in the first
quadrant, (–, +) in the second quadrant, (–, –) in the third quadrant and (+, –) in the fourth quadrant.
Three points A, B and C are collinear if the distances AB, BC and CA are such that the sum of two distances is equal
to the third.
Three points A, B and C are the vertices of an equilateral triangle if AB = BC = CA.
The points A, B and C are the vertices of an isosceles triangle if AB = BC or BC = CA or CA = AB.
Three points A, B and C are the vertices of a right triangle, if AB2 + BC2 = CA2.
For the given four points A, B, C and D:

1. If AB = BC = CD = DA; AC = BD, then ABCD is a square.

2. If AB = BC = CD = DA; AC ≠ BD, then ABCD is a rhombus.
3. If AB = CD, BC = DA; AC = BD, then ABCD is a rectangle.
4. If AB = CD, BC = DA; AC ≠ BD, then ABCD is a parallelogram.
Diagonals of a square, rhombus, rectangle and parallelogram always bisect each other.
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 17
Diagonals of rhombus and square bisect each other at right angle.
Centroid is the point of intersection of the three medians of a triangle. In the figure, G is the centroid of a triangle ABC.

Centroid divides each median of a triangle in a ratio of 2 : 1 from vertex to base of the side.
If x ≠ y, then (x, y) ≠ (y, x) and if (x, y) = (y, x), then x = y.
To plot a point P(3, 4) in the cartesian plane.
(i) A distance of 3 units along X-axis.
(ii) A distance of 4 units along Y-axis.

Key Formulae
The distance between two points i.e., P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is

d = ( x 2 - x1 )2 + ( y 2 - y1 )2

The distance of a point P(x, y) from origin is x2 + y2

Co-ordinates of point (x, y) which divides the line segment by joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the ratio
m : n internally are
 mx + nx1 
x =  2
 m + n 

 my + ny1 
and y =  2
 m + n 

Co-ordinates of mid-point of the line segment by joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are

 x + x1 
x =  2
 2 

 y + y1 
and y =  2
 2 

 18 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

Fundamental
Facts
(1) Co-ordinate geometry is the system of geometry where the position of points on the plane is described using
an ordered pair of numbers.
(2) Cartesian plane was discovered by Rene Descartes.
(3) The other name of co-ordinate geometry is Analytical Geometry.
(4) Co-ordinate Geometry acts as a bridge between the Algebra and Geometry.
(5) Medians of a triangle are concurrent. The point of concurrency is called the centroid.
(6) Trisection of a line segment means dividing it into 3 equal parts, so 2 points are required.
(7) Centroid of a triangle divides its median in the ratio of 2 : 1.

UNIT–IV : GEOMETRY
CHAPTER-7
TRIANGLES

Revision Notes

A triangle is one of the basic shapes of geometry. It is a polygon with 3 sides and 3 vertices /corners.
Two figures are said to be congruent if they have the same shape and the same size.
Those figures which have the same shape but not necessarily the same size are called similar figures.
Hence, we can say that all congruent figures are similar but all similar figures are not congruent.
Similarity of Triangles: Two triangles are similar, if:
(i) their corresponding sides are proportional.
(ii) their corresponding angles are equal.
If ∆ABC and ∆DEF are similar, then this similarity can be written as ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF.
Criteria for Similarity of Triangles:

In ∆LMN and PQR, if

D
(a) ∠L = ∠P, ∠M = ∠Q and ∠N = ∠R


LM MN LN
(b) = = ,
PQ QR PR

then ∆LMN ~ PQR.
D
(i) AAA-Criterion: In two triangles, if corresponding angles are equal, then the triangles are similar and hence

their corresponding sides are in the same ratio.

 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 19
If DABC and DDEF are similar

∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E and ∠C = ∠F.

AB BC AC
Then, = =
DE EF DF

Remark: If two angles of a triangle are respectively equal to the two angles of another triangle, then by the

angle sum property of a triangle their third angles will also be equal. Therefore, AAA similarity criterion can
also be stated as follows:
AA-Criterion: If two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another triangle, then the

two triangles are similar.
As we know that the sum of all angles in a triangle is 180° so if two angles in DABC and DPQR are same i.e., ∠A

= ∠P, ∠B = ∠Q.

(ii) SSS-Criterion: In two triangles if the sides of one triangle are proportional to the sides of another triangle,
then the two triangles are similar and hence corresponding angles are equal.

AB BC CA
If = =
DE EF FD

\ DABC ~ DDEF

then ∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E

and ∠C = ∠F

(iii) SAS-Criterion: If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and the sides including these
angles are in the same ratio, then the two triangles are similar.

AB AC
If = and ∠A = ∠D, then DABC ~ DDEF.
DE DF

Key Words
Similar: A thing similar to another.
Corresponding: Having in the same relationship.
Parallel: It means that two lines that never intersect.

Some theorems based on similarity of triangles:

(i) If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides at distinct points, the other
two sides are divided in the same ratio. It is known as ‘Basic Proportionality Theorem’ or ‘Thales Theorem’.

20 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

In DABC, let DE || BC, then

AD AE AB AC AD AE
(a) = (b) = (c) = .
DB EC DB EC AB AC

(ii) If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the third side. It is the
'Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem'.

AD AE
If = ,
DB EC

then DE||BC

Fundamental Facts
(1) The use of similar triangles has made possible the measurements of heights and distances.
(2) Thales of Miletus was the great mathematician who found the similar triangles.

Mnemonics
1
Concept: Area of triangle = × Base × height
2

Mnemonics: Audi is the product of half of BMW and Honda

Interpretations:
A ⇒ Area
B ⇒ Base
H ⇒ Height
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 21

CHAPTER-8
CIRCLES
Concepts Covered
 Tangent line secant
 Property/theorems of tangents to a circle

Revision Notes
Tangent: A tangent to a circle is a line that intersects the circle at one point only.
The common point of the circle and the tangent is called the point of
contact.
Secant: Two common points (A and B) between line PQ and circle.
A tangent to a circle is a special case of the secant when the two end points
of the corresponding chord are coincide.
There is no tangent to a circle passing through a point lying inside the circle.
At any point on the circle there can be one and only one tangent.
The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.

Key Words
Circle: A circle is a round shaped figure has no corners or edges.
Tangent: A line, curve or surface touching but not intersecting another.
Contact: To touch or make touch physical.

There are exactly two tangents to a circle through a point outside the circle.
The length of the segment of the tangent from the external point P and the point of contact with the circle is called
the length of the tangent.
The lengths of the tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal.
In the figure,
PA = PB.

Fundamental
Facts
(1) The word 'tangent' comes from the Latin word 'tangere', which means to touch and was
introduced by the Danish mathematician Thomas Fincke in 1583.
(2) The line perpendicular to the tangent and passing through the point of contact, is known as
the normal.
(3) In two concentric circles, the chord of the larger circle, which touches the smaller circle, is
bisected at the point of contact.
 22 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

UNIT–V : TRIGONOMETRY
CHAPTER-9
TRIGONOMETRY & TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Trigonometric Ratios and Its Values

Topic-1 Concepts Covered  Six trigonometric ratios with their sides of a right angled
triangle.  Values of trigonometric ratios between 0° to 90°.

Revision Notes
In fig., a right triangle ABC right angled at B is given and ∠BAC = q is an acute angle. Here side AB which is
adjacent to ∠A is base, side BC opposite to ∠A is perpendicular and the side AC is hypotenuse which is opposite to
the right angle B.

Key Words
Hypotenuse: The longest side of a right angled triangle.
Base: Adjacent side of an angle is a base of a triangle.
Perpendicular: Opposite side of an angle in the right triangle.

Key Formulae
The trigonometric ratios of ∠A in right triangle ABC are defined as

Perpendicular or opposite side BC
sine of ∠A = sin = =
Hypotenuse AC
θ

Base or adjecent side AB
cosine of ∠A = cos = =
Hypotenuse AC

θ
Perpendicular or opposite side BC
tangent of ∠A = tan = =
Base adjacent side AB

θ
Base or adjacent side AB 1
cotangent of ∠A = cot = = =
Perpendicular or oppsite side BC tan θ

θ
Hypotenuse AC 1
secant of ∠A = sec = = =
Base or adjacent side AB cosθ

θ
Hypotenuse AC 1
cosecant of ∠A = cosec = = =
Perpendicular or opposite side BC sin θ

θ
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 23

It is clear from the above ratios that cosecant, secant and cotangent are the reciprocals of sine, cosine and tangent

respectively.
sin θ
Also, tan =
cos θ

θ

cos θ
and cot =
sin θ

θ
The trigonometric ratios of an acute angle in a right triangle express the relationship between the angle and
length of its sides.
The value of trigonometric ratio of an angle does not depend on the size of the triangle but depends on the angle
only.

∠A 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

1 1 3
sin A 0 1
2 2 2

3 1 1
cos A 1 0
2 2 2

1
tan A 0 1 3 Not defined (∞)
3

1
cot A Not defined (∞) 3 1 0
3

2
sec A 1 2 2 Not defined (∞)
3

2
cosec A Not defined (∞) 2 2 1
3

Fundamental Facts
(1) The concept of trigonometry is completely based on right angles.
(2) The three basic functions in trigonometry are sine, cosine and tangent.
(3) Trigonometry, as the name might suggest, is all about triangles.

Mnemonics
1. The relation of Trigonometric Ratios
Mnemonics:
In right angled ΔABC, we have
BC BA BC
sin q = , cos q = , tan q = ,
AC AC AB

AB AC AC
cot q = , sec q = , cosec q =
BC BA BC

c

 24 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

Interpretation:
Here,
Pandit P Perpendicular BC
sin q = = = =
Har H Hypotenuse AC

Badri B Base BA
cos q = = = =
Har H Hypotenuse AC

Prasad P Perpendicular BC
tan q = = = =
Bhole B Base AB

Bhole B Base AB
cot q = = = =
Prasad P Perpendicular BC

Har H Hypotenuse AC
sec q = = = =
Badri B Base BA

Har H Hypotenuse AC
cosec q = = = = .
Pandit P Perpendicular BC
2. Trigonometric Ratios
Mnemonics: We learn these ratios in following ways:
(i) "Some people have" sin q = P
H
(ii) "Curly Brown Hair" cos q = B
H
P
(iii) "Through proper Brushing" tan q = .
B
BC P
(i) sin q = =
AC H
Interpretation:
Some People Have
↓ ↓ ↓
sin q Perpendicular Hypotenuse

AB B
(ii) cos q = =
AC H
Interpretation:
Curly Brown Hair
↓ ↓ ↓
cos q Base Hypotenuse
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 25

BC P
(iii) tan q = =
AB B
Interpretation:
Through Proper Brushing
↓ ↓ ↓
tan q Perpendicular Base

Trigonometric Identities
Topic-2 Concepts Covered  Three important identities are:
(i) sin q + cos q = 1, (ii) 1 + tan2 q = sec2 q, (iii) 1 + cot2 q = cosec2 q.
2 2

Revision Notes
An equation is called an identity if it is true for all values of the variable(s) involved.
An equation involving trigonometric ratios of an angle is called a trigonometric identity if
it is true for all values of the angle.
In ABC, right-angled at B, By Pythagoras Theorem,
∆
AB2 + BC2 = AC2 ...(i)


Dividing each term of (i) by AC2,

AB2 BC 2 AC 2
+ =
AC 2 AC 2 AC 2

2 2 2
 AB   BC   AC 
or   +   = 
 AC 
AC  AC 

or (cos A)2 + (sin A)2 = 1

or cos2 A + sin2 A = 1 ...(ii)


This is true for all values of A such that 0° ≤ A ≤ 90°. So, this is a trigonometric identity. Now divide eqn.(i) by AB2.

AB2 BC 2 AC 2
+ =
AB2 AB2 AB2

2 2 2
 AB   BC   AC 
or + = 
 AB   AB   AB 

or 1 + tan2 A = sec2 A ...(iii)


Is this equation true for A = 0°? Yes, it is. What about A = 90°? Well, tan A and sec A are not defined for A = 90°. So,

eqn. (iii) is true for all values of A such that 0° ≤ A < 90°.
Again dividing eqn. (i) by BC2.

AB2 BC 2 AC 2
2
+ 2 =
BC BC BC 2
2 2 2
 AB   BC   AC 

or   +   = 
 BC 
BC  BC 

or cot2 A + 1 = cosec2 A ...(iv)


Note that cosec A and cot A are not defined for all A = 0°. Therefore eqn. (iv) is true for all value of A such that 0°

< A ≤ 90°.
Using these identities, we can express each trigonometric ratio in terms of other trigonometric ratios, i.e., if any one

of the ratios is known, we can determine the values of other trigonometric ratios.
26 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

CHAPTER-10
HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES
(ANGLE OF ELEVATION, ANGLE OF DEPRESSION)

Revision Notes
The line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point on the object viewed by the observer.
The angle of elevation of a point on the object being viewed is the angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal
when it is above the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we raise our head to look at a point on the object.
Line of sight, angles and altitude (height).

(i) ∠AOB is the angle of elevation.

(ii) By height AB, means object is at point B from the point A located at the ground.
(iii) AO is the distance of the observer from the point A.
The angle of depression of a point on the object being viewed is the angle formed by the line of sight with the
horizontal when it is below the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we lower our head to look at a point on the
object.

The height of object above the water surface is equal to the depth of its image below the water surface.
The values of the trigonometric ratios of an angle do not vary with the length of the sides of the triangle, if the
angles remain the same.
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 27

UNIT–VI : MENSURATION
CHAPTER-11
AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES

Revision Notes
A circle is a collection of all points in a plane which are at a constant distance from a fixed point in the same plane.

A line segment joining the centre of the circle to a point on the circumference of the circle is called its radius.

A line segment joining any two points of a circle is called a chord. A chord passing through the centre of circle is
called its diameter. A diameter is the largest chord of the circle. Here AB is a diameter, which is a longest chord.
A diameter of a circle divides a circle into two equal arcs, each known as a semi-circle.

A part of a circumference of circle is called an arc.

An arc of a circle whose length is less than that of a semi-circle of the same circle is called a minor arc.
An arc of a circle whose length is greater than that of a semi-circle of the same circle is called a major arc.
The region bounded by an arc of a circle and two radii at its end points is called a sector.
 28 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

Key Words
Circumference: carrying around means the perimeter of circle.
Arc: Any smooth curve joining two points.
Sector: A part of a circle made of the arc of the circle along with its two radii.

A chord divides the interior of a circle into two parts, each called a segment.

Circles having the same centre but different radii are called concentric circles.

Two circles (or arcs) are said to be congruent if on placing one over the other cover each other completely.
The distance around the circle or the length of a circle is called its circumference or perimeter.
The mid-point of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle.
Angle subtended at the circumference by a diameter is always a right angle.

Angle described by minute hand in 60 minutes is 360°.

Angle described by hour hand in 12 hours is 360°.
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 29

Key Formulae
1. Circumference (perimeter) of a circle = πd or 2πr, where d is diameter and r is the radius of the circle.
2. Area of a circle = πr2.
1
3. Area of a semi-circle = πr2.
2

4. Perimeter of a semi-circle = πr + 2r = (π + 2)r

5. Area of a ring or an annulus = π(R + r)(R – r). where R is the outer radius and r is the inner radius.
2 πrθ πrθ
6. Length of arc, l = or , where q is the angle subtended at centre by the arc.
360° 180°

πr 2 θ 1
7. Area of a sector = or area of sector = (l × r ), where l is the length of arc.
360° 2

2
8. Area of minor segment = πr θ - 1 r 2 sin θ.
360° 2
9. Area of major segment = Area of the circle – Area of minor segment

= πr² – Area of minor segment.

π 1
10. If a chord subtends a right angle at the centre, then area of the corresponding segment=  −  r 2
4 2

π 3 2
11. If a chord subtends an angle of 60° at the centre, then area of the corresponding segment=  - r .
6 4 
12. Distance moved by a wheel in 1 revolution = Circumference of the wheel.

Distance moved in 1 minute
13. Number of revolutions in one minute = .
Circumference

πrθ
14. Perimeter of a sector = + 2r.
180°

Fundamental Facts
An Indian mathematician Srinivas Ramanujan worked out the identity using the value of π correct to million
places of decimals.

62832
The Indian mathematician Aryabhatta gave the value of π as
20000

“How I made a greater discovery” this mnemonic help us in getting the value of π = 3.14159 ............ .
Give it under separate reading with explanation how to use

CAN I HAVE A SMALL CONTAINER OF COFFEE

No. of ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Letters 3 1 4 1 5 9 2 6
↓

Archimedes calculated the area of a circle by approximating it to a square.

Area of sector of a circle depends on two parameters-radius and central angle.
 30 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

CHAPTER-12
SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES

Revision Notes
A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space.

A hemisphere is half of a sphere.

A cone is a three dimensional geometric shape tapers smoothly from a flat base to a point called the apex or vertex.

A cylinder is a solid or a hollow object that has a circular base and a circular top of the same size.

Key Words
Surface area: The amount of space covering the outside of a three dimen-
sional shape.
Volume: The amount of space occupied by a three dimensional object.
Materials: A substance or mixture of substances that constitutes an object.

Key Formulae
Cuboid:
Lateral surface area or area of four walls
= 2(l + b)h

Total surface area = 2(lb + bh + hl)

Volume = l × b × h

Diagonal = l 2 + b2 + h2

Here, l is length, b is breadth and h is height of the cuboid.


 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 31

Cube:
Lateral surface area or area of four walls
= 4 × a2

Total surface area = 6 × a2

Volume = a3

Diagonal of a cube = 3 ×a

Here, a is edge of cube.

Right Circular Cylinder:
Area of base or top face = πr²

Area of curved surface or curved surface area

= perimeter of the base × height
= 2πrh

Total surface area (including both ends)

= 2πrh + 2πr² = 2πr(h + r)

Volume = (Area of the base × height)= πr²h
Here, r is the radius of base and h is the height of the right circular cylinder.

Right Circular Hollow Cylinder:
Total surface area = (External surface area + Internal surface area) + (Area of brim)

= (2πRh + 2πrh) + 2(πR² – πr²)


= [2πh(R+ r) + 2π(R² – r²)]

= [2π(R + r)(h + R – r)]

Curved surface area = (2πRh + 2πrh)= 2πh(R + r)

Volume of the material used

= (External volume) – (Internal volume)
= πR²h – πr²h = πh(R² – r²)

= πR²h – πr²h = πh(R² – r²)

Here, R and r are the external and internal radii and h is the height of the right circular hollow cylinder.

Right Circular Cone:

Slant height, l = h2 + r 2

Area of curved surface = πrl

= πr h 2 + r 2

Total surface area = Area of curved surface + Area of base

= πrl + πr²

= πr(l + r)

1
Volume = πr²h

3
Here, r, h and l are the radius, vertical height and slant height respectively of the right circular cone.

Sphere:
Surface area = 4πr²

4
Volume = πr3
3


32 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

Here, r is the radius of the sphere.

Spherical Shell:
Surface area (outer) = 4πR2

4 4
Volume of material = πR3 – πr3
3 3

4
= π(R3 – r3)
3

Here, R and r are the external and internal radii of the spherical shell.

Hemisphere:
Area of curved surface = 2πr²

Total surface area= Area of curved surface + Area of base

= 2πr² + πr²

= 3πr²

2
Volume = πr3
3


Here, r is the radius of the hemisphere.

Fundamental Facts
The platonic solids also called the regular solids or regular polyhedra. Five such solids are : dodecahedron,

icosahedron, octahedron and tetrahedron.
Greek mathematician Plato equated tetrahedron with the ‘element’ fire, the cube with earth, the icosahedron
with water, the octahedron with air and dodecahedron with the stuff of which the constellations and heavens
were made.
The stone of platonic solids are kept in Ashmolean Museum in Oxford.
The tomb of Archimedes carried a sculpture consisting of a sphere and cylinder circumscribing it.
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 33

UNIT–VII : STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

CHAPTER-13
STATISTICS

Revision Notes
Statistics deals with the collection, presentation and analysis of numerical data.
Three measures of central tendency are:
(i) Mean, (ii) Median and (iii) Mode

Mean: In statistics mean stands for the arithmetic mean of the given items.
Sum of given items
i.e., Mean =
No. of items
Median: It is defined as the middle most or the central value of the variable in a set of observations, when the
observations are arranged either in ascending or descending order of their magnitudes.
It divides the arranged series in two equal parts i.e., 50% of the observations lie below the median and the

remaining are above the median.
Mode: Mode is the observation which occurred maximum times. In ungrouped data, mode is the observation
having maximum frequency. In a grouped frequency distribution, it is not possible to determine the mode by
looking at the frequencies. To find the mode of grouped data, locate the class with the maximum frequency. This
class is known as the modal class. The mode of the data is a value inside the modal class.

Key Formulae
Mean:

(a) For Raw Data:

If n observations x1, x2, ..., xn are given, then their arithmetic mean is given by :

x = x1 + x 2 +...+ xn = 1 x
n

n ∑
n i =1
i

(b) For Ungrouped Data:

If there are n distinct observations x1, x2,..., xn of variable x with frequencies f1, f2,..., fn respectively, then

the arithmetic mean is given by:
n

f x + f x + ... + fn xn ∑ fx i i
x = 1 1 2 2 = i =1
f1 + f2 + f3 + ... + fn n

∑f
i =1
i

(c) For Grouped Data:

(i) To find the mean of grouped data, it is assumed that the frequency of each class-interval is centred

around its mid-point.
(ii) Direct Method:

Σfi xi
Mean ( x )=
Σfi
where the xi (class mark) is the mid-point of the ith class interval and fi is the corresponding

frequency.
(iii) Assumed Mean Method or Short-cut Method:

Σfi di
Mean ( x )= a +
Σfi

where a is the assumed mean and di = xi – a are the deviations of xi from a for each i.

(iv) Step-Deviation Method:

 Σfi ui 
Mean ( x )= a + h 
 Σfi 


 34 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X

xi − a
where a is the assumed mean, h is the class size and ui =
h

Median of Grouped Data:
n n
Let n = f1 + f2 + f3 + ... + fn. First of all find and then the class in which lies. This class is known as
2 2

the median class. Median of the given distribution lies in this class.
Median of the grouped data can be calculated using the formula:

n 
- c. f .
2 
Median (Me) = l +  ×h
f 

 
 

where l = lower limit of median class, f = frequency of median class, n = number of observations, c.f. =

cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class, h = class-size or width of the class-interval.
Mode of Grouped Data:
Mode of the grouped data can be calculated by using the formula:

 f1 - f0 
Mode (M) = l +  ×h
 2 f1 - f0 - f2 

where l = lower limit of the modal class, h = width or size of the class-interval, f1 = frequency of the modal

class, f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class, f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the
modal class.
Empirical relation between mean, median and mode:
(i) Mode = 3 median – 2 mean

1 2
(ii) Median = mode + mean
3 3

3 1
(iii) Mean = median – mode
2 2

Fundamental
Facts
In statistics, that single value is called the central tendency and mean,
median and mode are all ways to describe it.
The mean is the average of a data set.
The mode is the most common number in a data set.
The median is the middle of the set of numbers.

CHAPTER-14
PROBABILITY

Revision Notes
Probability is a branch of mathematics that deals with calculating the likelihood of a given event’s occurrence.
A random experiment is an experiment or a process for which the outcome cannot be predicted with certainty. e.g.,
(i) tossing a coin, (ii) throwing a dice, (iii) selecting a card and (iv) selecting an object etc.

Outcome associated with an experiment is called an event. e.g., (i) Getting a head on tossing a coin, (ii) getting a face card
when a card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards.
The events whose probability is one are called sure/certain events.
The events whose probability is zero are called impossible events.
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS (STANDARD), Class-X 35

An event with only one possible outcome is called an elementary event.

In a given experiment, if two or more events are equally likely to occur or have equal probabilities, then they are called
equally likely events.
Probability of an event always lies between 0 and 1.
Probability can never be negative and more than one.
A pack of playing cards consists of 52 cards which are divided into 4 suits of 13 cards each. Each suit consists of an ace, one
king, one queen, one jack and 9 other cards numbered from 2 to 10. Four suits are spades, hearts, diamonds and clubs.
King, queen and jack are face cards.
The sum of the probabilities of all elementary events of an experiment is 1.
Two events A and B are said to be complementary to of each other if the sum of their probabilities is 1.
Probability of an event E, denoted as P(E), is given by:
Number of outcomes favourable to E
P(E) =
Total possible number of outcomes

For an event E, P( E ) = 1 – P(E), where the event E representing ‘not E’ is the complement of the event E.
For A and B two possible outcomes of an event,
(i) If P(A) > P(B), then event A is more likely to occur than event B.

(ii) If P(A) = P(B), then events A and B are equally likely to occur.

Key Words
Events: The set of outcomes from an experiment is known as events.
Experiment: Something that can be repeated that has a set of possible results.

Know the Facts
The experimental or empirical probability of an event is based on what has actually happened while the theoretical

probability of the event attempts to predict what will happen on the basis of certain assumptions.
As the number of trials in an experiment go on increasing, we may expect the experimental and theoretical

probabilities to be nearly the same.
When we speak of a coin, we assume it to be ‘fair ‘ i.e., it is symmetrical so that there is no reason for it to come down
more often on one side than the other. We call this property of the coin as being ‘unbiased’.
In the case of experiment we assume that the experiments have equally likely outcomes.
A deck of playing cards consists of 4 suits : spades (♠), hearts (♥), diamonds (♦) and clubs (♣). Clubs and
spades are of black colour, while hearts and diamonds are of red colour.

Fundamental
Facts
By the phrase ‘random toss’, we mean that the coin is allowed to fall freely without any bias or interference.
The first book on probability ‘The Book on Games of Chance’ was written by Italian mathematician
J. Cardan.
The classical definition of probability was given by Pierre Simon Laplace.