An

Industrial Training

Report on

“Electric Vehicle Manufacturing”

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment for the award of the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology

In

Electrical Engineering

2021-2025

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Mr. Chirag Arora Sumit Samariya

Head of Department (EE) Roll No. - 21EAIEE023

7TH SEM (EE)

ARYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, JAIPUR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA, RAJASTHAN

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 1

ARYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

SP-40, RIICO Industrial Area, Kukas, Delhi Road, Jaipur Rajasthan – 302028

Department of Electrical Engineering

Certificate

This is to certify that the work, which is being presented in the Industrial Training for
practical training taken at “Dekho Infotech Pvt. Ltd.” submitted by Sumit samariya
a student of final year (VIII Sem) B.Tech. in Electrical Engineering as a partial
fulfilment for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology is a record of student’s
work carried out and found satisfactory for submission.

Mr. Chirag Arora

HOD (EE)

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 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work, which is being preseed in the indus trial training entitled
Electrical Vehicle Manufacturing in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree in
Bachelor of Technology in Electrical Engineering, submitted to the Department of
Electrical Engineering, Arya College of Engineering, Rajasthan Technical University,
is a record of my own work carried under the guidance of Mr. Chirag Arora.

I have not submitted the matter presented in this report anywhere for the award of any
degree.

Name – Sumit Samariya

Roll no. – 21EAIEE023

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to my Training guide Mr. Subhash Swami
for guiding me from the inception till the completion of the training. I sincerely
acknowledge him for giving his valuable guidance, support for literature survey, critical
reviews and comments for my training.
I would like to first of all express my thanks to Dr. Arvind Agarwal, Chairman of Arya
Group of Colleges and Dr. Puja Agarwal, Vice Chairman of Arya Group of Colleges,
for providing me such a great infrastructure and environment for my overall
development.
I express my sincere thanks to Dr. Surendra Sharma, the Director of Arya Group of
College, for his kind cooperation and extendible support towards the completion of my
industrial training report.

I express sincere thanks to Dr. Himanshu Arora, Principal Arya College of

Engineering, for his kind cooperation and extendible support towards the completion
of this report.

I also express my deepest thanks to Mr. Chirag Arora, HOD (EE), for his support in
providing technical guidance and fulfilling my various other requirements for making
my training successful.

I express my thanks to supporting EE faculty member specially my coordinator Mr.

Subhash Swami who have been a constant source of encouragement for successful
completion of the report.

Also, my warm thanks to Arya College of Engineering, who provided me this

opportunity to carryout, this prestigious training and enhance my learning in various
technical fields.

Sumit Samariya

Roll no.- 21EAIEE023

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 Table of Content

Title Page No.

Cover Page I
Certificate (Company) ii
Certificate (College) iii
Declaration iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of Content vi
List of Figures vii
Chapter 1: Introduction To EV 1-3
1.1 What is an Electric Vehicle 1
1.2 Why Electric Vehicle 1
Chapter 2: Mechanical Aspects 4-9
2.1 Skills Required for EV Manufacturing 4
2.2 Softwares Required for EV Manufacturing 4
2.3 EV Components 5
2.4 Torque and RPM 8
Chapter 3: Types of EV and Motor 10-14
3.1 Types of Electric Vehicle 10
3.2 Types of Motor used in Electric Vehicle 12
Chapter 4: Battery 15-19
4.1 Introduction of Battery 15
4.2 Types of Batteries 15
4.3 Cell Characterization 17
4.4 Series and Parallel Configurations 18
Chapter 5: BMS and EV Charging 20-27
5.1 What is BMS 20
5.2 Charging and Discharging Control in BMS 20
5.3 EV Charging 21
5.4 Different Types of EV Charger 22
Chapter 6: Conclusion 28
Chapter 7: References 29

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 List of Figures

S. No. Figure Name Page No.

1.1 1884 Electric Vehicle 2

2.1 AutoCAD EV Internal Diagram 5

2.2 Chassis of an EV 6

2.3 Powertrain of an EV 6

2.4 RPM relation for wheel 9

3.1 Battery Electric Vehicle 10

3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicle 11

3.3 Plug-In Electric Vehicle 12

3.4 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle 12

3.5 Various Motors used in EV 14

4.1 EV Battery 15

5.1 Battery Management System of EV 20

5.2 Charging of EV 22

5.3 Level 1, 2 & 3 Charger of EV 23

5.4 Wireless Charging of EV 25

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO EV

1.1 What is an Electric Vehicle:-

An Electric Vehicle, or EV, is a vehicle powered by electricity instead of traditional

gasoline or diesel. This means it uses an electric motor and a battery pack to drive, unlike
the internal combustion engine found in most gas-powered vehicles. EVs are
transforming how we think about transportation by focusing on reducing pollution,
cutting fuel costs, and conserving energy.

Electric Vehicles (EVs) are automobiles that rely on electric power as their primary energy
source instead of fossil fuels like gasoline or diesel. At the core, an EV operates using an
electric motor, which is powered by a large rechargeable battery. This setup eliminates
the need for a traditional internal combustion engine, resulting in vehicles that produce
no exhaust emissions. Unlike traditional vehicles that rely on an intricate system of fuel
burning, EVs have a straightforward design, where energy is drawn from the battery,
passed through the motor, and used to drive the wheels. This simplicity not only reduces
mechanical complexity but also significantly lowers maintenance requirements and costs.

With advancements in technology, the range, performance, and affordability of EVs are
improving. People are also becoming more environmentally conscious, looking for ways
to reduce their carbon footprint. Governments and industries worldwide are promoting
EVs to create a cleaner, more sustainable future.

1.2 Why Electric Vehicle:-

The history of Electric Vehicles (EVs) is longer than many realize, dating back over a
century to the early 1800s. The first EV concepts emerged when inventors began
experimenting with electric-powered carriages in the 1830s. In 1832, Scottish inventor
Robert Anderson developed a crude electric carriage powered by non-rechargeable
batteries. Around the same time, American blacksmith Thomas Davenport created a small

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electric locomotive, while Hungarian engineer Ányos Jedlik invented an early electric
motor. These early efforts were limited by battery technology, but they laid the foundation
for EV development. By the late 1800s, technological advancements led to practical
electric cars that rivaled steam and gasoline-powered vehicles. In the 1890s, EVs became
especially popular in urban areas, particularly in the United States, where inventors like
William Morrison and Thomas Edison saw promise in electric power.

However, by the 1920s, gasoline-powered cars overtook EVs as the dominant choice.
Innovations like Henry Ford's mass production techniques made gasoline vehicles much
cheaper and widely available, while advancements in gasoline engines increased their
range and speed. Interest in EVs revived during the 1970s energy crisis, as oil shortages
and rising environmental concerns highlighted the need for alternative energy sources.
Automakers and governments began investing in EV research and development, leading
to significant innovations in battery technology and energy efficiency. By the early 2000s,
improved lithium-ion batteries enabled modern EVs with longer ranges and quicker
charging times. Companies like Tesla, along with government incentives, pushed EVs
back into the spotlight, ushering in the current era of electric mobility.

Fig 1.1:- 1884 Electric Vehicle

Electric vehicles represent a significant shift in transportation, aligning with our modern
need for cleaner, more sustainable ways to get around. Unlike traditional gasoline-
powered cars, EVs offer a way to reduce emissions, lessen dependence on fossil fuels,
and promote a healthier environment. This transition is not just a trend but part of a global

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movement toward greener technology and sustainable living. As battery technology
advances, EVs are becoming more accessible and practical for everyday use, encouraging
more people to consider them as a viable alternative. The rise of EVs is about more than
just driving—it's about contributing to a more sustainable future, where transportation
can meet our needs without compromising the planet.

Electric vehicles (EVs) offer significant environmental benefits, primarily by reducing

greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles,
which burn fossil fuels and emit carbon dioxide (CO2) and other pollutants, EVs run on
electricity, producing zero tailpipe emissions. As the grid becomes increasingly powered
by renewable energy sources like wind and solar, the environmental impact of EVs
continues to decrease, helping to combat climate change and improve air quality in urban
areas. By transitioning to EVs, we can significantly reduce our dependence on fossil fuels,
leading to cleaner air, fewer health problems associated with air pollution, and a more
sustainable future. In addition to their environmental benefits, electric vehicles can offer
lower operating costs compared to conventional vehicles. EVs generally have fewer
moving parts, which means lower maintenance requirements and less frequent repairs.
For instance, they do not need oil changes, and their braking systems tend to last longer
due to regenerative braking.

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 CHAPTER 2

MECHANICAL ASPECTS

The mechanical aspects of electric vehicles (EVs) differ greatly from traditional internal
combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, focusing on simpler, more efficient components. At
the heart of an EV is the electric motor, which directly drives the wheels and requires
fewer moving parts than a conventional engine. This design often eliminates the need for
components like the gearbox or exhaust system, resulting in a quieter, smoother, and more
reliable ride. The EV powertrain consists mainly of the electric motor, a high-capacity
battery pack, and an inverter, which converts the battery's DC power to AC for the motor.
Regenerative braking systems also play a crucial role, converting braking energy back
into electricity to recharge the battery. Overall, the streamlined mechanical setup in EVs
leads to reduced maintenance, greater efficiency, and enhanced performance compared to
ICE vehicles.

2.1 Skills Required for EV Manufacturing:-

1. Electrical Engineering: Essential for designing, controlling, and optimizing the

electric motor, power electronics, and charging systems in EVs.
2. Mechanical Engineering: Focuses on the design and durability of the EV’s physical
structure, including chassis, suspension, and thermal management.
3. Battery Technology: Involves knowledge of battery chemistry, management systems,
and energy storage to ensure efficiency, safety, and long-lasting power for EVs.
4. Embedded Systems: Covers the programming and integration of microcontrollers
and sensors that manage EV functions like energy use, performance, and safety
features.
5. Data Analysis: Used to assess performance metrics, optimize energy efficiency, and
improve predictive maintenance by interpreting EV data from sensors and user
feedback.

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2.2 Softwares Required for EV Manufacturing:-

1. AutoCAD, CATIA, SolidWorks: Key for designing and modeling EV components,

allowing engineers to create precise 3D models of parts and assemblies.
2. MATLAB/SIMULINK: Used for simulating and analyzing EV systems, especially
in areas like powertrain dynamics, control systems, and battery performance.
3. ANSYS: Essential for conducting simulations and analyses, such as thermal,
structural, and electromagnetic testing, to ensure EV component durability and safety.
4. PLC Programming: Applies to automating manufacturing processes and controlling
machinery, which is crucial for efficient EV production and assembly.

Fig 2.1:- AutoCAD EV Internal Diagram

2.3 EV Components:-

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1. Chassis and Structure:- The chassis and structure of an electric vehicle (EV) form
the core framework that supports its weight, provides stability, and protects
passengers. Unlike traditional vehicles, EV chassis designs are often optimized to
accommodate the large battery pack, which is typically mounted low in the center of
the vehicle for better weight distribution and stability. This placement lowers the
center of gravity, enhancing handling and safety. The structural integrity of an EV
chassis is crucial, as it must withstand impact forces while accommodating heavy
electrical components and protecting the battery in case of collisions.

Fig 2.2:- Chassis of an EV

2. Powertrain:- The powertrain in an electric vehicle (EV) is a streamlined system

responsible for delivering power from the battery to the wheels, enabling motion.
Unlike traditional internal combustion powertrains, EV powertrains are simpler, with
fewer moving parts, typically comprising the electric motor, inverter, transmission
(often a single-speed gearbox), and battery pack. The inverter converts the battery’s
direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) for the motor, controlling power and
torque based on the driver’s input. This simplicity enhances reliability and reduces
maintenance needs.

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 Fig 2.3:-Powertrain of an EV

3. Steering System:- The steering system in an electric vehicle (EV) is typically

designed to be highly responsive and energy-efficient, often utilizing an electric
power steering (EPS) system. Unlike traditional hydraulic systems, EPS uses an
electric motor to assist with steering, drawing power only when needed, which
conserves energy and enhances efficiency. This system is lighter and requires less
maintenance than hydraulic systems, aligning well with the EV’s focus on
streamlined, low-maintenance components. Additionally, EPS allows for advanced
features like variable steering assistance, which can adjust steering sensitivity based
on speed, and integration with driver-assist technologies, such as lane-keeping and
self-parking.
4. Braking System:- The braking system in an electric vehicle (EV) is designed to
provide efficient stopping power while enhancing energy recovery. EVs typically use
regenerative braking, which converts kinetic energy into electrical energy during
braking, storing it back in the battery. This reduces wear on traditional friction brakes
and improves energy efficiency. Regenerative braking is often complemented by
conventional disc brakes for more intense stopping power when needed. Advanced
braking systems in EVs also feature Electronic Stability Control (ESC) and Anti-lock
Braking System (ABS) for enhanced safety, providing greater stability and control
under different driving conditions.

5. Suspension System:- The suspension system in an electric vehicle (EV) plays a

crucial role in providing a smooth and comfortable ride while ensuring stability and

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 handling. Since EVs tend to have a heavier weight due to the battery pack, the
suspension system is designed to handle this added load while maintaining optimal
driving dynamics. The suspension system also works to ensure that the regenerative
braking system functions effectively by maintaining consistent tire contact with the
road surface.
6. Thermal Management:- Thermal management in an electric vehicle (EV) is critical
for maintaining the performance, efficiency, and longevity of the battery, motor, and
other components. Since EVs rely heavily on battery power, managing the heat
generated during charging, discharging, and operation is essential to prevent
overheating and ensure optimal performance. Active cooling systems, such as liquid
cooling, are often used to regulate battery temperature, while air cooling may be
applied to the electric motor and power electronics.

2.4 Torque and RPM:-

Torque in Electric Vehicles (EVs):

Torque refers to the rotational force that an engine or motor generates to turn the wheels
of a vehicle. In an electric vehicle, torque is produced by the electric motor, which can
deliver maximum torque instantly from a standstill due to its direct power output from
the battery. This provides EVs with exceptional acceleration and responsiveness,
especially at low speeds, compared to traditional internal combustion engine (ICE)
vehicles that build torque over a wider range of RPMs. The high torque output at low
speeds is one of the defining characteristics of EVs, enabling smooth starts and powerful
acceleration without the need for shifting gears in many EVs, as they often utilize a single-
speed transmission.
RPM in Electric Vehicles (EVs):
RPM, or Revolutions Per Minute, is a measure of how fast the motor is spinning. In an
electric vehicle, the motor's RPM can vary depending on how much power is being sent
from the battery and the speed of the vehicle. Unlike internal combustion engines, which
have a relatively narrow RPM range for optimal efficiency, electric motors in EVs
typically have a much broader range and can operate efficiently across a wide range of
RPMs. This contributes to the EV's ability to maintain smooth performance at both low

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and high speeds. Because of this characteristic, many electric vehicles use a single-speed
transmission, eliminating the need for complex gear-shifting mechanisms found in
traditional vehicles.
The Relation Between Torque, RPM, and Gear Ratio:
Torque and RPM are inversely related when it comes to mechanical power transfer.
Power, which is the product of torque and RPM, is a crucial factor in vehicle performance.
Torque represents the force available to move the vehicle, while RPM determines how
quickly that force is applied. The gear ratio in a transmission system determines how the
motor’s torque and RPM are balanced. In vehicles with multi-speed transmissions, the
gear ratio adjusts the torque and RPM to optimize performance for different driving
conditions. For example, in a low gear, the torque is increased, providing better
acceleration at low speeds, but RPM is reduced. In higher gears, the RPM increases, but
the torque is reduced, providing better fuel efficiency at cruising speeds. In EVs with a
single-speed transmission, the motor’s RPM is continuously adjusted to provide the right
balance of torque and speed without the need for shifting, making the relationship
between torque, RPM, and gear ratio simpler but still effective in ensuring optimal
performance.

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 Fig 2.4:- RPM relation for wheel

CHAPTER 3

TYPES OF EV AND MOTOR

3.1 Types of Electric Vehicle:-

1. Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV):- Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are vehicles that
run entirely on electricity stored in a battery pack, with no reliance on internal
combustion engines or fossil fuels. Instead, BEVs use large, rechargeable lithium-ion
battery packs to power an electric motor, which drives the vehicle’s wheels. The
energy stored in these batteries is converted to electricity and controlled by an inverter
to match the needs of the motor, providing instant torque and smooth acceleration.
BEVs are known for being efficient, environmentally friendly, and quieter than
traditional vehicles, as they produce zero tailpipe emissions and have fewer moving
parts, reducing maintenance needs.

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 Fig 3.1:- Battery Electric Vehicle

2. Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV):- Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) combine an

internal combustion engine (ICE) with an electric motor and battery to improve fuel
efficiency and reduce emissions. In an HEV, the electric motor works in tandem with
the ICE, providing additional power during acceleration, reducing fuel consumption,
and allowing the ICE to operate more efficiently. The battery in an HEV is smaller
than that of a fully electric vehicle (BEV) and is recharged through regenerative
braking, capturing energy that would otherwise be lost as heat when slowing down.
This system allows HEVs to run on electric power alone at low speeds, switching to
gasoline power or a combination of both when more energy is required. HEVs are
designed to seamlessly switch between electric and gasoline power, optimizing fuel
efficiency without the need for plugging in or charging externally. This versatility
makes them an attractive option for those looking to reduce fuel costs and emissions
without the range limitations of BEVs.

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 Fig 3.2:-Hybrid Electric Vehicle

3. Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV):- Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)
combine features of both Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and traditional Hybrid
Electric Vehicles (HEVs) by having both an electric motor with a rechargeable battery
and an internal combustion engine (ICE). Unlike regular hybrids, PHEVs can be
charged through an external power source, such as a home charging station or public
charging point, allowing them to operate solely on electric power for a limited range,
typically around 20 to 50 miles depending on the model. Once the battery is depleted,
the vehicle seamlessly switches to gasoline power, giving it the extended range and
flexibility of an ICE vehicle.

Fig 3.3:-Plug-In Electric Vehicle

4. Fuel Cell EV (FCEV):- Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) use hydrogen fuel cells
to generate electricity, which then powers an electric motor to drive the vehicle. In an
FCEV, hydrogen stored in onboard tanks combines with oxygen from the air in a fuel

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 cell stack, creating electricity through an electrochemical reaction. This process
produces only water vapor as a byproduct, making FCEVs a zero-emission
alternative. Unlike Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), which rely on large batteries that
need recharging, FCEVs can be refuelled with hydrogen in minutes at a hydrogen
fuelling station, similar to how conventional vehicles are refueled with gasoline,
offering quick refueling and extended driving range.

Fig 3.4:- Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle

3.2 Types of Motor used in Electric Vehicle:-

1. Brushless DC Motor (BLDC):- A Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor is an electric motor

that operates using direct current (DC) but without the mechanical brushes found in
traditional brushed motors. Instead, BLDC motors rely on an electronic controller to
manage the flow of current in the motor windings, producing a rotating magnetic field
that drives the rotor. This design offers several advantages, including higher
efficiency, better durability, and reduced maintenance since there are no brushes to
wear out.
In EVs, BLDC motors are widely favored because they offer instant torque, high
efficiency, and smooth operation across a range of speeds. They generate less heat
than brushed motors and work well with regenerative braking systems, where braking
energy is captured and fed back into the battery. The design of a BLDC motor also

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 allows for compact construction, which is advantageous for maximizing space and
minimizing weight in vehicles.
2. Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM):- A Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) is a type
of electric motor that operates on the principle of magnetic reluctance, where the rotor
aligns itself to minimize magnetic resistance within the motor. Unlike traditional
motors, SRMs do not use permanent magnets or coils on the rotor; instead, the rotor
is composed of simple, laminated steel with a series of poles, while the stator contains
coils that are sequentially energized by an electronic controller. As each stator pole is
energized, it creates a magnetic field that pulls the rotor poles into alignment,
producing torque to rotate the rotor. This design offers simplicity, robustness, and
cost-effectiveness, as it avoids the need for expensive magnets and complex rotor
windings.
3. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM):- A Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor (PMSM) is an electric motor that uses permanent magnets
embedded in the rotor to create a constant magnetic field. The stator, which surrounds
the rotor, has windings that are energized to produce a rotating magnetic field, and
this field interacts with the magnets to generate torque, making the rotor rotate in sync
with the stator’s magnetic field frequency. Unlike induction motors, PMSMs do not
rely on induced currents in the rotor, which allows for highly efficient and precise
operation with less heat generation.

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Fig 3.5:- Various Motors used in EV

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 CHAPTER 4

BATTERY

4.1 Introduction of Battery:-

A battery is an energy storage device that converts chemical energy into electrical
energy through electrochemical reactions. It consists of one or more cells, each
containing an anode, cathode, and electrolyte, which work together to create a
flow of electrons and thus produce electrical power. In the context of electric
vehicles (EVs), batteries play a central role, providing the energy needed to power
the motor and drive the vehicle. Modern EVs primarily use lithium-ion batteries
due to their high energy density, long life cycle, and relatively low self-discharge
rates, which allow for efficient storage and use of electrical energy over time.
Batteries are critical not only for powering vehicles but also for enabling clean,
sustainable transportation by reducing dependence on fossil fuels. Battery
technology has rapidly evolved, focusing on increasing energy density, improving
charging speeds, extending range, and enhancing safety.

Fig 4.1:- EV Battery

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4.2 Types of Batteries:-

1. Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Batteries:- Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are a type of

rechargeable battery widely used in electric vehicles (EVs) due to their high
energy density, lightweight design, and long life cycle. These batteries consist
of lithium ions that move between the anode and cathode through an
electrolyte during charging and discharging. This movement of ions creates a
flow of electrons, generating electric power.
Li-ion batteries offer a significant advantage over traditional batteries, such as
lead-acid or nickel-cadmium batteries, as they can store more energy in a
smaller, lighter package, making them ideal for mobile and electric
applications where efficiency and space are critical. In EVs, Li-ion batteries
enable longer driving ranges and faster charging compared to other battery
types. They are also known for their relatively low self-discharge rate,
meaning they retain their charge well over time, which is essential for
consistent performance.
2. Solid-State Batteries:- Solid-state batteries are an emerging technology in
energy storage that replace the liquid electrolyte found in traditional lithium-
ion batteries with a solid electrolyte. This change in structure allows for
several potential advantages, including higher energy density, improved
safety, and longer cycle life. Solid-state batteries use materials like ceramics,
glass, or certain polymers as the solid electrolyte, which can support a high-
capacity lithium metal anode instead of the graphite anode used in lithium-ion
batteries.
This setup can theoretically store more energy in a smaller space, making
solid-state batteries a promising option for electric vehicles (EVs) and portable
electronics where compact, efficient storage is essential. Because they lack the
flammable liquid electrolyte found in traditional batteries, they are far less
prone to issues like overheating, thermal runaway, and fire, making them a
safer option for high-capacity applications.

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 3. Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries:- Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)
batteries are rechargeable batteries that use nickel oxide hydroxide as the
positive electrode and a hydrogen-absorbing alloy as the negative electrode.
Known for their durability and moderate energy density, NiMH batteries have
been widely used in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), where their reliable
performance and ability to handle frequent charge and discharge cycles are
beneficial. Compared to traditional nickel-cadmium batteries, NiMH batteries
are more environmentally friendly and have a higher capacity, though they
typically offer lower energy density than lithium-ion batteries.
4. Lead-Acid Batteries:- Lead-acid batteries are one of the oldest types of
rechargeable batteries, widely known for their durability and reliability in
various applications. These batteries use lead dioxide as the positive electrode,
sponge lead as the negative electrode, and a sulfuric acid solution as the
electrolyte. During discharge, chemical reactions between these components
generate electricity, while the process reverses during charging.
Lead-acid batteries are cost-effective and have a high surge capacity, meaning
they can provide significant power quickly, which makes them ideal for
applications like automotive starter batteries, backup power systems, and
industrial uses.

4.3 Cell Characterization:-

1. NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt):- Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC)

batteries are a type of lithium-ion battery that uses a combination of nickel,
manganese, and cobalt in the cathode material. Known for their high energy
density, good thermal stability, and long cycle life, NMC batteries are widely
used in electric vehicles (EVs) and energy storage systems. The nickel content
enhances the energy density, while manganese contributes to the battery’s
stability and safety, and cobalt helps maintain performance over many charge
and discharge cycles.
2. LFP (Lithium Iron Phosphate):- Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) batteries are
a type of lithium-ion battery that uses lithium iron phosphate as the cathode

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 material. Known for their excellent thermal stability, safety, and long cycle
life, LFP batteries are increasingly popular in electric vehicles (EVs), energy
storage systems, and other applications where reliability and durability are
prioritized. Unlike other lithium-ion batteries, LFP batteries do not rely on
cobalt or nickel, making them more environmentally friendly and less costly.
3. NCA (Nickel Cobalt Aluminium):- Nickel Cobalt Aluminum (NCA)
batteries are a type of lithium-ion battery that uses a cathode composed of
nickel, cobalt, and aluminum. These batteries are known for their high energy
density, excellent performance, and long lifespan, making them a popular
choice in applications requiring efficient, high-power storage, such as in
electric vehicles (EVs) and aerospace technology.
4. LTO (Lithium Titanate):- Lithium Titanate (LTO) batteries are a type of
lithium-ion battery that use lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12) as the anode material,
instead of the conventional graphite used in most lithium-ion batteries. This
unique anode material offers several advantages, such as exceptionally fast
charging times, high cycle life, and superior thermal stability. LTO batteries
are also safer due to their ability to operate at higher temperatures without the
risk of thermal runaway.
5. Li-S (Lithium-Sulfur):- Lithium-Sulfur (Li-S) batteries are a type of
rechargeable battery that use sulfur as the cathode material and lithium as the
anode. These batteries have attracted significant attention due to their high
theoretical energy density, which is much higher than that of traditional
lithium-ion batteries, making them a promising option for electric vehicles
(EVs) and other high-energy applications. The chemistry of Li-S batteries
allows for a greater energy storage capacity because sulfur can store more
energy per unit of weight compared to conventional cathode materials like
cobalt or nickel.

4.4 Series and Parallel Configurations:-

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Series Configuration:- When cells are connected in series, the voltage adds up,
while the capacity (Ah) remains the same as that of a single cell. For example, if
each cell has a voltage of 3.7V and you connect 5 cells in series, the total voltage
becomes 3.7V x 5 = 18.5V. Series connections are typically used when higher
voltage is required to power motors or other systems in EVs and electronic
devices.

Parallel Configuration:- When cells are connected in parallel, the capacity (Ah)
adds up while the voltage remains the same as a single cell. For instance, if each
cell has a capacity of 3.7V and 2Ah, and you connect 4 cells in parallel, the total
capacity would be 2Ah x 4 = 8Ah, but the voltage remains 3.7V. Parallel
configurations are typically used to increase the capacity (energy storage) and
extend the battery’s runtime without affecting the voltage.

Deciding the Series and Parallel Configuration:

Step 1: Determine the required voltage. Choose how many cells you need in
series based on the required voltage of your system. For instance, if you need
400V and each cell is 3.7V, you would need 108 cells in series.

Step 2: Determine the required capacity. After calculating the series

configuration, you calculate the total capacity needed (in Ah). If each cell has a
capacity of 2Ah and you need 100Ah total, then you would need 100Ah / 2Ah =
50 cells in parallel to achieve the desired capacity.

Step 3: Combine the series and parallel configuration. For the above example,
the final battery pack would consist of 108 cells in series (to reach 400V) and 50
cells in parallel (to achieve 100Ah capacity), resulting in a total of 108 x 50 =
5400 cells in the entire pack.

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 CHAPTER 5

BMS & EV CHARGING

5.1 What is BMS:-

A Battery Management System (BMS) is an essential electronic system that

manages the operation of a rechargeable battery pack, ensuring its safe and
efficient use. The primary functions of a BMS include monitoring the voltage,
current, and temperature of individual cells within the battery pack to prevent
overcharging, deep discharge, overheating, and other conditions that could
compromise the battery's performance or safety. The BMS also optimizes battery
performance by balancing the charge across all cells to ensure uniform voltage
levels, thereby extending the overall lifespan of the battery. In applications like
electric vehicles (EVs), a BMS is crucial for managing the battery pack's
performance, safety, and longevity, ensuring that the EV can operate efficiently
and reliably over its lifetime.

Fig 5.1:- Battery Management System of EV

5.2 Charging and Discharging Control in BMS:-

Charging Control in a Battery Management System (BMS) refers to the process

of regulating the battery’s charging cycle to ensure it is charged safely and
efficiently. The BMS monitors individual cell voltages during charging,

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 preventing overcharging by cutting off or adjusting the current once the cells reach
their maximum safe voltage. It also manages the transition between constant
current and constant voltage charging modes, ensuring that the battery reaches its
full charge without causing damage. Additionally, the BMS controls the charging
rate to avoid overheating and can stop charging if the battery exceeds safe
temperature thresholds, ultimately ensuring the longevity and safety of the battery.
Discharging Control in a BMS involves managing the energy drawn from the
battery to prevent damage from over discharge. The system constantly monitors
the voltage of each cell during discharge and disconnects the load or limits the
discharge current if any cell drops below its minimum safe voltage. The BMS also
tracks the state of charge (SOC) to provide accurate readings of remaining battery
capacity and ensures that the battery operates within optimal discharge
parameters. By controlling the discharge rate and balancing the cells during
operation, the BMS protects the battery from deep discharge and extends its
lifespan.

5.3 EV Charging:-

EV charging refers to the process of supplying electric energy to an electric

vehicle (EV) to recharge its battery. This is typically done through various
charging stations that deliver electricity via different connectors and protocols.
The charging process involves transferring power from the grid or a local source
to the EV's battery, and it can be done at different levels of speed depending on
the type of charger and the vehicle’s charging capacity.
Charging times vary depending on the battery capacity of the EV and the charger’s
output. The introduction of wireless charging and advancements in fast-charging
technology are continuously improving the convenience and speed of the EV
charging process, aiming to make electric vehicles more accessible for everyday
use.

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 Fig 5.2:- Charging of EV

5.4 Different Types of EV Chargers:-

1. Level 1 Charger:- Level 1 chargers are the most basic form of electric vehicle
(EV) charging, using a standard 120-volt AC household outlet. They come
with a connector that typically fits into a regular wall outlet, allowing EV
owners to charge their vehicles anywhere with household power. Since Level
1 chargers operate at low power (usually around 12 amps), they have a slower
charging rate, typically adding 2-5 miles of range per hour of charging, which
is sufficient for plug-in hybrids or for overnight charging of fully electric
vehicles if the daily mileage is low.
Level 1 chargers are entry-level electric vehicle chargers that plug into
standard 120-volt household outlets, providing a convenient, slow-charging
option for EV owners who drive shorter distances or have ample overnight
charging time. Known for their lower power delivery, Level 1 chargers
typically provide around 2-5 miles of range per hour, making them ideal for
plug-in hybrids or light daily charging needs, but less suitable for quick
charging.
2. Level 2 Charger:- Level 2 chargers are a faster and more efficient option for
electric vehicle (EV) charging, operating at 240 volts. Level 2 chargers

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 typically deliver between 16 to 40 amps, enabling them to add about 10-60
miles of range per hour, depending on the vehicle and charger capacity.
These chargers require specialized equipment and may involve some electrical
installation costs for home users, but they significantly reduce charging time
compared to Level 1 chargers. A full charge on a Level 2 charger can generally
be achieved in 4 to 8 hours, making them ideal for overnight home use,
workplaces, and quick top-ups at public locations.
3. DC Fast Chargers (Level 3 Chargers):- DC Fast Chargers (Level 3 chargers)
are the fastest type of electric vehicle (EV) chargers, delivering high-voltage
direct current (DC) power directly to the battery. Unlike Level 1 and Level 2
chargers, which provide alternating current (AC) that must be converted by
the vehicle’s onboard charger, DC fast chargers bypass the onboard charger,
directly providing DC power to the battery, allowing for much quicker
charging speeds. These chargers operate at power levels ranging from 50 kW
to over 350 kW, depending on the charger type and vehicle compatibility.
DC fast chargers are primarily found along highways, public charging stations,
and high-traffic areas, where EV drivers need rapid charging for long trips.
They can recharge an EV battery to 80% in as little as 20-40 minutes,
depending on the battery’s capacity and charger output. While extremely
convenient for quick stops, these chargers are more expensive to install and
require specialized infrastructure and higher power demands. DC fast
charging is especially useful for reducing "range anxiety" and enabling longer-
distance travel by making it possible for EVs to recharge quickly and get back
on the road.

Fig 5.3:- Level 1, 2 & 3 Charger of EV

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4. Ultra-Fast Chargers:- Ultra-Fast Chargers are an advanced category of DC
fast chargers capable of delivering extremely high power, typically at levels
of 150 kW to over 350 kW. These chargers are designed to minimize charging
time even further than traditional DC fast chargers, allowing certain electric
vehicles (EVs) to gain hundreds of miles of range in just 10-20 minutes. Ultra-
fast chargers are primarily deployed along highways and major travel routes,
providing a rapid and convenient solution for EV drivers traveling long
distances. To support ultra-fast charging, both the charger and the EV’s battery
system must be compatible with high power levels.
Ultra-fast chargers use high-voltage systems (often 800V or higher), which
enables quicker energy transfer without excessive heat generation or losses.
This technology is crucial for new generations of EVs designed to handle these
high power levels, offering a more efficient and feasible charging experience
for road trips or high-demand situations. However, these chargers require
robust infrastructure and advanced cooling systems, making them more
expensive to install and maintain compared to standard DC fast chargers.
Ultra-fast chargers represent a step towards achieving charging times
comparable to refuelling traditional combustion vehicles, significantly
enhancing the practicality of EVs for a broader range of drivers.
5. Wireless Chargers (Inductive Charging):- Wireless Chargers (Inductive
Charging) provide a convenient, cable-free way to charge electric vehicles
(EVs) using electromagnetic fields to transfer energy from a charging pad on
the ground to a receiving pad on the vehicle. This type of charging relies on a
principle called inductive coupling: when the vehicle is parked over the
charging pad, an alternating current in the primary coil (embedded in the
ground pad) creates a magnetic field. This field induces a current in the
secondary coil located on the vehicle, which then charges the battery.
Wireless chargers are generally rated for lower power levels than wired Level
2 or DC fast chargers, typically around 3.3 to 11 kW, making them suitable for
home or workplace charging. Although slower than conventional chargers,
inductive charging offers the advantage of ease and simplicity—drivers only

25
 need to park over the charging pad for the vehicle to begin charging
automatically. Advanced systems can even adjust for slight misalignments,
making the technology user-friendly.
While currently more expensive due to the complexity of the technology and
installation, wireless charging holds promise for the future of EV
infrastructure, especially as public spaces, homes, and roads are developed to
support the growing adoption of EVs.

Fig 5.4:- Wireless Charging of EV

6. Solar-Powered Chargers:- Solar-Powered Chargers harness energy from the

sun to charge electric vehicles (EVs), providing a sustainable and eco-friendly
charging option. These chargers typically consist of solar panels, an energy
storage system (such as a battery pack), and an inverter to convert the
generated direct current (DC) power to the appropriate form for vehicle
charging. Solar-powered chargers can either feed energy directly to the EV or
store it for later use, enabling consistent charging availability even when the
sun isn’t shining.
Solar EV chargers are an excellent solution for reducing dependency on grid
electricity and lowering the carbon footprint of EV charging.
While they generally produce lower power output than traditional Level 2 or
DC fast chargers and are influenced by weather conditions and location,
advances in solar technology and battery storage are enhancing their

26
efficiency. Solar-powered chargers are often found in residential settings,
remote areas without grid access, and certain public charging stations where
sustainability is a priority. As solar technology continues to improve, solar-
powered EV charging could play a key role in promoting renewable energy in
transportation.

Advantages of EV Charging Over Fuel:-

1. Lower Operating Costs: Charging an electric vehicle (EV) generally
costs significantly less than fuelling a gasoline or diesel vehicle. Electricity
rates, especially when charged at home during off-peak hours, are lower
than fuel prices, which can fluctuate widely.
2. Environmental Benefits: EVs produce no tailpipe emissions, and using
electricity as fuel—particularly from renewable sources like solar or
wind—reduces greenhouse gas emissions and pollution. This cleaner
energy profile helps lower the carbon footprint associated with
transportation.
3. Convenience and Flexibility: EVs can be charged at home, work, or at
public charging stations, giving drivers multiple options for recharging and
reducing dependency on specific fuelling stations. Home charging allows
for overnight charging, meaning the vehicle is ready to go each morning.
4. Less Maintenance: EVs generally have fewer moving parts than internal
combustion engine vehicles, which translates to lower maintenance costs
over time. Without fuel systems, oil changes, and complex engines, EVs
are simpler to maintain, saving time and money.
5. Reduced Noise Pollution: EVs operate more quietly than fuel-powered
vehicles, contributing to lower noise pollution levels in urban areas and
providing a smoother, quieter driving experience.

Disadvantages of EV Charging Over Fuel:

1. Longer Refuelling Time: Charging an EV typically takes significantly

longer than filling a gas tank. Even with fast chargers, it can take 20-40

27
 minutes to reach 80% charge, whereas a traditional fuel refill takes just a
few minutes.
2. Charging Infrastructure Limitations: While EV charging stations are
expanding, they are still less common than gas stations, especially in rural
areas and along certain travel routes. Limited infrastructure can make
long-distance travel more challenging for EV drivers.
3. Range Limitations: Many EVs have a shorter driving range per charge
compared to gasoline vehicles per tank of fuel. This makes route planning
more critical, particularly for longer trips, and can lead to “range anxiety”
for drivers.
4. Higher Upfront Costs for Home Charging: Installing a Level 2 home
charger requires an initial investment in equipment and sometimes
electrical upgrades, which can be costly, whereas gasoline vehicles don’t
need such installation expenses.
5. Dependency on Electric Grid: EVs rely on the electrical grid, which can
be susceptible to outages or instability. During power outages or in areas
with unreliable electricity supply, accessing reliable charging may be
challenging, unlike fuel, which is less affected by grid issues.

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 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

This industrial training on electric vehicle (EV) manufacturing provided an in-

depth exploration of the principles, components, and technologies shaping the
future of sustainable transportation. The training began with a comprehensive
introduction to EVs, defining their operation based on energy stored in
rechargeable battery packs and their benefits in reducing tailpipe emissions. It
traced the evolution of EVs, from early designs in the 19th century to today’s
advanced models, driven by environmental concerns and innovations in battery
technology.
A thorough examination of mechanical aspects followed, emphasizing the
foundational skills and software required in EV manufacturing. These included
AutoCAD, CATIA, SolidWorks, and MATLAB/SIMULINK, among others,
which are critical for tasks in design, structural integrity, and data analysis. The
structural fundamentals of EV architecture—such as the chassis, powertrain, and
steering systems—were discussed, illustrating how these elements collectively
convert electrical energy to mechanical power, achieving vehicle propulsion. The
concepts of regenerative braking, suspension, and thermal management were also
highlighted, each essential for optimizing performance and extending vehicle
lifespan.
The training also categorized the types of EVs, explaining battery electric vehicles
(BEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs), and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). Each type offers distinct
benefits and trade-offs, such as the zero-emission focus of BEVs and the
versatility of PHEVs. Various motor types were discussed, including the widely
used Brushless DC Motors (BLDC), Switched Reluctance Motors (SRM), and
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM), with a focus on their
efficiency, durability, and application suitability.

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 REFERENCES

Electric Vehicles - Introduction

U.S. Department of Energy. 'Electric Vehicles: How They Work and Benefits.'

Retrieved from https://www.energy.gov/eere/electricvehicles/electric-vehicles.

Electric Vehicle History

Electric Auto Association. 'The History of Electric Vehicles.' Retrieved from

https://www.electricauto.org/history-of-electric-vehicles.

Battery Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Battery University. 'Types of Lithium-ion Batteries.' Retrieved from

https://batteryuniversity.com/article/bu-205-types-of-lithium-ion.

EV Motors and Powertrains

National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 'Electric Drive Vehicle Components and

Powertrains.' Retrieved from https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/how-do-electric-

cars-work.

Battery Management Systems (BMS)

EDN Network. 'Introduction to Battery Management Systems (BMS).' Retrieved

from https://www.edn.com/introduction-to-battery-management-systems-bms/.

EV Charging Infrastructure

U.S. Department of Transportation. 'Electric Vehicle Charging Station Types and

Deployment.' Retrieved from https://www.transportation.gov/rural/ev/ev-

charging.

Sustainable EV Manufacturing

International Energy Agency. 'The Role of EVs in Global Sustainability.'

Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023.

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