Investments and Portfolio Management

Booklet of Exercises

Raquel M. Gaspar

Recommended exercises for the Master level course on Investments and Portfolio Management.
Students are encouraged to suggest additional exercises and report any typos they may find.
The exercises should be solved at home. Only a very limited number of exercises will be solved
during regular classes.
All exercise suggestions and/or list of typos should be sent to [email protected].

Contents
1 Mean–Variance Theory 2
1.1 Return and Diversification of Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Investment Opportunity Sets and Efficient Frontiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Portfolio Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 International Diversification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Return Generating Models 9

2.1 Constant Correlation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Single-Index Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Multi-Index Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3 Selecting the Optimal Porfolio 15

3.1 Expected Utility Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Alternatives Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4 Equilibrium in Financial Markets 22

4.1 CAPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 APT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 Portfolio Management 28

6 Miscellaneous 29

1
1 Mean–Variance Theory

1.1 Return and Diversification of Risk

Exercise 1.1. Assume that you are considering selecting assets among the following four
candidates:

Asset 1 Asset 2
Market Cond. Return (%) Prob. Market Cond. Return (%) Prob.
1 1
Good 16 4 Good 4 4
1 1
Average 12 2 Average 6 2
1 1
Poor 8 4 Poor 8 4

Asset 3 Asset 4
Market Cond. Return (%) Prob. Rain Fall Return (%) Prob.
1 1
Good 20 4 Plentiful 16 3
1 1
Average 14 2 Average 12 3
1 1
Poor 8 4 Light 8 3

Assume that there is no relationship between the amount of rainfall and the condition of the
stock market.

(a) What are the expected returns and the volatilities of each of the individual assets?
(b) Find out the correlation coefficient and the covariance between each pair of returns. Write
down the variance-covariance matrix.
(c) Solve for the expected return and volatility of each of the portfolios shown below:

Weight of each Asset

Portfolio Asset 1 Asset 2 Asset 3 Asset 4
1 1
a 2 2
1 1
b 2 2
1 1
c 2 2
1 1
d 2 2
1 1
e 2 2
1 1 1
f 3 3 3
1 1 1
g 3 3 3
1 1 1
h 3 3 3
1 1 1 1
i 4 4 4 4

(d) Plot the basic assets and each of the portfolios in (c) in the volatility / expected return
space.
(e) What can you conclude about the efficiency of the 4 assets and their portfolios?

2
Exercise 1.2. Assume that the average variance of returns for an individual security is 0.005
and that the average covariance is 0.001.

(a) What is the expected variance for homogeneous portfolios of 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 secu-
rities?
(b) How many securities need to be held before the risk of a portfolio is only 10% more than
the “minimum volatility”?
(c) Is this “minimum volatility” attainable? Motivate your answer.

Exercise 1.3. Consider that the diversification ratio is of 60% in Italy and 80% in Belgium.

(a) What is a diversification ratio? Write down its equation and interpret.
(b) If the average variance of a single security is 0.005, what is the expected variance of a
homogeneous portfolio of 5, 20 and 100 securities?

Exercise 1.4. Consider the data in the table below.

Number of Securities Expected Portfolio Variance×10000

1 46.619
2 26.839
4 16.948
6 13.651
8 12.003
10 11.014
12 10.354
14 9.883
16 9.530
18 9.256
20 9.036
25 8.640
30 8.376
35 8.188
40 8.047
45 7.937
50 7.849
75 7.585
100 7.453
200 7.255
500 7.1337
1000 7.097
∞ 7.058

(a) What can you conclude about this market diversification ratio? Explain.
(b) What is the minimum number of securities that an investor who desires a volatility lower
than 2.83% should invest in? Why?

3
1.2 Investment Opportunity Sets and Efficient Frontiers

Exercise 1.5. Securities A and B are combined in a no-shortselling portfolio with zero risk.

(a) What is the weight of each security in the portfolio, assuming the volatility of security A
is 9% and the volatility of B is 15%.
(b) Consider that the null risk portfolio has a return of 7.5%. If the expected return of security
A is 5%, what can you conclude about the expected return of security B?
(c) Comment the following statement: “Under these conditions it is never efficient to shortsell
security B ”.

Exercise 1.6. Consider securities 1 and 2 from Exercise 1.1 and assume shortselling is not
possible.


(a) Derive the equations that, in the plan σ, R̄ , describe all possible combinations of secu-
rities 1 and 2.

(b) Find the composition, volatility, and expected return of the minimum variance portfolio.
(c) Assuming that investors prefer more to less and are risk avoiders, indicate those sections
of the diagram that are efficient. Justify.
(d) How would you change your answers to (a) – (c) if shortselling would be allowed? Explain.

Exercise 1.7. Consider the following two assets:

Asset 1 Asset 2
Market Cond. Return Prob. Market Cond. Return Prob.
1 1
Good 20% 3 Good 16% 3
1 1
Average 14% 3 Average 12% 3
1 1
Poor 8% 3 Poor 8% 3

Furthermore, when answering the questions below always consider two alternative scenarios:
(i) shortselling allowed and (ii) shortselling forbidden.

(a) Represent analytical and graphically for all possible combinations of securities 1 and 2.
(b) What is the composition, volatility and expected return of the minimum variance portfolio.

(c) Assuming that investors prefer more to less and are risk avoiders, indicate those sections
of the diagrams that are efficient. Justify.
(d) Suppose now there is also a riskless asset with Rf = 10%. How would the IOS and EF
change? Sketch it in the mean-variance plan and derive its formulas.

4
Exercise 1.8. Derive the expression for the location of all portfolios of two securities in ex-
pected return standard deviation space when the correlation between the returns of two secu-
rities is:
(a) + 1; (b) − 1; (c) 0; (d) any value ρ with − 1 < ρ < 1 and ρ 6= 0.

(e) Discuss how realistic the correlations in (a) – (d) are.

Exercise 1.9. Consider the following two securities

Expected Return Standard Deviation

Security 1 10% 5%
Security 2 4% 2%

(a) For the 2 securities shown plot all combinations of the 2 securities in (σp , R̄p ) space.
Assume ρ = 1, −1, 0.
(b) For each correlation coefficient and assuming no shortselling what is minimum risk port-
folio and its volatility?
(c) Assume now shortselling is allowed and consider again all mentioned correlations. What
can you conclude:
(i) About the minimum risk portfolio?
(ii) About the existence or not of a risk-free investment and about Rf when it exists?

Exercise 1.10. In Exercise 1.9, assume a riskless rate of 10%. What is(are) the efficient
investment(s)? Why?

Exercise 1.11. Consider the following information on three risky assets, and Rf values for
both lending and borrowing rate of 6%, 8%, 10%.

Security Mean Return (%) Standard Deviation (%) Covariance

A B C
A 11 2 0.001 0.0004
B 14 6 0.003
C 17 9

(a) Derive the equation of the efficient frontier.

(b) What would be the efficient frontier if there would be no credit to invest in risky assets?
Explain step by step and write down the appropriate equations.
(c) What would change if shortselling is forbidden? Sketch and solve.
(d) What if shortselling is possible but it is limited?
(i) Consider shortselling constrained a la Lintner. Explain the Lintner definition of
portfolio and its connection to shortselling restrictions.
(ii) Consider there is an upper bound of at most 50% of the portfolio value.
(iii) Consider there is an upper bound of at most 25% of the portfolio value.

5
Exercise 1.12. Assume that the data below apply to two efficient portfolios.

Portfolio R̄i σi
A 10% 6%
B 8% 4%
ρij = + 65

(a) What is the efficient frontier? Derive it analytically and sketch it in the mean-variance
plan.
(b) Suppose now there is a riskless asset with Rf = 2%, valid for both deposit and borrowing.
What would then be the efficient frontier?
(c) How would you change your answers to (a)-(b) if short-selling if forbidden or limited a la
Lintner? Explain and consider both:
(i) the case when the portfolios A and B are still feasible.
(ii) the case when at least one of the portfolios, A or B, is no longer feasible.

1.3 Portfolio Protection

Exercise 1.13. Assume the original setting of Exercise 1.11 with Rf = 8% and that, in addition
that the returns of A, B and C follow a Normal distribution. Suppose you are worried about
portfolio protection.

(a) Find out the portfolio that minimizes the likelihood of returns below:

(i) 6% (ii) 8% (iii) 10%

Compare the results and explain.

(b) Find out the portfolio with the highest return-at-risk (RaR) for an α = 10%. Interpret.
(c) Characterize the set of all portfolios that have less than 10% probability of returns lower
than 10%.
(d) Classify the safety criteria used in (a)-(c) and discuss their differences.

Exercise 1.14. Consider A and B from Exercise 1.12 and assume their returns are Gaussian.

(a) Identify all combinations of A and B whose probability of returns lower than 5% is less
or equal to 15%.
(b) Which combination maximizes the likelihood of getting returns above 5%. For that par-
ticular combination what is the probability of returns lower or equal to 5%?
(c) What is combination with the highest 15% quantile of the returns distribution?

6
 (d) Establish the necessary connections between the combinations determined in (a)-(c) and
the safety criteria of Roy, Kataoka and Telser. Explain.
(e) If the returns of A and B where not Gaussian, how would you answer the above questions?

Exercise 1.15. Consider two Gaussian risky assets with R̄1 = 12%, R̄2 = 6%, σ1 = 20%, σ2 =
15% and ρ = +0.5. Shortselling is allowed without bound but it is not possible to get a loan
to invest in risky assets. Still, there exist a riskless rate Rf = 3% for deposits.

(a) Sketch the investment opportunity set (IOS) and the efficient frontier (EF) in the mean-
variance plan. Explain.
(b) Find out the minimum variance portfolio, its expected return and volatility.
(c) Derive the equations of the efficient frontier.
(d) Consider that Mr. Exact wants a portfolio E with R̄E = 15% and σE = 28%.
(i) What can you conclude about the efficiency of E? Explain.
(ii) Find out the composition of portfolio E. Motivate all steps.
(iii) Suggest an alternative to portfolio E that Mr. Exact would always accept, no matter
this risk profile. Explain.
(e) Suppose now a new financial institution, Safety Bank, appears in this market. The Safety
Bank is willing to give credit to investments in financial markets at a 3% interest rate,
provided the probability of not getting paid (capital plus interest) is not higher than 10%.
(i) Write down the Safety Bank credit condition and represent it in mean-variance space.
(ii) Find the Telser portfolio satisfying the Safety Bank restriction.
(iii) What type of investors will use the credit services of Safety Bank? Explain.

1.4 International Diversification

Exercise 1.16. Explain what diversification is. Discuss the effect of international diversifica-
tion in any given portfolio. (Obs: Consider N assets).

Exercise 1.17. Consider the following returns:

Period EUA UK Exchange Rate* ($/£)

1 10% 5% 3
2 15% -5% 2.5
3 -5% 15% 2.5
4 12% 8% 2.0
5 6% 10% 1.5
6 2.5
* Beginning of period dollars for pounds

7
 (a) What is the average return in each market from the point of view of a U.S. investor?
What about the case of a U.K. investor?
(b) What is the standard deviation of returns from the point of view of a U.S. investor? What
about the case of a U.K. investor?

Exercise 1.18. Assume that an US investor expects the average return on a security in various
markets is as shown in the following table.

Market Expected Return (%)

1. Austria 14
2. France 16
3. Japan 14
4. United Kingdom 15
5. United States 20

Assume further that the historical correlation coefficients shown below are a reasonable estimate
of future correlation coefficients.
ρ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
1. 0.400 0.430 0.543 0.505
2. 0.415 0.642 0.534
3. 0.474 0.348
4. 0.646
5.

Finally, assume the standard deviations shown next.

Domestic Risk(%) Exchange Risk (%) Total Risk (%)

1. 24.80 10.59 24.50
2. 18.87 10.61 17.76
3. 22.04 12.46 25.70
4. 14.45 10.10 15.59
5. 13.59 13.59

Which markets are attractive investments for an American investor if the riskless lending and
borrowing rate is 6%.

Exercise 1.19. Consider the following data on volatilities associated with various domestic D
and non-domestic N investments (from the domestic investor point of view).

Equities(%) Bonds (%) T- bills (%)

N 19.00 12.875 10.057
D 15.39 6.916 1.068

What is the minimum risk combination of domestic D ,and non-domestic N , assets:

(a) Equities if ρN,D = 0.423. (b) Bonds if ρN,D = 0.527. (c) T-bills if ρN,D = −0.220

8
2 Return Generating Models

2.1 Constant Correlation Model

Exercise 2.1. Consider Constant Correlation Models (CCMs).

(a) What are the assumption(s) underlying a CCM?

(b) What are the advantages of using a CCM?

Exercise 2.2. Consider the following data.

Portfolio R̄i (%) σi (%)

1 10 5
2 8 6
3 12 4
4 14 7
5 6 2
6 9 3
7 5 1
8 8 4
9 10 4
10 12 2
ρij = 0.5 ∀i, j
Rf = 4%

(a) Is it appropriate to use a CCM in this setting? Why or why not.

(b) What is the tangent portfolio, T A , assuming short sales are allowed?
(c) What is the tangent portfolio, T F , assuming short sales are forbidden?
(d) What is the tangent portfolio, T L , assuming short sales are limited a la Lintner?
(e) Trace out in the mean-variance plan the efficient frontiers in (b)-(d).

Exercise 2.3. Given the following data

Portfolio R̄i (%) σi (%)

1 15 10
2 20 15
3 18 20
4 12 10
5 10 5
6 14 10
7 16 20

9
In this economy, the average correlation is 0.5 and the riskless rate is 5%.

(a) Trace out the efficient frontier in the risk/expected return space.
(b) What is the efficient frontier of risky assets?
(i) When short-selling is not allowed.
(ii) When short-selling is allowed, using standard definition.
(iii) When short-selling is allowed, but using Lintner definition.
(c) How would you find all efficient portfolios, if the risk free asset does not exist in this
economy? Fundament your answer.

2.2 Single-Index Model

Exercise 2.4. Consider the following data about a given one-factor model, where the factor is
a market index M :

Security Beta Specific Variance

A 0.75 0.02
B 2 0.03

The volatility of the market index is σM = 25%.

(a) How would you classify A and B in terms of aggressiveness level? Justify.
(b) Consider a portfolio with 25% of security A and 75% of security B.
(i) What is the beta of that portfolio?
(ii) Decompose the variance of that portfolio into diversifiable and non-diversifiable vari-
ance. Explain.
(c) Find the composition and beta of a portfolio formed with securities A and B, which risk
equals the market risk.
(d) Assume that total variance of securities A and B is 0.1 and 0.3, respectively. Check if the
single index model is consistent with this new data.

Exercise 2.5. Consider the following data about two securities:

2
Security βi σei
A 0.875 0.10
B 1.125 0.15

The market index has a volatility of 40% and the covariance between the specific components
of the returns of A and B is 0.1.

10
 (a) Compute and interpret the covariance between security B’s and the market portfolio’s
return.
(b) Find the residual variance of a homogeneous portfolio with security A and B, considering
the Single Index Model assumptions.

(c) Find the effective residual variance of the homogeneous portfolio.

(d) Determine the homogeneous portfolio’s systematic risk.
(e) Comment the following statements:
(i) “The total risk of securities A and B is the same under the Markovitz model and
the single index model”
(ii) “The total risk of a portfolio composed by securities A and B is the same under the
Markovitz model and the single index model”.

Exercise 2.6. Given the data below and the fact that R̄M = 8% and σM = 5%, calculate the
following:

A B C D
α 2% 3% 1% 4%
β 1.5 1.3 0.8 0.9
σei 3% 1% 2% 4%

(a) What model apply to this exercise? Explain its assumptions.

(b) Calculate
(i) The expected return for each security.
(ii) The volatility of each security.
(iii) The covariance of returns between each pair of securities.
(c) Assuming an equally weighted portfolio, H, calculate the following:
2
(i) βH (ii) αH (iii) σH (iv) R̄H

(d) Use Blume’s technique where β2i = 0.343 + 0.677β1i to calculate β2i for each security.
(e) Suppose β̄1 = 1, σβ̄1 = 0.25, σβA = 0.21, σβB = 0.32, σβC = 0.18, σβD = 0.20, forecast
each security’s beta using the Vasiček adjustment.

Exercise 2.7. Assume that all assumptions of the single index model hold, except that the
covariance between residuals is a constant K instead of zero.

(a) Derive the covariance between the two securities.

(b) Derive the expression valid for the variance of a portfolio.

11
 2
Exercise 2.8. The market index variance is σM = 0.001 and a single index model can explain
the returns of 6 securities.
2
Security R̄i (%) βi σei
1 15 1.0 0.003
2 12 1.5 0.002
3 11 2.0 0.004
4 8 0.8 0.001
5 9 1.0 0.002
6 14 1.5 0.001

(a) Find the efficient portfolio of risky assets in a scenario where the riskless rate is Rf = 5%
and short sales not allowed.
(b) Consider the same riskless rate of Rf = 5%, what would change if:
(i) Shortselling is allowed without restrictions?
(ii) Shortselling is limited a la Lintner?
Motivate our answers.
(c) Assume that short selling is allowed, but there is no riskless security (i.e. it is not possible
to borrow or lend at the riskless rate Rf ). Explain how you would determine the efficient
frontier.

Exercise 2.9. Suppose that, in a given economy, the correlation coefficient between all secu-
rities’ returns is the same, ρ∗ , and that the assumptions of the single index model are valid.
Derive an expression for the beta of any security.

Exercise 2.10. Consider the following data:

Securities αi βi σei Other data

A 2% 1,5 4% R̄m 20%
B 4% 0,8 3% σm 10%
C 6% 0,4 2% RF 2%

Using the Market Model, fill in the following table (in % and using two decimal places, e.g.
7.25%):

Securities Expected Return Systematic Risk Specific Risk Total Risk

A

Portfolio K

Portfolio K is composed by 20% of A, 30% of B and the remaining of C.

12
2.3 Multi-Index Model

Exercise 2.11. Show how to reduce a general three-factor model with possibly correlated
factors into a three-factor model with orthogonal factors.

Exercise 2.12. Given a three index model such that all indexes are orthogonal, derive the
formulas for:

(a) The expected return.

(b) Variance of any stock.
(c) Covariance between two any stocks.

Exercise 2.13. A multi-factor model was estimated for two risky assets:

RAt = 2% + 1.1I1∗ t + 1.2I2∗ t + cAt

RB t = 5% + 0.8I1∗ t + I2∗ t + cB t

where I1∗ and I2∗ are correlated factors that verify the regression I2∗ t = 2% + 1.5I1∗ t + dt and we
have I¯1∗ = 12%, σI1∗ = 20%,σd = 3%. Furthermore we know σcA = 5%, σcB = 7% .

(a) Write the equivalent multi-factor equations for orthogonal factors I1 , I2 .

(b) Determine the mean-variance theory (MVT) inputs.
(c) Assume there is additionally a riskless asset with a deposit rate of Rfp = 3% and a credit
rate of Rfa = 5%
(i) Sketch the investment opportunity set.
(ii) Write down the equations that describe the efficient frontier. Motivate.

Exercise 2.14. What are the economic variables more often used as explanatory variables in
multi index models?

Exercise 2.15. Assume that the following two index model holds:

Ri = ai + bi1 I1 + bi2 I2 + ci

You have the following data on the two uncorrelated indexes, I1 e I2 : R̄I1 = 15%; σI1 = 25%
and σI2 = 5% . You also have information on 3 securities (see table below) :

Security Expected Return ai bi1 bi2 σci

(%) (%) (%)
A —— 0.2 1.2 -0.15 5
B 12.5 0.5 0.8 0 2
C 9.5 -0.1 0 1.2 1

13
Finally, in this economy exists a riskless asset with return rate Rf = 5%, that can be used for
both lending and borrowing.

(a) What are the “b’s” associated to the riskless asset?

(b) What is the expected value for index 2?

(c) What is the expected value for security A ?
(d) What is the systematic risk of each security A, B and C?

(e) What is the covariance matrix for the 3 securities?

(f) Assume that you can only invest in securities B and C.
(i) Determine the composition and the risk of the minimum variance portfolio.
(ii) If you could invest in the riskless asset, what would be the minimum variance port-
folio?

(g) Assume hat you can invest in any security, A, B and C and that short-selling is allowed.
(i) Find the composition of the efficient portfolio of risky assets, portfolio T , and its
expected return and risk.
(ii) Write the expression for the efficient frontier.

14
3 Selecting the Optimal Porfolio

3.1 Expected Utility Theory

Exercise 3.1. Show that when presented with a fair game:

(a) a risk-neutral agent is indifferent between entering the game or not

(b) a risk-averse agent does not enter the game.
(c) a risk-lover agent always chooses the game

Exercise 3.2. Suppose our investor has power utility U (W ) = −W −1/3 , and we wish to choose
between investments A and B which result in final total wealths as follows:

A B
probabilities value probabilities value
0.25 4 0.333333 4
0.5 6 0.333333 6.2
0.25 8 0.333333 8

(a) What investment do you recommend? Explain.

(b) What if we have power utility but with a different power U (W ) = −W −0.1 .

(c) Compare the two investors.

Exercise 3.3. Suppose a coin is tossed twice. On heads wealth is doubled. On tails wealth
is multiplied by 0.05. The investor has log utility. Initial wealth is 1 000. How much wealth
would the investor pay to avoid this situation?

Exercise 3.4. Consider two investors, one with exponential utility U (W ) = 1 − e−0.001W and
another with log utility U (W ) = ln(W ). To both investors was proposed the following fair
game: to win X to loose X with equal probability.

(a) Suppose both investors have an initial wealth of ¤1 000.

(i) How much would they pay to avoid the game with X = 250? Why?
(ii) Is there an optimal X value?

(b) What if their initial wealth is ¤100 000? Interpret your results.

15
Exercise 3.5. Consider an investor with utility function U (W ) = W − 0.005W 2 with initial
wealth W0 = 50. He was offered the possibility of entering a fair game, where he could loose or
win 25 with equal probability.

(a) Is he willing to play the game? Why or why not?

(b) How could you distort the game probabilities so that he would be indifference between
playing or not?
(c) What is his certainty equivalent to the game? How to interpret it?

Exercise 3.6. Suggest an utility function that is able to describe preferences of an investor
with initial wealth ¤2 500, that ranks three risk project as X  Y  Z. About the risky
projects we only know R̄X = 20%, R̄Y = 15% and R̄Z = 8%, while σX = 30%, σY = 35%,
σZ = 5%. Explain. Study the suggested utility in terms of absolute and relative risk aversion.

Exercise 3.7. Consider the following alternative investments.

Invest.A Invest.B Invest.C

Outcome Prob. Outcome Prob. Outcome Prob.
5 1/3 4 1/4 1 1/5
6 1/3 7 1/2 9 3/5
9 1/3 10 1/4 18 1/5

(a) Assuming the utility function of a given investor 1 is:

U (W ) = 20W − 0.5W 2 (1)

What is the preferred investment?

(b) Imagine a second investor whose utility function is
1
U (W ) = − √ (2)
W
Would this second investor agree with the first investor choices?
(c) Consider investment B. The probability associated to outcomes 4 and 10 is 1/4. What
should the probability of these equally likely outcomes, so that investor 1 is indifferent
between investments A and B?
(d) Consider now investments B and C. To what value you have to change the lowest outcome
of investment C to make these two investments indifferent to investor 2?

Exercise 3.8. Consider again the utility function (2).

(a) What can be said about the investor behaviour towards risk?
(b) Study its characteristics and interpret in terms of absolute and relative aversion to risk.

16
Exercise 3.9. Suppose the utility function of a given investor is U (W ) = ae−bW , with a and
b constants.

(a) What sign must a and b assume in order to make this investor risk averse and prefers
more to less?
(b) Suppose this investor has the chance to do a risky investment that requires an initial
amount of 1 000 euros. If he decides to invest, it is equally likely that he wins 500 euros
or looses 300.
(i) Show that his decision to invest or not does not depend on the parameter a.
(ii) Determine the certainty equivalent for the proposed investment as a function of b.
Interpret.
(iii) For b = 0.01, compute the certainty equivalent, the risk premium and state the
investor choice (in terns of investing or not).

Exercise 3.10. Wealth’s W utility function for a certain investor is

1
U (W ) = 50W − W 2 .
2

Now consider the following investment projects:

X Y
¤ Outcome Probability ¤ Outcome Probability
10 0.1 20 0.05
40 0.2 40 0.9
25 0.7 45 0.05

(a) Represent graphically the utility function.

(b) Characterize the investor behavior towards risk.

(c) What project will be chosen by the investor? Explain.

(d) What is the risk premium associated to each project?

Exercise 3.11. An investor, whose risk profile can be expressed by an utility function, wishes
to invest in financial markets. To build her utility function, we asked her to give an utility value
to some return rates.

Return Rates Utility Level

0% 0
10% 5

Moreover, she has considered three risky projects X, Y, Z with the following return distributions:

17
 X Y Z
Return Prob. Return Prob. Return Prob.
0% 0.5 10% 0.4 -10% 0.2
30% 0.5 30% 0.6 20% 0.8

and we were able to find each project certain equivalents for the projects CX = 10%, CY = 20%
and CZ = 10%.

(a) Implicitly derive the utility levels associated with returns of 10%, 20% and 30%. What
can you conclude about the investor’s attitude towards risk?
(b) Compute the risk premia associated with projects X, Y, Z. Explain.
(c) What are the theoretical foundations of this analysis?
(d) Rank the three projects according to the maximal expected utility principle.
(e) For each of the projects find out the equivalent projects that pay 0 or b = 30% with the
subjective probabilities. Use these distorted probabilities to confirm the ranking in (d).

Exercise 3.12. Consider the following utility function,

U (W ) = 2 + 4 ln W

(a) Find the absolute and relative risk averse coefficient and explain the meaning of your
results.
(b) Consider the following data on the expected wealth of three investment projects X, Y , Z

E [WX ] = 101 E [WY ] = 61 E [WZ ] = 71 .

and suppose each project has just two possible outcomes: 1 or 201.
(i) Determine the implicit real probabilities associated with each outcome for each
project.
(ii) Rank the three projects according to the expected utility criteria using the function
U (.) above.
(iii) Determine the certainty equivalent and risk premia of each project for an investor
with U (.). Interpret.
(c) Consider now the utility function V (W ) = 8 ln W . Would your answers to the questions
in (b) change? Why or why not?

Exercise 3.13. A given investor has the following utility function

1
U (W ) = W − 6W 2 with W <
12

(a) Classify this investor in terms of her risk profile and plot in the risk/expected return
space, the shape of her indifference curves. Justify.

18
 (b) Find her absolute and relative risk aversion coefficients.
(c) Explain the differences between absolute and relative risk aversion.

Exercise 3.14. An investor risk tolerance is well captured by the following family of indifference
curves R̄p = exp(0.7σp ) + K, for K constant.

(a) Explain the connection between the utility function, U (W ), the risk tolerance function,
f (σp , R̄p ) and its indifference curves.

(b) Characterize the risk profile of the above mentioned investor based upon the shape of the
indifference curves.
(c) In a market where the efficient frontier is given by R̄p = 0.05 + 0.8σp , what is the optimal
risk level for our investor? Explain.

Exercise 3.15. Consider a quadratic utility of the form U (W ) = aW 2 + bW + c.

(a) Under which conditions can the above utility function be used to model (i) risk averse,
(ii) risk loving or (iii) risk neutral investors.
(b) Derive the risk tolerance function (RTF) associated with quadratic utility.
(c) Find out the indifference curves of the RTF in (b) and check their slope. Establish a
connection to your conclusions in (a).

(d) Consider the case of a risk averse investor and study the absolute and relative risk aversion
properties implied by the quadratic utility.
(e) Why are quadratic utility functions so much used in finance?

Exercise 3.16. Consider the data about the following securities:

Securities R̄i σi
A 8% 10%
B 12% 20%
C 15% 25%
F 4% 0%

You also known that security A is independent from the others and the correlation coefficient
between B and C is −0.6.
Calculate:

(a) The composition and return of a portfolio formed by securities A and B and a risk level
of 9.22%.

(b) The composition and risk of a portfolio with securities A and B and a return level 11%

19
 (c) What is the only efficient combination of just risky assets? Explain.
(d) Write the equation of the efficient frontier for this market?
(e) An investor wants to invest 400 000 euros. If her indifference curves in the plan (σp , R̄p )
are given by R̄p = 0.5σp2 + 0.965σp + 0.01K ∀K.

(i) Based upon the shape of the indifference curves what can you conclude about the
investor’s attitude towards risk?
(ii) What is the optimal investment, O, for her? What return should she expect?
(iii) Compare the value of her risk tolerance function for the investments T (tangent
portfolio), O (optimal portfolio) and F (100% in deposit). Interpret.

(f) Consider now a second investor that is a Log-investor, U (W ) = ln(W ).

(i) Explain the problem that arises when one tries to obtain the risk tolerance function
(RTF) of the second investor.
(ii) Use a second order Taylor approximation of the utility function to obtain an approx-
imation of his RTF.
(iii) Use the RTF approximation from (ii) to derive the optimal investment.
(iv) Derive the indifference curve of the approximated RTF.
(v) Use now the indifference curves to obtain the optimal portfolio and check you get
the same portfolio as in (iii). Explain.

(g) What would be the optimal investment for any investor who is risk neutral? Formalize
you answer.
(h) What would be the optimal investment for any investor who is risk lover? Formalize you
answer.

3.2 Alternatives Techniques

Exercise 3.17. Consider the three investments presented in Exercise 3.7. Using geometric
mean return as a criterion and an initial amount of 100 euros:

(a) Rank the three investments.

(b) What is the rational of using geometric mean as a decision criterion for financial invest-
ments?

(c) Check that we get the exact same ordering if we use the expected utility principle with
U (W ) = ln(W ).
(d) Show that is always the case. For simplicity you can consider only investments with
discrete distribution of outcomes.

20
Exercise 3.18. Given the following alternative investments.

A B C
Prob. Return Prob. Return Prob. Payoff
0.2 4% 0.1 5% 0.4 6%
0.3 6% 0.3 6% 0.3 7%
0.4 8% 0.2 7% 0.2 8%
0.1 10% 0.3 8% 0.1 10%
0.1 9%

(a) What can be said about the investment decision, using the first and second order stochastic
dominance criterion?
(b) Suggest an utility function that would lead to the same decision as in (a). Explain your
suggestion.

(c) If RL = 5%, what is the preferred investment using Roy’s safety first criterion?
(d) If α = 10%, what is the preferred investment using Kataoka’s safety-first criterion?
(e) If RL = 5% and α = 10%, what is the preferred investment using Telser’s safety-first
criterion?

(f) Using the geometric mean return as a criterion, which is the preferred investment?

Exercise 3.19. Consider 3 investments A, B and C whose returns follow normal distributions.
Furthermore, we know R̄A = 10%, σA = 15%, R̄B = 12%, σB = 17%,R̄C = 15% and σC = 30%.

(a) What can be said about the investment decision, using the first and second order stochastic
dominance criterion?
(b) If RL = 5%, what is the preferred investment using Roy’s safety first criterion?
(c) If α = 10%, what is the preferred investment using Kataoka’s safety-first criterion?
(d) If RL = 5% and α = 10%, what is the preferred investment using Telser’s safety-first
criterion?
(e) What will be the best investment if the objective is to minimize RaR with α = 2.5%?

21
4 Equilibrium in Financial Markets

4.1 CAPM

Exercise 4.1. Consider the following data about equilibrium returns in a given capital market:

Stock R̄ie Beta Specfic Variance

A 0.2 1.5 0.05
B 0.1 0 0.15

Furthermore, assume some version of CAPM holds and the market risk is σM = 0.5.

(a) Find security’s A volatility.

(b) Consider the existence of a third security C, with variance 0.75 and without diversifiable
risk. Find its beta. What kind of stock is C?

(c) Calculate the market portfolio, M expected return.

(d) What assumptions support the previous result?

Exercise 4.2. Consider the following data about a capital market:

Security Risk Expected Return

Market portfolio 10% 10%
Treasury Bonds 0 5%

(a) Assume that CAPM holds and the return of an asset A is perfectly and positively corre-
lated with the market return. Determine the expected return for this asset, assuming its
risk is 20%.
(b) Calculate e represent geometrically the characteristic line of this asset.

Exercise 4.3. Assume CAPM holds. Consider the following data about the capital market in
which security X is listed:

Cov(RX , RM ) = 0.02
2
σM = 0.025

The riskless return rate is 7%.

(a) If the expected market return is 9%, what is the expected return for asset security X?
(b) If the expected market return is 12% and the expected stock X return is 10%, is the price
of this stock in equilibrium? Explain.

22
Exercise 4.4. Consider the following data:

Stocks Weights R̄i βi

Portfolio 1 Portfolio 2
A -0.5 0 0.12 1.5
B 0 -1 0.10 1
C 1.5 2 0.05 0.5

Determine the portfolios betas and explain what is the arbitrage strategy that could be imple-
mented here, if any.

Exercise 4.5. Consider the following data about the financial market in which stocks A, B
and C traded. These stocks are not alone in this market.

Security A Security B Security C Portfolio Market

Expected Return in Equilibrium — — 2% 10%
Risk 12% 12% 0% 4%
Beta 0.5 -0.1 — —

(a) Determine the equilibrium conditions and fill the gaps in the table above.
(b) Decompose the risk of stock A and B.
(c) Explain carefully the way investment decisions are made under CAPM assumptions.

Exercise 4.6. Suppose the following assets are correctly priced according to the security market
line.

R̄1e = 6% β1 = 0.5
R̄2e = 12% β2 = 1.5

(a) Derive the security market line.

(b) What is the expected return on an asset with a beta of 2?
(c) Assume that an asset exists with R̄3 = 15% and β3 = 1.2. Verify there are arbitrage
opportunities. If they exist, design a strategy to exploit it.

Exercise 4.7. Assume the security market line:

R̄i = 0.04 + 0.08βi .

Assume that analysts have estimated the beta on two stocks X and Y as follows: βX = 0.5
e βY = 2. What must the expected return on the two securities be in order for them to be a
good purchase?

23
Exercise 4.8. Assume that over some period CAPM equilibrium estimates give

R̄ie = 0.04 + 0.19βi .

Assume that over the same period two mutual funds had the following results:

Funds Actual Return Beta

A 10% 0.8
B 15% 1.2

What can be said about each fund performance?

Exercise 4.9. If the following assets are correctly priced on the security market line:

R̄1 = 9.4% β1 = 0.8

R̄2 = 13.4% β2 = 1.3

(a) What is the return of the market portfolio?

(b) What is the risk-free rate?

Exercise 4.10. Assume that returns are generated as follows:

Ri = R̄i + ai (RM − R̄M ) + bi (C − C̄)

where C is the rate of change in interest rates. Derive a general equilibrium relationship for
security returns.

Exercise 4.11. Assume R̄M = 15%, Rf = 5% and that risk-free lending is allowed but riskless
borrowing is not.

(a) Sketch the efficient frontier in expected return standard deviation space.
(b) Sketch the security market line and the location of all portfolios in expected return Beta
space. Label all points and explain why you have drawn them as you have.

Exercise 4.12. Assume you pay a higher tax on income than on capital gains. Furthermore,
assume that you believe that prices are determined by the post-tax CAPM. Another investor,
however, believes that prices are determined by the pre-tax CAPM. Show that you can make
an excess return by engaging in a two-security swap with him.

24
4.2 APT

Exercise 4.13. Suppose returns are explained by the multi-index model:

Ri = ai + bi1 I1 + bi2 I2 + i .
Assume a two-factor APT holds, and consider the following information on three portfolios that
are known to be in equilibrium:

Portfolio R̄ie bi1 bi2

X 16% 1.0 0.7
Y 14% 0.6 1.0
Z 11% 0.5 -1.5

(a) Find the respective equilibrium relationship.

(b) If a portfolio W , with R̄W = 13%, b1W = 1 and b2W = 0 exists, what can we say about
existence of arbitrage opportunities? Explain.
(c) Comment the following statement: “CAPM is a particular case of APT ”.

Exercise 4.14. Assume that the multi-index model below correctly explains returns in a given
market
Ri = ai + bi1 F1 + bi2 F2 + ci .
Consider the following information about three equilibrium returns:

Stocks R̄ie bi1 bi2

A 10% 0.5 1.0
B 12% 1.0 1.5
C 11% -0.5 2.0

(a) Assume that APT holds.

(i) Find the equation that explains returns at equilibrium.
(ii) What is the equilibrium risk-free rate?
(b) Suppose that in this market exists another stock D with: R̄D = 12%, bD1 = 2 and
bD2 = 0.5. How would you characterize this stock?
(c) Using stocks A, B and C, find the composition of a portfolio with a risk level identical to
stock D. Admit that short-selling is allowed.

Exercise 4.15. The following data about a given capital market is known:

Security 1 Security 2 Security 3

Expected Return 12% 15% 40%
Expected Return at Equilibrium 10% 20% —
Returns sensitivity to I1 1 2 3

25
Admit that a one-factor APT holds.

(a) Calculate the composition and the return of an arbitrage portfolio.

(b) What is the equilibrium relationship in this model? Fill the gaps in the table above and
for each stock made your investment decision.
(c) “Considering transactions costs in CAPM is consistent with a non-linear relationship
between betas and the stock’s equilibrium return”. Comment and explain.

Exercise 4.16. Assume that a two-factor APT model holds and consider the following data
about three portfolios that are in equilibrium

Portfolio R̄ie bi1 bi2

A 12% 1.0 0.5
B 13.4% 3.0 10.2
C 12% 3.0 -0.5

If (R̄M − Rf ) = 4%, find the values for the following variables that would make the equilibrium
expected returns also consistent with Sharpe-Lintner-Mossin CAPM.

(a) βλ1 and βλ2 .

(b) βp for each of the three portfolios.
(c) Rf .

Exercise 4.17. In a given market, returns are explained by a two-factor model, with factors
I1 and I2 . Thereafter, we also know:

Portfolio R̄i bi1 bi2

X 19% 1.0 0.5
Y 14% 1.4 0
Z 8% 3.0 -1.0

(a) Assume that APT holds and the above portfolios are in equilibrium. Determine:
(i) the respective equilibrium relationship
(ii) the expected return for each indexes and
(iii) the risk-less return rate.
(b) Suppose that in this market you can find a portfolio W with E [RW ] = 13%, bW 1 = 1 and
bW 2 = 0. Could we speak in arbitrage opportunities?
(c) A given fund (F), with an extremely well-diversified portfolio, b1F = 1.2 and b2F = 0.2,
announced a Sharpe Ratio of 0.75. Knowing that the volatilities of the factors I1 and I2
are 10% and 25%, respectively, what can you conclude about this fund performance?

26
 (d) A financial analyst believes that CAPM holds in this market with R̄M = 15%, σM = 20%.
In you opinion, is this possible? Support you idea and, if possible, derive CAPM expected
factor values I¯1 and I¯2 and betas βI1 , βI2 , as well as the betas of the X, Y e Z portfolios.

Exercise 4.18. In a given market two financial analysts don’t seem to agree. One believe
returns are fully explained by a two-indexes model I1 e I2 and the other prefer CAPM.

(a) Compare and contrast CAPM and APT.

(b) To the analyst that believes APT is correct, the equilibrium relation ship is R̄i = 0.07 +
0.03b1 + 0.05b2 . Determine(i) expected returns for the indexes I1 , I2 and (ii) the risk-less
return rate.

(c) On the other hand, CAPM’s investor knows that in equilibrium, two portfolios X and Y
have: R̄X = 30.4%, βX = 1.8, R̄Y = 13.5% and βY = 0.5. Derive, explaining, (i) the
equilibrium relationship (ii) market portfolio return (iii) and the risk-less interest rate.
(d) Could both analysts be right? Under what circumstances? Explain. If your answer is
positive derive the relationship between(bs) from APT that would apply to portfolios X
and Y as well as the betas that would apply to indexes I1 and I2 .

27
5 Portfolio Management
Exercise 5.1. Here are data on five mutual funds:

Fund Return Volatility Beta

A 14 6 1.5
B 12 4 0.5
C 16 8 1.0
D 10 6 0.5
E 20 10 2

The risk-free rate is 3% the market return is 13% and its standard deviation is 5%

(a) Is volatility a good risk measure?

(b) What is the reward-to-variability ratio and ranking?

(c) What is the differential return when standard deviation is considered to be a good risk
measure?
(d) What is the differential return if Beta is the appropriate measure of risk?

(e) What is the Treynor measure and ranking?

(f) Assume that the zero Beta form of the capital asset pricing model (CAPM) is appropriate.
What is the differential return for the funds if Rz = 4%?
(g) For Funds A and B, how much would the return on B have to change to reverse the
ranking using the reward-to-variability ratio?

Exercise 5.2. Consider que following data

Funds Return Beta Specific Variance

A 15% 1.3 0.003
B 9% 0.9 0.04

If the risk-free rate is 5% and the market risk is 0.3, what is Sharpe’s Ratio of Funds A and B?

28
6 Miscellaneous

Exercise 6.1. In a famous country near by the sea there are two kinds of investors: the super
averse and the simply averse. The preferences of the super averse investors are well described
by the following risk tolerance function:

f (σ, R̄) = 2.272R̄ − R̄2 − σ 2 ,

with R̄ = E (R) and σ 2 = Var (R) where R is the return of investments in financial markets.
The next table presents some information on that country near by the sea’s capital market:

Tangent Portfolio T Risk free asset F Portfolio A

R̄i 12% 4% 8%
σi 6% 0 3%
ρi,M 1 0 1

(a) Assume that any investor can deposit or take (unrestricted) loans at the risk free rate.
(i) What is the set of efficient portfolios of this country near by the sea? Check whether
portfolio A belongs to that set.
(ii) Denote by O the optimal portfolio of a super averse investor. Show that this optimal
portfolio has the following characteristics: R̄O = 5.297% and σO = 0.96%. What is
the proportion of the optimal portfolio invested in the risk free asset?
(iii) Knowing the optimal portfolio of the simply averse investors requires investing 120%
in the tangent portfolio T , what can you conclude about their optimal risk level?
(iv) We also know that in this country near by the sea there are 1 million of super averse
investors and 4 million of simply averse investors. Assume each super averse investor
invests 1000 euros in the capital market, while each simply averse investor invests
2000 euros. Check if there is equilibrium.

(b) Suppose now taking a loan for investment in financial assets is still possible, but at a
higher active interest rate of 7%. In this case we know there is another portfolio B, that
involves investing only in risky assets and that is efficient. For portfolio B we also have
R̄B = 15%, σB = 12% and we know the correlation between the returns of portfolio T
and B is 0.6.

(i) What is the minimum variance M V portfolio in this case? Justify your derivations.
(ii) Sketch the efficient frontier when, as in this case, we have active and passive interest
rates different from each other. Explain.
(iii) Assume the optimal risk level of both kinds of investors does not change. Derive
their optimal portfolios under the new conditions?

29
Exercise 6.2. In a country called “Cavaquistão” all efficient portfolios are well described by
the expression
R̄p = 3.5% + 0.3436σp .

(a) Based upon the expression of the efficient frontier, what can you conclude about (i) the
existence (or not) of the risky asset; and (ii) the Sharpe ratio of the tangent portfolio T ?
Explain your answer

(b) We know Mr. Silva preferences are well represented by U (W ) = 50W − 0.01W 2 and that
he wishes to invest 1 000 euros in this market.
(i) What are the absolute and relative risk aversion coefficients of Mr.Silva before invest-
ment? How can you interpret the his absolute and relative risk aversion functions?
(ii) What is a risk tolerance function? Derive Mr. Silva’s.
(iii) What is the optimal risk level for Mr. Silva?

(c) Knowing that the tangent portfolio has only two assets with return distributions as in the
following table

Scenarios Probability Asset 1 Asset 2

Bad 0.25 -5% 10%
Average 0.5 0% -5%
Good 0.25 50% 35%

(i) Determine the composition and risk of the tangent portfolio T ?

(ii) What is the composition and expected return of Mr.Silva’s optimal portfolio O?
(iii) Would the optimal portfolio of Mr. Silva change if the active risk free rate would
increase to 10%? Motivate your answer.

Exercise 6.3. The following information concerns three risk assets in a particular market

Assets R̄i (%) σi (%)

A 8 10
B 12 20
C 15 25

The average correlation across the three assets’ returns is +0.5.

In this market it is possible to deposit or borrow money at the same risk-free rate 3%.

(a) Assume you are allowed to invest in the three assets and that shortseling in not restricted.
(i) Find out the portfolio tangent to the risky assets’ investment oportunity set (portfolio
T ).
(ii) What are the expected return and risk of portfolio T ?
(iii) Derive the efficient frontier equation. Motivate your answer.

30
 (b) An investor, whose risk profile is compatible with the indifference cuves R̄p = σp2 +
0.415σp + K for K ∈ R, wishes to invest in this market.
(i) What is the investor’s optimal risk level?
(ii) What are the composition and expected return of his optimal portfolio?
(c) In case shortselling would be limited a la Lintner, what would change?
(i) In terms of the shape of the efficient frontier? Explain.
(ii) In terms of the optimal for our investor? Explain.
(d) Looking now at A, B and C as alternative investments and assuming their returns follow a
normal distribution, what can you conclude about the ranking of the three assets according
to Roy (take RL = 5%)? Explain.

Exercise 6.4. Consider the assumptions of a single factor model (SFM), where for the common
factor we have R̄m = 15%, σm = 20%. Furthermore, assume there exists a riskless asset that
can be used to both lend and borrow with Rf = 5% and the following information about 6
risky assets.

2
R̄i βi σei
1 25.1% 2 0.002
2 19.8% 1.5 0.003
3 17.0% 1.2 0.004
4 14.8% 1 0.005
5 12.8% 0.8 0.006
6 12.0% 0.7 0.007

(a) Consider the single factor used for the SFM model is a good proxy to the market portfolio
of CAPM.
(i) Write down the CAPM equilibrium equation and interpret.
(ii) Show that only assets 3 and 6 are in equilibrium.


(iii) Represent the security market line and the 6 assets in the β, R̄e space in and give
your buy/sell recommendations.
(b) Suppose Mr. Capm would like to consider only combinations of the two risky assets that
are in equilibrium.
(i) Determinine the MVT inputs for the two assets in equilibrium.
(ii) What is the geometric shape of the set representing all efficient
combinations of the
two assets. Explain and sketch it in mean-variance space σ, R̄ .
(iii) If Mr. Capm would consider, in addition, the risk free asset. What would then be:
∗ the investment opportunity set;
∗ the combination of the two risky assets with the highest Sharpe ratio;
∗ the efficient frontier.
(iv) Do you think Mr. Capm should consider also the risk free asset? Why or why not?
(c) Assume now the risky returns are approximately Gaussian.
(i) Identify all portfolios that have at most 25% probability

of negative returns. Derive
the mathematical expression and represent it in σ, R̄ space.

31
 (ii) Suppose Mr. Capm from Question 2 is a Telser investor. What would you recommend
∗ Considering only combinations of the two risky assets.
∗ Considering in addition the risk-free asset. Why?
(d) Using the cut-off method and assuming shortselling is not allowed, what is your opinion
about the fact that Mr. Capm is only considering the two risky assets in equilibrium?
I.e., would you recommend considering any other risky asset? Explain your answer.

Exercise 6.5. In a country NearByTheSea the efficient mean-variance frontier is given by


R̄p = 0.03 + 1.2σp
 σp ≤ 0.10
σp2 = 5.56R̄p2 − 1.50R̄p + 0.11 0.10 < σp < 0.20

R̄p = 0.114 + 0.48σp 0.20 ≤ σp ≤ 0.35


(a) Based upon the above information:

(i) Determine the expected returns of the efficient portfolios, T 1 and T 2 with 10% and
20% volatility, respectively.
(ii) Knowing the minimum variance portfolio can be seen as the combination of T 1 and
T 2 where we invest 125% in T 1, find out the implicit correlation between the returns
of portfolios T 1 and T 2.
(iii) From the shape of the efficient frontier, what can you conclude about: (i) the ex-
istence or not of a riskless asset, (ii) passive and active interest rates, (iii) possible
shortselling restrictions, (iv) possible borrowing limits
(iv) Sketch the shape of the investment opportunity

set (IOS) set and of the efficient
frontier (EF) in the mean-variance σ, R̄ space and describe how each efficient point
could be achieved.
(b) Consider Mr. Quelhas has an utility function U (W ) = −ebW , with b < 0.
(i) Evaluate Mr. Quelhas risk profile, interpreting your conclusions about his absolute
and relative risk aversion.
(ii) Take W0 = 1 and use the second order Taylor approximation to the risk tolerance
function of Mr. Quelhas to determine for which levels of the parameter b, his optimal
volatility is the maximum allowed volatility σ ∗ = 35%. Explain all steps of your
solution.

32