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EXPERIMENT 01: Verify the law of conservation of energy by Hook’s Law using a
mass spring system.

Hook’s Law: When the spring is stretched, there is a restoring force that is directly
proportional to the displacement.
F∝x
F = -kx
(-ive sign shows opposite direction.)

According to Hooke’s Law, F = -ks when a body of mass m is suspended on a spring with spring
constant k, and the spring is stretched or compressed from equilibrium position with
displacement s.
F is a restoring force, the negative sign in the equation indicating force is always opposite to the
direction of displacement. If the spring is hung vertically, application of Newton’s First Law
means that F = mg. Combining Hooke’s Law with F = mg, we get mg = ks. Using this combined
equation, we can determine the spring constant k for Part 1 of the experiment. The
displacement for Part 1 was obtained using a motion sensor, measuring the distance between
the weight hanger and the sensor.

A body that is stationary is in equilibrium. If a body of mass m is displaced from equilibrium with
distance x, there will be a net force acting on the body. According Newton’s Second Law, this
net force will cause the object to oscillate up and down around the system’s equilibrium position.
The total mechanical energy for a vertically oscillating spring-mass system is Emech = 1/2mv2 +
1/2k(x0-x)2 = mgx. In this equation, kinetic energy of the mass, elastic potential energy of the
spring, and gravitational potential energy are all accounted for. x 0 is the distance the spring is
stretched with a mass on it. Further derivable equations are as followed:

Emech = 1/2mv2 + 1/2k((mg/k)-x)2 + mgx

Emech = 1/2mv2 + 1/2kx2 + (mg)2/2k

For the equation below, h0 is the distance between the motion sensor and the spring with no
motion. When there is no motion, the distance from the detector is measured as h.

Emech = 1/2mv2 + 1/2k(h-h0)2 + (mg)2/2k

Because (mg)2/2k is a constant, the sum of the first two terms on the right side of the equation
directly above must remain the same for equilibrium to be conserved.

For part 1 of the experiment, we measured the spring constant k. For part 2 of the experiment,
we experimentally verified the conservation of mechanical energy of a spring-mass system. The
motion sensor was used to detect oscillation and a graph of distance h with velocity v. time for
the system was obtained. Using manual calculation and verifying manual calculations with
software generated data, we were able to confirm energy is conserved at every point in time for
the vertically oscillating spring-mass system.

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1.1 Objective:
To verify the law of conservation of energy by investigating the relationship between potential
energy stored in a spring and the kinetic energy of a mass attached to it.

1.2 Apparatus:
 Mass-spring system
 Set of weights
 Meter stick or ruler
 Stopwatch or timer
 Balance for measuring weights
 Vernier calipers (optional)

1.3 Procedure:
 Part I. (Spring Constant Measurement)

1. The weight hanger was massed to be 84.86 grams. It was then hung on the spring.
2. We logged onto the computer, connected to USB cable of the 850 Universal Interface to
a USB port on the computer, and connected the AC adapter power cord to an electrical
outlet under the lab table. The green button at the corner of the interface was pressed.
3. The computer file labeled “Lab 125 Spring Mass System” was opened up.
4. The distance from the weight hanger to the sensor was measured under a condition of
no motion.
5. The program generated a position v. time graph. The position data was averaged using
tools in the tool bar on top of the graph. The position value y0 was recorded in Data
Table 1.
6. Mass was added in increments for each trial to expand the spring. Position y n was
repeatedly measured and recorded each trial, n representing the trial number.
Displacement of the spring was calculated each trial, obtained with y0 – y.
7. A graph of the spring force (in N) v. displacement (in m) was graphed and fit with a
regression line. The slope was the spring constant k (in N/m).

 Part II. (Verification of Conservation of Mechanical Energy of a Spring-

Mass System)

1. The same setup as part 1 was maintained.

2. “Part-IIA” in the program was opened up.
3. A 250g mass was added to the weight hanger and the equilibrium position was
measured with the sensor and recorded in Data Table II.
4. The spring was started vertically oscillating on an amplitude of about 5 cm within the
optimum range of the motion sensor.
5. “Record” was clicked on the program interface and a graph of position v. time and a
graph of velocity v. time for the same data were generated.

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6. Using the “Show Coordinates” tool, the values of position (h) and velocity (v) at crest,
trough, and equilibrium positions on the plot were obtained.
7. The total mechanical energy at the specified points was then calculated using the given
equations. The three values of mechanical energies were compared.
8. All data was recorded in Data Table II.
9. The capstone software was used to compute the mechanical energy at every point. The
generated data was used to confirm our manual calculations.

1.4 Observations:
Table1
M (mass of weight hanger) = 0.08486 kg

Sr Weight Position Displacement

No. (N) yi y0- y1
(m) (m)
1 Mg y0 0
0.503
2 Mg+ y1 0.028
100g 0.475
3 Mg+ y2 0.069
200g 0.434
4 Mg+ y3 0.09
300g 0.413
5 Mg+ y4 0.15
400g 0.353
6 Mg+ y5 0.19
500g 0.313

Graph:

 As can be seen in the graph, k has been estimated to equal 25.263 N/m.

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Table2
m = M + 0.25 kg = 0.33486 kg

(h0) = 0.413 m

Equilibrium Position

Point Displacement Velocity K.E = P.E = M.E = K. E+P. E

no. X=h-h0 (m) (m/s) mv2/2 kx2/2=m2g2/ (2k) (J)

(J) (J)

1 0.037 -0.004 2.7x10-6 0.231 0.231

2 0 -0.319 0.017 0.214 0.231

3 -0.038 -0.004 2.7x10-6 0.232 0232

Capstone Program Graph

1.5 Calculations:
Table 1 calculations were relatively simple. Since yi was measured to be 0.503 m, to find further
yns, I simply did yn – yi to get each of the displacement values in the table. Since the spring
system in part 1 was at rest, the relationship Fg = Fs would hold true, meaning Fg = kx. I then
graphed values of Fg v. displacement to get a linear graph with a slope of value 25.263 N/m. r

Table 2 calculations were relatively simple as well. Displacement and velocity were read off of
the screen for 3 points, point 1 referring to a peak of position, point 2 referring to a position of
near 0 displacement, and point 3 referring to a trough of position. Using this data, I then plugged

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in values of mass, velocity, spring constant, displacement and energy values to get the
remaining three columns of data. Sample calculations for Point 1 are as followed:

Sample KE calculation:

KE = mv2/2

KE = (0.33486 kg) ( -0.004 m/s)2/2

KE = (0.33486) (1.6 x 10-5)/2

KE = 2.7 x 10-6 J

Sample PE calculation:

PE = kx2/2 + m2g2/(2k)

PE = (25.263 N/m) (0.037 m)2/2 + (0.33486 kg)2(9.81m/s2)2/ (2(25.263 N/m))

PE = (25.263) (0.0014)/2 + (0.1121) (96.24)/50.53

PE = 0.231 J

Sample ME calculation:

ME = KE + PE

ME = (2.7 x 10-6 J) + (0.231 J)

ME = 0.231 J

4.3 Error Analysis

There was some error in the program generating Mechanical Energy measurements. ME
reached a max value of 13.952 J and a minimum value of 13.94 J. Percentage difference
between the two values is calculated below:

Eabs = max value – min value

Eabs = 13.952 J – 13.94 J = 0.012 J

13.952 J ± 0.012 J

Erel = Eabs /min value

Erel = 0.012 J /13.94 J

Erel = 0.1%

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1.6 Result:
After conducting the experiment to verify the law of conservation of energy using Hooke's Law and a
mass-spring system, several key conclusions can be drawn:

Validation of Hooke's Law: The experiment confirmed Hooke's Law, showing a linear relationship
between the force applied to the spring and its resulting displacement. This is crucial for understanding
the potential energy stored in the spring.

Conservation of Mechanical Energy: The comparison between the potential energy stored in the
spring and the kinetic energy of the mass at the equilibrium position demonstrated that the total
mechanical energy remained constant throughout the experiment. This observation aligns with the law of
conservation of energy.

Accuracy and Precision: To enhance the accuracy of the experiment, measurements were taken
carefully using appropriate tools. The repetition of the experiment with various masses and heights aimed
to ensure the reliability and precision of the results.

Dependence on Variables: The experiment highlighted the dependence of potential energy on the
displacement of the spring and the dependence of kinetic energy on the velocity of the mass.
Understanding these dependencies is crucial for explaining the dynamics of the mass-spring system.

Applicability of Energy Conservation: The successful verification of the law of conservation of

energy in this experiment reinforces the broad applicability of this fundamental principle in physics. It
demonstrates that energy can change forms (from potential to kinetic and vice versa) but the total energy
within a closed system remains constant.

Sources of Error: Possible sources of error in the experiment include friction in the spring system, air
resistance during the fall of the mass, and inaccuracies in measurements. Minimizing these sources of
error is essential for obtaining more reliable results.

Educational Insights: The experiment serves as an educational tool for understanding energy
transformations and the application of Hooke's Law. It provides hands-on experience in experimental
physics and reinforces theoretical concepts learned in the classroom.

In conclusion, the experiment successfully verified the law of conservation of energy within the constraints
of the mass-spring system. The consistent results obtained support the fundamental principle that energy
is conserved in isolated systems, contributing to a deeper understanding of energy dynamics in physics.

1.7 Precautions:
• Elastic limit. • Uniform loading • Record environmental conditions
• Collaboration • Avoid overloading • Consistent measurements
of instruments • Zero extension • Safety precautions
• Zer error • Repeat trials • Linear range
• Vertical alignment

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1.8 Applications:
Real life scenario Engineering Industries

• Medical Devices • Structural Engineering • Manufacturing

• Consumer Products • Mechanical Engineering • Automotive Industry
• Sports Equipment • Aerospace Engineering • Aerospace
• Musical Instruments • Electrical Engineering • Electronics
• Fitness equipment • Biomechanics • Constructions

 Theory:

o Hook’s Law:
When the spring is stretched, there is a restoring force that is directly proportional to the displacement.

F∝x
F = -kx
(-ive sign shows opposite direction.)

Hook’s Law helps to explain the linear relationship between the force applied to the elastic material and
the resulting material deformation. It is a fundamental concept in field i.e.; mechanics, engineering,
material science etc.

 Relationship between the load and extension:

According to Hook’s law, this relationship is linear meaning that, if you double the load applied to an
elastic material, the extension will also be doubled.

Force/Load ∝ Extension
F∝x
F = kx
𝑭𝑭
K=
𝒙𝒙
o Elasticity:
The ability of a deformed material body to return to its original shape and size when the forces causing
the deformation are removed.

o Restoring Force:
When an external force is applied to a spring (or indeed any elastic material), a force is developed within
the spring that attempts to restore the original configuration of the spring in accordance with Newton's
third law. This force is called the restoring force.
The restoring force is linearly proportional to x, provided that the elastic limit of the spring is not
exceeded. This remarkable behavior of the spring is known as Hooke's law and is expressed by the
equation:

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F∝x
F = kx
𝑭𝑭
K=
𝒙𝒙

o Spring Constant /stiffness (k):

Spring constant (stiffness) is characteristics or rigidity of a spring or an elastic material. Spring
constant describes the behavior of springs in various applications including physical, mechanical, material
science.

o Simple Harmonic Motion:

A motion in which the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement of the body from
its mean position. The direction of this restoring force is always towards the mean position.

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EXPERIMENT 02: To find the variation of photoelectric current with intensity of

incident light using a photocell.

2.1 Objective:
To study the variation of photoelectric current using Photocell.

2.2 Aim of Experiment:

The aim of performing this experiment was to check the impact of change in intensity of light on
photoelectric current. Apart from that, it has also proved that the photoelectric phenomenon, which has
been commonly used in various applications of daily life is a simple phenomenon.

2.3 Apparatus:
Wooden box with a moving lamp, photocell at one end of the box, micro-ammeter etc.

2.4 Circuit Diagram:

2.5 Procedure:
1. Setup the whole apparatus.
2. Switch on the Lamp, slide the lamp along the length of the box, increasing or decreasing the
intensity of light on photocell.
3. Observe the current at each specific distance of the lamp from the Photocell.
4. We know intensity of light is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the light
source.
I ∝ 1/R2
5. The photoelectric current i.e., deflection in a micro-ammeter is directly proportional to the intensity
of light.

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6. Note the distance of the lamp at the energy interval of 10cm and also note the value of current
from the micro-ammeter which is already attached to the apparatus.
7. Taking the square of the distance "d" of the lamp in order to find the value of intensity of light "I".
8. After the whole calculation, make a graph between the intensity of light "I=1/d2" and the deflection
of micro-ammeter "I" by taking "I=1/d2" on x-axis and " I " along y-axis.
9. The graph is not a perfect straight line due to some inaccuracy of the measuring instruments.
10. The graph will be straight line at higher values.

2.6 Observations and Calculations:

The observations which have been collected after conducting this experiment are summarized in the give
table: -

No. of obs. I(µA)\mA d (cm) d2 (cm2) 1/ d2

1. 165 80 6400 15.6x10-5

2. 195 70 4900 20.4x10-5

3. 225 60 3600 27.7x10-5

4. 255 50 2500 40x10-5

5. 295 40 1600 62.5x10-5

2.7 Graph:

2.8 Result:
We plot the readings on a graph between current (I) and intensity of light (1/d2) and got a straight curve.

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2.9 Conclusion:
From the graph, we see the direct relation between current (I) conducted by the emission of electrons
when light falls onto the photocell and reciprocal of the distance (1/d2) between the light source and
photocell. In other words, we can say that current is directly proportional to the intensity of light because

I ∝ 1/R2

2.10 Precautions:
• Never exposed the photocell for a longer period of time.
• Move the lamp gradually.
• Take the measurements carefully.
• The angle of incident of light must not be changed on photocell.

2.11 Applications
• It is mostly found in solar panels. It works on the basic principle of the light striking the cathode
which cause the emission of electrons, which in turn produces current.
• Photomultiplier tube makes use of photo-electric effect to convert light intensity into electric
currents.
• Photo-electric effect also founds application in photocopies, light meter, photodiodes,
phototransistors etc.

2.12 Theory:

o Photo-electric Effect:
The emission of electrons from the surface of any metal when a light of certain frequency falls on
to the surface of the metal is called photoelectric effect.

o Photo-electric Current:
The current produced due to the emission of electrons from a metal surface is known as
photoelectric current.

o Photo-Electrons:
The emitted electrons from the surface of metal when light falls on to the surface of metal are
called photo electrons.

o Intensity of Light:
The power of light falls onto the surface of the metal is known as intensity of light. It depends
upon the light source that how far or close it is from the photo-cell.

o Threshold Frequency:
The minimum frequency of electromagnetic radiation which is required for the phenomenon of
photoelectric emission to occur from a metal surface is known as threshold frequency.

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EXPERIMENT 03: Demonstrate the characteristic behavior of the P-N junction and
Zener diode in Forward and Reverse biased condition.

3.1 Objective:
To study the V-I characteristics of PN / semi-conductor diode.

3.2 Apparatus:

• P-N junction / Semi-conductor diode (Zener diode)

• 0-30V Voltmeter
• Connecting Wires
• (0-100mA / 0-100uA) Ammeter Battery (30V)
• High Resistance Rheostat

Diagrams / Symbols:

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3.3 Circuit Diagram:

• PN Junction:

● Forward Biased: ● Reverse Biased:

3.4 Procedure:
Setup:
Connect the P-N junction diode and Zener diode on the breadboard. Use the connecting wires to create
the necessary circuit connections. Usually the anode of semi-conductor diode is marked with the red dot
or an arrow.

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Forward Biasing:

• Connect the positive terminal of the power supply to the P-type material of the diode and the
negative terminal to the N-type material. This creates a forward bias.
• Gradually increase the voltage from the power supply while observing the current flowing through
the diode.
• Record the voltage and current values at different points to create a forward bias characteristic
curve.

Reverse Biasing:

• Connect the negative terminal of the power supply to the P-type material and the positive terminal
to the N-type material. This creates a reverse bias.
• Again, gradually increase the voltage while observing the current flowing through the diode.
• Record the voltage and current values at different points to create a reverse bias characteristic
curve.

Zener Diode Behavior:

• Connect the Zener diode to the circuit.

• Apply a reverse bias to the Zener diode and gradually increase the voltage.
• Monitor the voltage across the Zener diode and the current flowing through it.
• Record the voltage and current values to observe the Zener diode's breakdown characteristics.

Analysis:

• Analyze the collected data to understand the behavior of the P-N junction diode in both forward
and reverse biased conditions.
• Similarly, analyze the Zener diode data to understand its behavior under reverse bias and the
breakdown region.

3.5 Observations and Calculations:

The observations after conducting this experiment are summarized in the give table: -

• Forward Biased:

No. of obs. Vin Vd Id (mA)

1. 0.7 0.58 5.2
2. 1 0.64 17.2
3. 1.5 0.67 41.4
4. 2 0.69 65
5. 2.5 0.70 90.1

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6. 3 0.71 113.6
7. 3.5 0.72 138.7
8. 4 0.73 164.3

• Reverse Biased:

No. of obs. Vin Vd Id (mA)

1. 0.7 0.69 0
2. 1 0.98 0
3. 1.5 1.49 0
4. 2 1.97 0
5. 2.5 2.48 0
6. 3 2.98 0
7. 3.5 3.47 0
8. 4 3.98 0
9. 8 7.95 0
10. 12 11.93 0
11. 12.5 12.04 20.1
12. 13 12.06 44.9
13. 13.5 12.07 68.8
14. 14 12.09 94.0
15. 14.5 12.11 119.0
16. 15 12.13 142.9

3.6 Graph:
● Forward Biased: ● Reverse Biased:

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3.7 Result:
We plot the readings on a V vs I curve and draw two graphs.

3.8 Conclusion:
• When we apply the voltage below “0.5” there is no deflection in the ampere meter. When we
increase the voltage from “0.5” there is a sudden deflection in the galvanometer. It means that
“0.5” is the range of potential barrier.
• During Forward bias, the diode conducts current with increase in voltage. During reverse bias, the
diode does not conduct current with increase I voltage (break down usually results in damage of
diode).

3.9 Precautions:
• Make sure that all the connections are neat, clean and tight.
• The voltage should increase gradually.
• The current should pass for short interval of time.
• High voltage should not be applied.

3.10 Applications
• PN-junction diode can be used as a photo-diode, the diode which is sensitive to light when the
configuration of diode is reverse biased.
• It can be used as a solar cell.
• When diode is forward biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.

3.11 Theory:
The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material. The lead
connected to the p- type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n- type material is
called the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode. The primary

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function of the diode is rectification. When it is forward biased it will pass current. When it is reverse
biased current flow is blocked.

o Biasing of P-N Junction:

If the battery of some emf is connected to the P-N junction, then the junction is said to be biased
junction. The biasing of junction is done in two ways:

Forward Biasing:
When an external potential difference is applied across a P-N junction such that P-side is
connected to positive terminal and N-side is connected to negative terminal of the battery, then this
external potential difference supplies energy to free electros in the n-region and holes in the p-region.

When this energy is sufficient to overcome the potential barrier, a current of the order of a few
milliamperes begins to flow across the PN junction. In this state the P-N junction is said to be forward
biased.

Reverse Biasing:
When the external source of voltage is applied across a P-N junction such that its positive
terminal is connected to N-region and its negative terminal to P-region, the PN junction is said to be
reverse biased. In this situation no current flows due to the majority charge careers. However, a small
current of the order of few microamperes flows across the junction due to the flow of minority charge
careers. It is known as reverse current or leakage current.

• In Forward biasing, depletion region becomes thin.

• In Reverse biasing, depletion region becomes thick.

Why depletion region becomes thick/increases in Reverse biasing?

Reverse biased is when the p-side of the diode is attached to the negative voltage/terminal of the battery
and the n-side is attached to the positive voltage/terminal of the battery.

We can understand this concept as:

 When the battery's positive terminal is connected to the N-

type junction, while the negative terminal is connected to
the P-type junction during reverse biasing, therefore, the
positive terminal attends to pull the electrons (near to the
depletion layer) in N-type with regards to itself, whereas the
negative terminal pulls the holes in P-type with regards to
itself which leads in increase in the width of depletion layer.
 This occurs because conduction is impossible when
reverse bias voltage is applied since the electrons have
stepped away from the junction.

Hence, the width of the depletion region in a junction diode is

increased by reverse biasing.

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Why depletion region becomes thin/decreases in Forward biasing?

Forward biased is when the p-side of the diode is attached to the positive voltage/terminal of the battery
and the n-side is attached to the negative voltage/terminal of the battery.

We can understand this concept as:

 In forward biasing, the applied voltage V of the battery mostly

drops across the depletion region and the voltage drops across
the p-side and n-side of the p-n junction is negligibly small.
 It is due to the fact that the resistance of the depletion region is
very high as it has no free charge carriers.
 In forward biasing the forward voltage opposes the potential
barrier Vb. As a result of it, the potential barrier height is reduced
and the width of the depletion layer decreases.
 As forward voltage is increased, at a particular value the
depletion region becomes very much narrow such that a large
number of majority charge carriers can cross the junction.

Hence, the width of the depletion region in a junction diode is decreased by forward biasing.

o Semi-Conductor:
Semiconductors are those materials which have electrical properties has between those of
insulators and conductors.

• A partially filled valance band.

• A partially filled conduction band.
• A narrow gap.

o P-N Junction:
If the crystal of Germanium and Silicon is grown in such a way that its one half is doped with
trivalent impurity and the second half is doped with pentavalent impurity, P-N junction is formed.

N-Type Materials:
The semiconductor which is formed by adding pentavalent impurity to a semiconductor is known
as n-type materials.

i.e.; An atom belonging to the fifth group of elements i.e.; antimony (Sb), Phosphorus and arsenic are
the examples of n type materials.

P-Type Materials:
The semiconductor which is formed by adding trivalent impurity to a semiconductor is known as
p-type materials.

i.e.; An atom belonging to the third group of elements i.e.; aluminum, boron etc. are the examples of p-
type materials.

In N type materials, the majority charge carriers are electrons while in P type materials, the
majority charge carriers are holes.

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o Diode:
The P-N junction is also known as diode.

Zener Diode:
It is a highly doped semiconductor device specially designed to function in the reverse direction. It
is also referred as Breakdown diode. When the voltage across a Zener Diode’s terminal is reversed and
reaches the Zener’s voltage (Knee voltage), the junction voltage experiences a breakdown, allowing
current to flow in the opposite direction. This phenomenon is known as Zener effect.

• Zener Diode works good in reverse biasing diode.

• It just ON in forward biasing diode.

o Doping:
The process of adding the small impurity atom to a pure semiconductor by a controlled way is
called doping and the material itself is called doped.

The impurity atoms are added in a semiconductor in the ratio of 1—106.

o Depletion Region:
The electrons diffuse in p-type materials just after the formation of P-N junction. So, a
chargeless region is formed around the junction, which contains no charge carriers. This region is known
as depletion region.

o Potential Barrier:
Due to the charge on the ions, a potential difference develops across the junction region,
which stops the further diffusion of electrons and holes. This potential difference is known as potential
barrier. The value of potential barrier of Ge is 0.3V and of Silicon is 0.7V.

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EXPERIMENT 04: Determine the length, inner & outer diameter, dept of solids using
VERNIER CALLIPER.

4.1 Objective:
To measure the length, inner and outer diameter, depth of Solid Cylinder / Rectangular Body.

4.2 Apparatus:

• Vernier Caliper.
• Solid Cylinder / Rectangular body.

4.3 Diagram:

4.4 Procedure:
Experiment no 3 (A): To measure the outer diameter of a small given cylinder /
rectangular body.

11. Find the least count. Close the jaws to check the zero error and zero correction.
12. Hold the Cylinder horizontally between the two outer measuring jaws of vernier calipers.
Tighten the jaws gently.
13. Note the main scale division which is either coinciding or is on the left of vernier scale zero.
14. Record this reading as main scale reading (M.S.R).
15. Note the vernier division which exactly coincides with any one divisions of the main scale.
16. Record this reading as vernier scale division (n).
17. Multiply this “n” with the least count and calculate the value of vernier scale reading (V.S.R) which
is to be added in the main scale reading.
V.S.R=(n*L.C.)
18. Add the values of “M.S.R” & “V.S.R” to obtain observed reading of diameter (Y).
Y=M.S.R+V.S.R
19. Take at least two more readings by inserting the cylinder cross section wise between the jaws
and get the average diameter.

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 Table:

Sr Main Scale Vernier Scale Vernier Scale Reading Observed Readings Correct Reading
no. Reading (M.S.R) Division (V.S.R) (V.S.R+M.S.R)
(V.S.D) V.S.D * L.C
2.20 mm 6 mm 0.30 mm 2.50 mm 2.50 mm
1
2.10 mm 11 mm 0.55 mm 2.65 mm 2.65 mm
2
2.20 mm 6 mm 0.30 mm 2.50 mm 2.50 mm
3

 OBSERVATIONS & CALACULATIONS

𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 ( 𝟏𝟏+𝟐𝟐+𝟑𝟑 )

Average =
𝟑𝟑
𝟐𝟐.𝟓𝟓+𝟐𝟐.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔+𝟐𝟐.𝟓𝟓
Average =
𝟑𝟑
𝟕𝟕.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
Average =
𝟑𝟑
Average = 2.55mm

Experiment no 3 (B): To measure the Inner diameter of a small given cylinder /

rectangular body.

1. Determine the least count of the vernier caliper.

2. Determine the zero error of the vernier and note down in the observation table.
3. Hold the cylinder horizontally between the two inner measuring jaws of vernier calipers.
Tighten the jaws gently.
4. Note the main scale division which is either coinciding or is on the left of vernier scale zero.
5. Record this reading as main scale reading (M.S.R).
6. Note the vernier division which exactly coincides with any one divisions of the main scale.
7. Record this reading as vernier scale division (n).
8. Multiply this “n” with the least count and calculate the value of vernier scale reading (V.S.R) which
is to be added in the main scale reading.
V.S.R=(n*L.C.)
9. Add the values of “M.S.R” & “V.S.R” to obtain observed reading of diameter (Y).
Y=M.S.R+V.S.R

 Table:

Sr Main Scale Vernier Scale Vernier Scale Reading Observed Readings Correct Reading
no. Reading (M.S.R) Division (V.S.R) (V.S.R+M.S.R)
(V.S.D) V.S.D * L.C
2.50 mm 18 mm 0.90 mm 3.40 mm 3.40 mm
1

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 OBSERVATIONS & CALACULATIONS

It has only one reading. So, it will give no average value.

Experiment no 3 (C): To measure the length of a small given cylinder/ rectangular body.

1. Determine the least count of the vernier caliper.

2. Determine the zero error of the vernier and note down in the observation table.
3. Hold the cylinder vertically between the two outer measuring jaws of vernier calipers.
Tighten the jaws gently.
4. Note the main scale division which is either coinciding or is on the left of vernier scale zero.
5. Record this reading as main scale reading (M.S.R).
6. Note the vernier division which exactly coincides with any one divisions of the main scale.
7. Record this reading as vernier scale division (n).
8. Multiply this “n” with the least count and calculate the value of vernier scale reading (V.S.R) which
is to be added in the main scale reading.
V.S.R=(n*L.C.)
9. Add the values of “M.S.R” & “V.S.R” to obtain observed reading of diameter (Y).
Y=M.S.R+V.S.R

 Table:

Sr Main Scale Vernier Scale Vernier Scale Reading Observed Readings Correct Reading
no. Reading (M.S.R) Division (V.S.R) (V.S.R+M.S.R)
(V.S.D) V.S.D * L.C
5 mm 16 mm 0.80 mm 5.80 mm 5.80 mm
1
5 mm 15 mm 0.75 mm 5.75 mm 5.75 mm
2
5 mm 17 mm 0.85 mm 5.85 mm 5.85 mm
3

 OBSERVATIONS & CALACULATIONS

𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 ( 𝟏𝟏+𝟐𝟐+𝟑𝟑 )

Average =
𝟑𝟑
𝟓𝟓.𝟖𝟖+𝟓𝟓.𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕+𝟓𝟓.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
Average =
𝟑𝟑
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒
Average =
𝟑𝟑
Average = 5.8mm

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Experiment no 3 (D): To measure the depth of a small given cylinder / rectangular body.

1. Determine the least count of the vernier caliper.

2. Determine the zero error of the vernier and note down in the observation table.
3. Place the cylinder in standing position on a table having regular surface.
4. The reading will be taken by inserting depth measuring prong inside the cylinder.
5. Note the main scale division which is either coinciding or is on the left of vernier scale zero.
6. Record this reading as main scale reading (M.S.R).
7. Note the vernier division which exactly coincides with any one divisions of the main scale.
8. Record this reading as vernier scale division (n).
9. Multiply this “n” with the least count and calculate the value of vernier scale reading (V.S.R) which
is to be added in the main scale reading.
V.S.R=(n*L.C.)
10. Add the values of “M.S.R” & “V.S.R” to obtain observed reading of diameter (Y).
Y=M.S.R+V.S.R
 Table:

Sr Main Scale Vernier Scale Vernier Scale Reading Observed Readings Correct Reading
no. Reading (M.S.R) Division (V.S.R) (V.S.R+M.S.R)
(V.S.D) V.S.D * L.C
4.90 mm 17 mm 0.85 mm 5.75 mm 5.75 mm
1

 OBSERVATIONS & CALACULATIONS

It has only one reading. So, it will give no average value.

4.5 Conclusions:
We can measure the linear dimensions like length, breath, thickness, internal & outer diameter and depth
of cylinder precisely with the help of vernier calipers.

4.6 Theory:

 Vernier calipers was invented by French scientist P. vernier for precise linear measurements.
 It can measure 100th part of 1 millimeter.
 It can measure length, diameter, thickness, depth etc. precisely.

Least Count

 It is the minimum value that can be measure from any instrument very precisely.
 It means that the L.C is the degree of accuracy of that instrument.

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𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1

 Least Count = = = 0.025𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 20

Errors in Vernier Caliper

• Zero Error: If two jaws of vernier touches together & if the 0 of main scale matches with 0 of
main scale than error is said to be zero error.

• Positive Zero Error: If two jaws of vernier touches together & if the 0 of vernier scale remains
on right hand side with 0 of main scale than error is said to be zero error.

• Negative Zero Error: If two jaws of vernier touches together & if the 0 of vernier scale remains
on left hand side with 0 of main scale than error is said to be zero error

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EXPERIMENT 05: Determine the damping features of an oscillating system using a

simple pendulum of a variable mass.

5.1 Objective:
To investigate the damping features of an oscillating system by studying the effect of variable mass on the
amplitude and period of a simple pendulum submerged in water.

5.2 Apparatus:
• Simple pendulum setup (rod, string, and bob)
• Set of weights
• Container filled with water
• Stopwatch or timer
• Meter stick or ruler
• Vernier calipers (optional).

5.3 Diagram and Graph:

5.4 Procedure:
Setup:
• Set up the simple pendulum with a variable mass by attaching a string to a fixed point
and suspending a bob at the other end.
• Measure and record the initial length of the pendulum.

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Submerge in Water:
• Submerge the entire pendulum, including the bob, in the container filled with water.
• Allow the pendulum to come to rest.

Variable Mass:
• Begin with the minimum mass for the bob (no added weights).
• Displace the bob to a small angle and release it, allowing it to oscillate.
• Measure the initial amplitude (angle of displacement from the vertical).
• Record the time for a specified number of oscillations (e.g., 10 oscillations) using a
stopwatch.

Increase Mass:
• Add a small weight to the bob, ensuring it is securely attached.
• Repeat steps 3b, 3c, and 3d for the new mass.

Repeat:
• Continue adding weights and repeating the measurements for different masses.
• After each mass change, allow the system to come to rest before taking new
measurements.

Analysis - Amplitude:
• Plot a graph of amplitude against time or the number of oscillations for each mass.
• Analyze the trend in amplitude with increasing mass in the water.

Analysis - Period:
• Calculate the period of each oscillation for different masses submerged in water.
• Plot a graph of period against the square root of mass.
• Analyze the trend in the period with varying mass in the water.

Interpretation:
• Compare the results for amplitude and period to determine the effect of variable mass on
the damping features of the oscillating system in water.
• Consider the influence of buoyancy and drag in the analysis.

Repeat for Different Conditions:

• Conduct the experiment under different conditions (e.g., different initial amplitudes or
lengths of the pendulum) to ensure a comprehensive analysis.

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Conclusion:
• Summarize the findings, emphasizing the relationship between mass and damping
features in the oscillating system submerged in water.
• Discuss the impact of buoyancy and drag on the observed trends.

5.5 Observations and Calculations:

The observations which have been collected after conducting this experiment are summarized in the give
table: -

• Least count of stopwatch = 0.001 sec.

• Diameter of bob = ------- cm.
• Radius of bob = ------- cm.

Table for L, T and T2

No. Length of Time for 10 oscillations Time 𝐿𝐿 Mean g

of Pendulum Period T 2
𝑇𝑇 2
𝐿𝐿
Obs. L 𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇 2
(cm) t1 t2 t=
𝑡𝑡1 + 𝑡𝑡2
T= (sec) (m/s2) 4π2 L
2 10 (cm/s2)
(sec) (sec)
(sec) T2

5.6 Precautions:
• Measurements are taken accurately.
• Be mindful of potential sources of error, such as variations in water density and turbulence.
• Repeat the experiment to enhance reliability.

 Theory:

o Damped Oscillation:
Damped oscillation refers to a type of repetitive and oscillatory motion in which the amplitude of the
oscillations decreases over time due to the influence of an external force or resistance. In a damped
oscillatory system, the motion exhibits a gradual loss of energy, resulting in a decrease in the magnitude
of successive oscillations until the system comes to rest.

o Effect of water on experiment:

The introduction of water into the experiment has several effects on the oscillating system, influencing its
damping features. Here are some key considerations for the effect of water on the experiment:

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Buoyancy:
• Effect: Water provides buoyant force, which opposes the weight of the submerged pendulum
bob.
• Impact: Buoyancy reduces the effective weight of the bob, affecting the equilibrium position and
altering the restoring force of the system.

Drag Force:
• Effect: The movement of the pendulum through water creates drag or resistance.
• Impact: Drag force dissipates energy from the system, contributing to damping. This effect is
more pronounced as the speed of the bob increases.

Increased Damping:
• Effect: The combined influence of buoyancy and drag generally leads to increased damping in
the system.
• Impact: As damping increases, the amplitude of oscillations decreases more rapidly, and the
period of oscillation may also be affected.

Altered Equations of Motion:

• Effect: The presence of water modifies the equations of motion for the simple pendulum.
• Impact: Buoyancy and drag terms are added to the equations, influencing the behavior of the
system. This can result in changes to the amplitude and period of oscillation.

Smoother Motion:
• Effect: Water provides a smoother medium compared to air.
• Impact: The pendulum may experience less air resistance and friction, leading to more consistent
and predictable motion.

Frequency Dependence:
• Effect: The damping effect may vary with the frequency of oscillation.
• Impact: Higher frequencies may experience more significant damping due to increased drag,
impacting the system's response to different driving frequencies.

Hydrodynamic Effects:
• Effect: Hydrodynamic forces on the pendulum shape may contribute to additional damping.
• Impact: The geometry of the pendulum bob and its interaction with water can introduce complex
hydrodynamic effects that influence the overall damping characteristics.

Temperature Variation:
• Effect: Water temperature can affect its density and viscosity.
• Impact: Changes in temperature may alter the properties of water, influencing buoyancy and
drag forces and, consequently, the damping behavior.

Experimental Considerations:
• Effect: Conducting experiments in water introduces additional considerations such as container
shape, water depth, and turbulence.
• Impact: Careful control of experimental conditions is essential to isolate the effects of water and
draw meaningful conclusions.

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EXPERIMENT 06: To find the volume of sphere using SCREW GUAGE.

6.1 Objective:
To measure the volume of sphere using screw gauge.

6.2 Apparatus:

• Screw Guage.
• Iron Sphere.

6.3 Diagram:

6.4 Procedure:

20. Find the least count.

21. Close the anvil and spindle by rotating the ratchet till it clicks freely.
22. Check the zero error and hence calculate the zero correction.
23. Hold the sphere between the anvil and spindle.
24. Tighten it gently by the ratchets till it clicks.
25. Note the main scale reading (M.S.R) which is just under or before the sleeves of the circular
scale.
26. Note the division (C.S.D) on the circular scale which coincides with the Datum line.
27. Multiply this number with the least count and calculate the fractional value as (F.P)
F.P=C.S.D*LC.
28. Add the values “M.S.R” and “F.P” to obtain the thickness or total reading (T.R) of the sphere (or
diameter of sphere).
29. Apply zero correction to determine the correct value of thickness D=T.R ± zero error.
30. Take two more readings at different positions and find the average thickness.

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6.5 Table:

Sr Main Scale Circular Scale Fractional Part Total Reading Corrected Value
no. Reading (M.S.R) Division (F.P) (T.R) (F.P+M.S.R) (T.R-zero error)
(C.S.D) C.S.D*L.C D
22 mm 18 mm 0.18 mm 22.18 mm D1 = 22.18+3 = 25.18
1 mm
22 mm 47 mm 0.47 mm 22.47 mm D2 = 22.47+4 = 26.47
2 mm
22 mm 47 mm 0.47 mm 22.47 mm D3 = 22.27+4= 26.47
3 mm

 Corrected Value finding:

To find zero error we have to notice the pitch

Zero error = 47 Zero Error = 3 (actually) 50-47=3

6.6 Observations and Calculations:

𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫+𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫+𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏=𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
 Mean = D = = =
𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟑
D = 26.04 mm

𝑫𝑫 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
 Radius = r = =
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
r = 13.02 mm

𝟒𝟒 𝟒𝟒
 Volume = V = 𝟑𝟑 𝝅𝝅𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑 (𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)(𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)𝟑𝟑
V = 9240.6248 mm3

 Result = 9240.6248 mm3

6.7 Conclusion:
We can measure the volume of sphere or wire more precisely with the help of screw gauge.

6.8 Theory:

• Screw Gauge: The micrometer screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring precisely the diameter of a
thin wire or thickness of metal sheet. It consists of a U-shaped frame fitted with a screwed spindle which is
attached to a thimble.

• Pitch: The pitch of the screw is the distance through which the screw moves along the main scale in one
complete rotation of the cap on which is engraved the circular scale.

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• Least Count
•
 It is the minimum value that can be measure from any instrument very precisely.
 It means that the L.C is the degree of accuracy of that instrument.
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃ℎ 𝑃𝑃 0.05𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 Least Count = = = = 0.01𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 / 0.001𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 50

Errors in Screw Gauge

• Zero Error: When the anvil face & spindle are just in contact with ratchet and if the base line of
the main scale coincides with the zero of the head scale (circular scale) than error is known as
zero error.

• Positive Zero Error: When the anvil face & spindle are just in contact with ratchet and If zero
of the head scale (circular scale) below the base line of the main scale than error is known as
positive zero error.

• Negative Zero Error: When the anvil face & spindle are just in contact with ratchet and If zero
of the head scale (circular scale) above the base line of the main scale than error is known as
negative zero error.

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EXPERIMENT 07: Verify the Hook’s Law relationship between the load and extension
and measure the value of spring constant.

Hook’s Law: When the spring is stretched, there is a restoring force that is directly
proportional to the displacement.
F∝x
F = -kx
(-ive sign shows opposite direction.)

7.1 Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to determine the spring constant of a springs using

• the static method (Hooke’s Law)

• the dynamics method (oscillations)

7.2 Aim of Experiment:

The aim of performing this experiment is to investigate and verify the linear relationship force
applied to a spring and it’s resulting extension. Hooke's Law states that, within the elastic limit,
the force needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance is proportional to that
distance.

By conducting this experiment, you aim to:

 Verify Hooke's Law: Confirm whether the behavior of the spring follows the linear
relationship as predicted by Hooke's Law.
 Determine the Spring Constant (k): Calculate the spring constant, which quantifies the
stiffness of the spring. The spring constant is a measure of how much force is needed to
produce a unit of displacement.
 Understand Elastic Behavior: Gain insights into the elastic properties of materials.
Hooke's Law is applicable not only to springs but also to other materials within their
elastic limits.
 Practice Experimental Techniques: Develop and enhance your skills in experimental
design, data collection, and analysis.
 Apply Physics Concepts: Apply theoretical concepts from physics in a practical setting,
reinforcing your understanding of the relationship between force and deformation in
elastic materials.
Overall, this experiment provides a hands-on opportunity to explore and validate fundamental
principles of physics related to the behavior of materials under the influence of mechanical
forces.

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7.3 Apparatus:
 Spiral spring
 Pointer
 Mass hanger
 Rigid stand and clamp
 Meter rule
 Slotted masses
 Triple balance
 Stop watch

7.4 Procedure:
Measure and record the total mass of the mass hanger and spring using a triple balance. Then
set up the apparatus as shown in Figure. This experiment consists of 2 parts:

 PART-1 (STATIC):

In the first part of this experiment, we are going to verify Hooke's law by demonstrating that the
magnitude of the restoring force equals that of the applied external force. In our case, the
external force will be provided by the force of gravity due to a mass m attached to the end of the
spring. The direction of this force is (of course) downwards, and it must counter the restoring
force of the spring which acts upwards. At the equilibrium point (where the two forces balance),
we have:
Fg-Fr = O (By Newton's third law. This can be written as)

mg – kx = 0

mg = kx

this tells us that a plot of the applied force (mg) against the extension x would give us a straight
line whose intercept is zero and slope the spring constant k. This method of determining the
spring constant is called the static method because the measurements are performed in a static
situation, when the mass is in equilibrium (not moving).
i. Hang the spring vertically, making sure it's not touching the ground or any other
surfaces.
ii. Measure the original length of the spring and record it.
iii. Add a small weight to the spring and measure the new extended length.
iv. Record the weight and the corresponding length.
v. Repeat this process, adding more weight each time, and record the extending lengths.
vi. Plot a graph with the force (weight) on the y-axis and the extension (change in length)
on the x-axis.

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vii. If the graph is a straight line through the origin, it confirms Hooke's Law.
viii. Record your readings in a table such as the one shown below:

Zero-load reading: ........ (cm)

Spring
Sr Mass/load F= w= mg. Loading Unloading Mean Constant (k)
No. (m) (m*g) X1 X2 x=
𝑥𝑥1+𝑥𝑥2
k=
𝐹𝐹
2 𝑥𝑥
kg
1

𝑘𝑘1+𝑘𝑘2+𝑘𝑘3+𝑘𝑘4
K= =
4

𝑦𝑦2−𝑦𝑦1
Slope =
𝑥𝑥2−𝑥𝑥1
=
1
K= =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

 PART-2 (DYNAMIC):

Consider a situation where the mass m is in equilibrium, i.e., the upwards restoring force is
equal to the downwards weight. If now the spring is stretched beyond the equilibrium point by
pulling it down slightly and then releasing it, the mass will accelerate upward because the
restoring force due to the spring is larger than the force of gravity pulling down. After release, it
will pass through the equilibrium point and continue to move upward. Once above the
equilibrium position, gravity will start to exceed the force pulling upward due to the spring and
acceleration will be directed downward. The result of this is that the mass will oscillate around
the equilibrium position. The oscillations will proceed with a characteristic period T, which is the
time it takes for the spring to complete one oscillation, or the time necessary for the mass to
return to the point where the cycle starts repeating. As we shall see in class, the period of
oscillation depends on the spring constant and the total attached mass via

𝒎𝒎
𝑻𝑻 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐�
𝒌𝒌

Note here that m is the total mass of the hanger, applied load and the spring. Squaring the
above equation both sides give

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𝒎𝒎
𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐 = 𝟒𝟒𝝅𝝅𝟐𝟐 � �
𝒌𝒌

This method of determining the spring constant is called the dynamic method, since
measurements are done when the spring is in 'dynamic equilibrium'. Note here that m is the
total mass of the load including the mass hanger and spring.

1. Hang the spring vertically from the retort stand using a clamp and boss head.
2. Attach and record a mass to the end of the spring and let it come to rest.
3. Displace the mass vertically downwards and release it to allow the spring-mass system
to oscillate.
4. Use a stopwatch or timer to measure the time taken for a certain number of oscillations
(e.g., 10 oscillations).
5. Record the time (t).
6. Repeat the upper step 3 to 4 times and note the time for first 10 oscillations.
𝑡𝑡1+𝑡𝑡2
7. Calculate the mean time by calculating the average of times; t= .
2
8. Calculate the period of one oscillation (T) by dividing the mean time by the number of
𝑡𝑡
oscillations; T= .
10
4𝜋𝜋2 𝑚𝑚
9. Calculate the spring constant (k) using the formula: k= .
𝑇𝑇 2

Time for 10 Spring

No Mass/load oscillations (sec) Mean Time Constant (k)
of (m) Time Period k=
4𝜋𝜋2 𝑚𝑚
obs. kg loaded Unloaded t=
𝑡𝑡1+𝑡𝑡2
T=
𝑡𝑡 𝑇𝑇 2
2 10
(t1) (t2)
1

𝑘𝑘1+𝑘𝑘2+𝑘𝑘3+𝑘𝑘4
K= =
4

𝑦𝑦2−𝑦𝑦1
Slope =
𝑥𝑥2−𝑥𝑥1
=
1
K= =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

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7.5 Result:
Plot a graph with the force (weight) on the y-axis and the extension (change in length) on the x-axis.
If the graph is a straight line through the origin, it confirms Hooke's Law.

7.6 Precautions:
• Elastic limit. • Uniform loading • Record environmental conditions
• Collaboration • Avoid overloading • Consistent measurements
of instruments • Zero extension • Safety precautions
• Zer error • Repeat trials • Linear range
• Vertical alignment

7.7 Applications:
Real life scenario Engineering Industries

• Medical Devices • Structural Engineering • Manufacturing

• Consumer Products • Mechanical Engineering • Automotive Industry
• Sports Equipment • Aerospace Engineering • Aerospace
• Musical Instruments • Electrical Engineering • Electronics
• Fitness equipment • Biomechanics • Constructions

 Theory:

o Hook’s Law:
When the spring is stretched, there is a restoring force that is directly proportional to the displacement.

F∝x
F = -kx
(-ive sign shows opposite direction.)

Hook’s Law helps to explain the linear relationship between the force applied to the elastic material and
the resulting material deformation. It is a fundamental concept in field i.e.; mechanics, engineering,
material science etc.

 Relationship between the load and extension:

According to Hook’s law, this relationship is linear meaning that, if you double the load applied to an
elastic material, the extension will also be doubled.

Force/Load ∝ Extension
F∝x

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F = kx
𝑭𝑭
K=
𝒙𝒙
o Elasticity:
The ability of a deformed material body to return to its original shape and size when the forces causing
the deformation are removed.

o Restoring Force:
When an external force is applied to a spring (or indeed any elastic material), a force is developed within
the spring that attempts to restore the original configuration of the spring in accordance with Newton's
third law. This force is called the restoring force.
The restoring force is linearly proportional to x, provided that the elastic limit of the spring is not
exceeded. This remarkable behavior of the spring is known as Hooke's law and is expressed by the
equation:
F∝x
F = kx
𝑭𝑭
K=
𝒙𝒙

o Spring Constant /stiffness (k):

Spring constant (stiffness) is characteristics or rigidity of a spring or an elastic material. Spring
constant describes the behavior of springs in various applications including physical, mechanical, material
science.

o Simple Harmonic Motion:

A motion in which the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement of the body from
its mean position. The direction of this restoring force is always towards the mean position.

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EXPERIMENT 08: Design and implement the half wave rectifier circuits with and
without the filter circuits. Also calculate the ripple factor, performance, efficiency, average
voltage, output D.C. voltage using diodes, load resistors and A.C. input voltage source.

8.1 Objective:
Half wave rectifier circuits with and without the filter circuits.

8.2 Apparatus:
 Diodes
 Load resistors
 A.C. input voltage source
 Breadboard and jumper wires
 Oscilloscope
 Multimeter
 Capacitors (for filter circuit)

8.3 Circuit Diagram:

Half-wave rec�fier circuit Half-wave rec�fier circuit with capacitor filter

8.4 Working:

Half-Wave Rectifier without Filter Circuit:

Operation:

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Positive Half-Cycle:
• During the positive half-cycle of the input A.C. voltage, the diode is forward-biased.
• Current flows through the diode, allowing positive voltage to pass through to the load resistor.

Negative Half-Cycle:
• During the negative half-cycle, the diode is reverse-biased and blocks the current flow.
• No current passes through, resulting in zero output during the negative half-cycle.

Half-Wave Rectifier with Filter Circuit:

Operation:
Positive Half-Cycle:
• During the positive half-cycle of the input A.C. voltage, the diode is forward-biased.
• Current flows through the diode, allowing positive voltage to pass through to the load resistor.

Negative Half-Cycle:
• The capacitor in the filter circuit charges during the positive half-cycle.
• During the negative half-cycle, the charged capacitor discharges, providing a continuous output.

Summary:
Without Filter: Output consists of only positive half-cycles, resulting in a pulsating D.C. waveform with
higher ripple.

With Filter: The capacitor smoothens the waveform, reducing ripple and providing a more stable D.C.
output.

8.5 Procedure:

Half-Wave Rectifier without Filter Circuit:

Setup:

• Place the diode on the breadboard.

• Connect the diode's anode to one terminal of the A.C. source and the cathode to the load
resistor.
• Connect the other terminal of the load resistor to the other terminal of the A.C. source.
• Measure and note the A.C. voltage using the oscilloscope.

Measurements:

• Use the oscilloscope to observe and measure the output waveform across the load resistor.
• Measure the average voltage and output D.C. voltage using a multimeter.

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Calculations:

• Calculate the ripple factor using the formula: Ripple Factor=VdcVrms

• Calculate the performance using the formula: Performance=VrmsVdc
• Calculate the efficiency using the formula: Efficiency=PacPdc

2. Half-Wave Rectifier with Filter Circuit:

Setup:

• Add a capacitor in parallel with the load resistor to form a simple filter circuit.
• Adjust the capacitor value based on the desired filter characteristics.

Measurements:

• Use the oscilloscope to observe and measure the output waveform across the load resistor with
the filter.
• Measure the average voltage and output D.C. voltage using a multimeter.

Calculations:

• Calculate the ripple factor using the formula: Ripple Factor=VdcVrms

• Calculate the performance using the formula: Performance=VrmsVdc
• Calculate the efficiency using the formula: Efficiency=PacPdc ccc

8.6 Analysis:
• Compare the results obtained from the half-wave rectifier with and without the filter circuit.
• Discuss the impact of the filter on ripple factor, performance, and efficiency.
• Record any observations or unexpected outcomes during the experiment.

8.7 Precautions:
• Ensure proper connections and polarity of components.
• Use appropriate values for resistors and capacitors.
• Avoid overloading the circuit.

 Theory:
The process of converting an alternating current into direct current is known as rectification. The
unidirectional conduction property of semiconductor diodes (junction diodes) is used for rectification.
Rectifiers are of two types: (a) Half wave rectifier and (b) Full wave rectifier.

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In a half-wave rectifier circuit during the positive half-cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased and
conducts. Current flows through the load and a voltage are developed across it. During the negative
half-cycle, it is reverse bias and does not conduct. Therefore, in the negative half cycle of the supply, no
current flows in the load resistor as no voltage appears across it. Thus, the dc voltage across the load is
sinusoidal for the first half cycle only and a pure a.c. input signal is converted into a unidirectional
pulsating output signal.

Since the diode conducts only in one half-cycle (0-π), it can be verified that the d.c. component in the
output is Vmax/π, where Vmax is the peak value of the voltage. Thus,

Ripple factor
As the voltage across the load resistor is only present during the positive half of the cycle. This variation
on the rectified waveform is called "Ripple" and is an undesirable feature. The ripple factor is a measure
of purity of the d.c. output of a rectifier and is defined as

In case of a half-wave rectifier Vrms = Vmax/2 = 0.5Vmax.

Rectification Efficiency
Rectification efficiency, η, is a measure of the percentage of total a.c. power input converted to useful d.c.
power output.

Here rd is the forward resistance of diode. Under the assumption of no diode loss (rd<<), the rectification efficiency in
case of a half-wave rectifier is approximately 40.5%.

(Applying Capacitors) Filters

The output of a rectifier gives a pulsating d.c. signal because of presence of some a.c. components whose frequency
is equal to that of the a.c. supply frequency. Very often when rectifying an alternating voltage, we wish to produce a
"steady" direct voltage free from any voltage variations or ripple. Filter circuits are used to smoothen the output.
Various filter circuits are available such as shunt capacitor, series inductor, choke input LC filter and π-filter etc. Here
we will use a simple shunt capacitor filter circuit. Since a capacitor is open to d.c. and offers low impedance path
to a.c. current, putting a capacitor across the output will make the d.c. component to pass through the load resulting
in small ripple voltage.

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The working of the capacitor can be understood in the following manner. When the rectifier output voltage is
increasing, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage Vm. Just past the positive peak the rectifier output voltage tries
to fall. As the source voltage decreases below Vm, the capacitor will try to send the current back to diode making it
reverse biased. Thus, the diode separates/disconnects the source from the load and hence the capacitor will
discharge through the load until the source voltage becomes more than the capacitor voltage. The diode again starts
conducting and the capacitor is again charged to the peak value Vm and the process continues. Although in the
output waveform the discharging of capacitor is shown as a straight line for simplicity, the decay is actually the normal
exponential decay of any capacitor discharging through a load resistor. The extent to which the capacitor voltage
drops depends on the capacitance and the amount of current drawn by the load; these two factors effectively form the
RC time constant for voltage decay. A proper combination of large capacitance and small load resistance can give out
a steady output.

Circuit components/Equipment’s:

(i) A step-down transformer, (ii) A junction diode, (iii) 3 Load resistors, (iv) 3 Electrolytic Capacitors, (v)
Oscilloscope, (vi) Multimeters, (vii) Connecting wires, (viii) Breadboard.

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EXPERIMENT 09: Design and implement the full wave rectifier circuits with and
without the filter circuits. Also calculate the ripple factor, performance, efficiency, average
voltage, output D.C. voltage using diodes, load resistors and A.C. input voltage source.

9.1 Objective:
Full wave rectifier circuits with and without the filter circuits.

9.2 Principle:
Working of a rectifier is based on the fact that resistance of PN junction (diode) becomes low when it is
forward biased and resistance becomes high when it is reverse biased.

9.3 Apparatus:
 Diodes (e.g., 1N4001)
 4 diodes for a bridge rectifier
 Load resistor (R_L)
 Capacitors (for filter circuit)
 A.C. input voltage source (e.g., function generator)
 Breadboard and jumper wires
 Oscilloscope
 Multimeter

9.4 Circuit Diagram:

There are two circuit diagrams:
 Centre taped transformer full wave rectifier (2 diodes)
 Bridge type full wave rectifier (4 diodes)
In this experiment, we go with bridge type full wave rectifier.

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9.5 Working:

Full-Wave Rectifier without Filter Circuit:

Operation:
Positive Half-Cycle:
• During the positive half-cycle of the input A.C. voltage, diode D1 and D2 conducts.
• Diode D1 is forward-biased, allowing current to flow through the Load-Resistor (R-L) to the
positive terminal.
• Diode D2 is reverse-biased and blocks the current from flowing through it.

Negative Half-Cycle:
• Both halves of the A.C. input cycle contribute to the output.
• The output waveform is a series of positive pulses corresponding to each half-cycle of the input.

Output waveform:
• The output waveform is much smoother compared to without the filter.
• The capacitor reduces the fluctuations, resulting in a more stable D.C. output

Half-Wave Rectifier with Filter Circuit:

Operation:
Positive Half-Cycle:
• Similar to without the filter, allowing positive voltage to pass through.
• The capacitor in the filter circuit charges during this phase.

Negative Half-Cycle:
• During the negative half-cycle, diode D3 and D4 conducts.
• The charge capacitor discharges, providing a continuous output during the negative half-cycle.

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Output waveform:
• The output waveform is much smoother compared to without the filter.
• The capacitor reduces the fluctuations, resulting in a more stable D.C. output.

Summary:
Without Filter: Both halves of the A.C. cycle contribute to the output, resulting in a pulsating D.C.
waveform.

With Filter: The capacitor smoothens the waveform, reducing ripple and providing a more stable D.C.
output.

9.6 Procedure:
Full-Wave Rectifier without Filter Circuit:

Setup:

• Place the four diodes on the breadboard to form a bridge rectifier.

• Connect the A.C. input voltage source to the input terminals of the bridge rectifier.
• Connect the load resistor (R_L) across the output terminals of the bridge rectifier.

Measurements:

• Set up the oscilloscope to measure the input A.C. voltage.

• Observe and measure the output waveform across the load resistor using the oscilloscope.
• Measure the average voltage (V_avg) and output D.C. voltage (V_dc) using a multimeter.

Calculations:

𝑽𝑽𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
• Calculate the ripple factor using the formula: R. F= r =
𝑽𝑽𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑽𝑽𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
• Calculate the performance using the formula: P=
𝑽𝑽𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝑷𝑷𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
• Calculate the efficiency using the formula: η =
𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂

2. Full-Wave Rectifier with Filter Circuit:

Setup:

• Add a capacitor in parallel with the load resistor to create a simple filter circuit.
• Adjust the capacitor value based on the desired filter characteristics.

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Measurements:

• Use the oscilloscope to observe and measure the output waveform across the load resistor with
the filter.
• Measure the average voltage and output D.C. voltage using a multimeter.

Calculations:

𝑽𝑽𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
• Calculate the ripple factor using the formula: R. F= r =
𝑽𝑽𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑽𝑽𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
• Calculate the performance using the formula: P=
𝑽𝑽𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝑷𝑷𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
• Calculate the efficiency using the formula: η =
𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂

9.7 Analysis:
• Compare the results obtained from the full-wave rectifier with and without the filter circuit.
• Discuss the impact of the filter on ripple factor, performance, and efficiency.
• Record any observations or unexpected outcomes during the experiment.

9.8 Precautions:
• Ensure proper connections and polarity of components.
• Use appropriate values for resistors and capacitors.
• Avoid overloading the circuit.

 Theory:
o Full wave rectification:
Full wave rectification is a process in which both halves of an alternating current (AC) waveform are utilized to
produce a direct current (DC) output. This is achieved through the use of diodes and can be implemented in two main
ways: the full wave bridge rectifier and the center-tapped full wave rectifier.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier: Utilizes four diodes arranged in a bridge configuration. During the positive half-cycle of
the AC input, one pair of diodes conducts, allowing current to flow through the load in one direction. During the
negative half-cycle, the other pair of diodes conducts, allowing current to flow in the opposite direction. The output is
a pulsating DC waveform, but it is more continuous compared to half-wave rectification.

Center-Tapped Full Wave Rectifier: Involves a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding. The center tap
serves as a reference point. During the positive half-cycle, current flows through one half of the secondary winding,
and during the negative half-cycle, it flows through the other half. This results in two pulsating DC waveforms with
opposite polarities, but when combined, they produce a more continuous DC output.

In both cases, full wave rectification is more efficient than half-wave rectification because it utilizes both halves of the
AC cycle, providing a smoother DC output with less ripple. It's commonly used in power supply circuits to convert AC
to a stable DC voltage.

(Remaining All theory is given in lab no 7)

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EXPERIMENT 10: Determine the resonance frequency of acceptor/rejector circuit

using resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

10.1 Objective:
The objective of determining the resonance frequency in an RLC circuit using resistors,
capacitors, and inductors is to identify the frequency at which the circuit exhibits maximum
response or resonance. This involves understanding the interplay between the inductive and
capacitive reactance within the circuit.

10.2 Apparatus:
 AC audio generator (Frequency)
 Resistor (R)
 Inductor (L)
 Capacitor (C)
 Oscilloscope
 Function Generator
 Multimeter
 Connecting Wires
 Breadboard (if necessary)

10.3 Circuit Diagram:

• SERIES (Acceptor) • PARALLEL(Rejector)

10.4 Procedure:
 Setup:
Circuit Connection:
• Connect the resistor, inductor, and capacitor in series to form an RLC circuit.

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• Make sure to use appropriate values for the components, and note their resistance (R),
inductance (L), and capacitance (C).

Oscilloscope Connection:
• Connect the oscilloscope across the entire circuit to measure the total voltage (V) across
the RLC circuit.

Function Generator:
• Connect the function generator to the circuit to provide an AC voltage signal.

 Procedure Steps:
Initial Setup:
• Set up the circuit and ensure all connections are secure.
• Measure the resistance (R), inductance (L), and capacitance (C) using a multimeter.

Frequency Sweep:
• Begin with a lower frequency and gradually sweep through a range of frequencies using
the function generator.
• Observe the voltage across the circuit on the oscilloscope.

Resonance Observation:
• As you sweep through frequencies, you'll notice a point where the amplitude of the
voltage across the circuit is maximized. This is the resonance point.

Resonance Frequency Calculation:

1
• The resonance frequency (fr) can be calculated using the formula: fr =
2𝜋𝜋√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

Where:
o fr is the resonance frequency.
o L is the inductance.
o C is the capacitance.
o π is the mathematical constant (approximately 3.14159).

Verification:
• Confirm the resonance frequency by adjusting the function generator to the calculated
value. The voltage across the circuit should be maximized at this frequency.

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10.5 Observations and Calculations:

• SERIES (Acceptor) • PARALLEL (Rejector)

Sr Frequency (F) Current (I) Frequency (F) Current (I)

No. (Hz) (µA) (Hz) (µA)

1 20 20 30 300

2 40 35 60 230

3 60 65 90 150

4 80 110 120 80

5 100 170 150 50

6 120 205 180 40

7 140 215 210 55

8 160 200 240 80

9 180 185 270 110

10 200 170 300 140

11 220 155 330 170

12 240 140 360 195

13 260 130 390 220

14 280 120 420 240

15 300 110 450 250

16 320 105 480 260

17 340 95 510 270

18 360 92 540 280

19 380 90 570 285

20 400 87 600 300

21 420 82 630 315

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10.6 Result:
The experiment revealed the resonance frequency of the RLC circuit, demonstrating its
acceptor behavior at resonance and rejector characteristics away from it. The circuit's response
highlighted the interplay between inductive and capacitive reactance, influencing impedance
and current flow. The observed frequency-dependent behavior aligns with theoretical
expectations for an RLC circuit.

10.7 Precautions:
 The wires should be tightly joined to avoid sparkles.
 The values should be noted correctly.
 There must be maximum readings for accuration of the graph.
 The AC audio generator should be used correctly and carefully.
 The graph should be drawn clean for better understanding.
 Monitor the temperature of components, especially resistors, to ensure they do not
overheat during prolonged experiments.
 Allow sufficient time for components to cool down between measurements.

 Theory:

o Resonance Frequency:
The frequency at which a system or circuit exhibits maximum response, often characterized by
the cancellation of reactance in an RLC circuit.

o Resistance:
Opposition to the flow of electric current in a circuit, measured in ohms (Ω).

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o Capacitor:
An electronic component that stores electrical energy in an electric field. It consists of two
conductive plates separated by an insulating material.

o Capacitance:
The ability of a capacitor to store electrical charge per unit voltage, measured in farads (F).

o Inductor:
An electronic component that stores electrical energy in a magnetic field when a current flows
through it. It typically consists of a coil of wire.

o Inductance:
The property of an inductor that determines its ability to store energy in a magnetic field,
measured in Henries (H).

o Acceptor:
In the context of RLC circuits, a circuit designed to accept or pass signals at specific
frequencies while attenuating others.

o Rejector:
In the context of RLC circuits, a circuit designed to reject or attenuate signals at specific
frequencies while allowing others to pass.

o Series Circuit:
A circuit configuration where components are connected end-to-end, creating a single pathway
for current flow.

o RLC series Circuit:

A series circuit that includes resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors (C), often designed for
specific frequency responses.

o Parallel Circuit:
A circuit configuration where components are connected across common points, providing
multiple pathways for current flow.

o RLC parallel Circuit:

A parallel circuit that includes resistors, inductors, and capacitors, often designed for specific
frequency responses.

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o Impedance:
The total opposition to the flow of alternating current in a circuit, taking into account both
resistance and reactance.

o Bandwidth:
The range of frequencies over which a circuit or system can efficiently transmit signals or exhibit
a specific response.

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EXPERIMENT 11: Study the parameter of a wave generated by a function generator

on a cathode rays’ oscilloscope (CRO) by analyzing its amplitude, phase and time period.

11.1 Objective:
To analyze the amplitude, phase, and time period of a wave generated by a function generator
using a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO).

11.2 Apparatus:
 Function Generator
 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
 Connecting Cables
 BNC Cables
 Power Supply
 Breadboard (if necessary)

11.3 Circuit Diagram:

11.4 Working:
During +ive half cycle: Let us consider P1 to be -ive and P2 be +ive. Due to Lenz’s law. S1 become
+ive and S2 become -ive.
Hence, diode will be forward biased.

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During -ive half cycle: Let us consider P1 to be +ive and P2 be -ive. Due to Lenz’s law. S1 become -ive
and S2 become +ive.
Hence, diode will be reverse biased. (off / block)

11.5 Procedure:
Setup:

• Ensure that all equipment is properly connected to the power supply and grounded.
• Connect the function generator's output to the input of the CRO using a BNC cable.
• Make sure the CRO is also properly connected to the power supply.

Adjust Function Generator:

• Turn on the function generator and set it to produce the desired waveform (sine wave,
square wave, etc.).
• Adjust the amplitude on the function generator to a known value (e.g., 1V).

Connect to CRO:

• Connect the output of the function generator to the vertical input of the CRO.
• Connect the trigger output of the function generator to the trigger input of the CRO.

CRO Settings:

• Turn on the CRO and set it to the appropriate voltage and time scales.
• Adjust the trigger settings to stabilize the waveform on the screen.

Measure Amplitude:

• Use the vertical controls on the CRO to measure the peak-to-peak amplitude of the
waveform.
• Record the amplitude.

Measure Time Period:

• Use the horizontal controls on the CRO to measure the time period of one complete
cycle of the waveform.
• Record the time period.

Measure Phase:

• If dealing with multiple waveforms, use the horizontal controls to measure the phase
shift between them.

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• Record the phase difference.

Repeat and Analyze:

• Repeat the experiment for different frequencies and amplitudes.

• Analyze the relationship between amplitude, frequency, and phase.

11.6 Table:
Measurement of Amplitude:

No of Volt/divisions Amplitude
obs. (v) V=n*v
(n) (volt)
1

Measurement of Frequency:
Time Frequency
No of Volt/divisions Period F=1/T
obs. (v) T=n*t
(n) (s) (Hz)
1

11.7 Conclusion:
Summarize your findings and draw conclusions about the behavior of the waveform based on the
changes in amplitude, phase, and time period.

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11.8 Precautions:
• Follow electrical safety guidelines.
• Avoid touching live components.
• Turn off equipment when making connections.

This procedure provides a systematic approach to studying wave parameters using a function generator
and CRO.

 Theory:

o Function Generator:
A function generator is an electronic device that produces various types of electrical waveforms as output
signals. These waveforms can be adjusted in terms of frequency, amplitude, and waveform shape.
Function generators are commonly used in laboratories and engineering settings for testing,
troubleshooting, and prototyping electronic circuits.

Function Generator (in the context of a half-wave rectification experiment): In the context of a half-
wave rectification experiment, a function generator is a device that produces an AC voltage signal with a
sinusoidal waveform. This AC signal is then fed into the half-wave rectifier circuit to demonstrate the
process of converting AC to pulsating DC.

o Waveform:
A waveform is a graphical
representation of the variation of a
signal with respect to time. It
shows how the amplitude of the
signal changes over time.
Common waveforms include sine
waves, square waves, triangular
waves, sawtooth waves and pulse
waves. Waveforms are essential in
the study of electrical signals and are widely used in fields such as electronics and telecommunications.

Waveform (in the context of a half-wave rectification experiment): In a half-wave rectification

experiment, the waveform typically refers to the shape of the voltage signal after passing through a half-
wave rectifier circuit. The original AC (alternating current) sinusoidal waveform is transformed into a
waveform that only includes one half of the cycles. This results in a pulsating DC (direct current)
waveform with gaps between the pulses.

o Cathode Rays Oscilloscope (CRO):

A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO or oscilloscope) is a specialized instrument used to visualize and
analyze the waveform of electrical signals. It consists of a cathode ray tube (CRT) display and various
controls for adjusting the display parameters. The horizontal axis typically represents time, while the

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vertical axis represents voltage. CROs are widely used in electronics, physics, and engineering to
observe and measure electrical waveforms, helping to diagnose and analyze electronic circuits.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) (in the context of a half-wave rectification experiment): The CRO in
this experiment is used to visualize and analyze the waveform at different points in the circuit. It helps
observe the original AC sinusoidal waveform generated by the function generator and the resulting
pulsating DC waveform after passing through the half-wave rectifier. The CRO allows you to see the
changes in amplitude and shape of the waveform, providing insights into the rectification process.

o Amplitude:
Amplitude refers to the maximum displacement of the wave from its equilibrium position. On a CRO, you
can measure the amplitude by looking at the vertical scale of the oscilloscope. In the context of a function
generator and CRO, you'd be looking at the peak voltage of the waveform. This tells you how high or low
the wave reaches on the vertical axis of the oscilloscope. Amplitude tells energy level.

o Phase:
The position of the moving particle of a waveform is called
“Phase” and is measured in “Radians or degrees”. Phase
difference: The time interval by which a wave leads by or
lags by another wave is called “Phase difference” or
“Phase angle”.
Phase represents the position of the wave in its cycle at a particular point in time. The divisional part of a
cycle through which the quantity moves faster from a selected origin. To measure phase on a CRO, you
might use the horizontal scale. Each division on the horizontal scale corresponds to a specific time
interval. By observing the position of the wave relative to the divisions, you can determine its phase.

o Time Period:
The time period is the duration it takes for one complete cycle of the wave to pass a given point. CROs
often have a frequency and time period display. You can read the time period directly from the
oscilloscope or calculate it using the formula: time period (T) = 1 / frequency. Frequency tells you how
many cycles occur in one second.

o Rectifier:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It allows
the flow of current in one direction only, essentially removing the negative half-cycles of the AC waveform.
Rectifiers are commonly used in power supply circuits to provide DC voltage for electronic devices.

o Invertor:
An inverter is an electronic device that
converts direct current (DC) into alternating
current (AC). This is the opposite process of
rectification. Inverters are commonly used in
various applications, such as powering
household appliances, solar energy systems,
and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). They play a crucial role in providing AC power when DC
sources, like batteries or solar panels, are the primary power supply. Inverters help enable the use of

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electronic devices that require alternating current in situations where only direct current is readily
available.

o Rectification:
Rectification is the process of converting alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). The goal of
rectification is to allow current to flow in only one direction, essentially converting the back-and-forth
oscillation of AC into a unidirectional flow. This process is essential for many electronic devices that
require a steady DC power supply.

o Rectification circuit:
A rectification circuit is an arrangement of electronic components designed to perform the rectification
process. Rectification circuits often include diodes, which are semiconductor devices that allow current to
flow in one direction only. These circuits are crucial in power supply applications, ensuring a stable and
continuous DC output from an AC input.

o Principle:
It is based on the fact that PN junction diode will conduct heavily in forward bias and will not conduct in
reverse bias.

 Types of Rectifiers:
1) Half wave rectifier: In a half-wave rectifier, only one half of the AC waveform is allowed to pass
through, while the other half is blocked. It gives output only +ive half cycle but not for -ive half
cycle. This is typically achieved using a single diode. The output is a pulsating DC waveform with
gaps between the pulses, corresponding to the blocked half-cycles of the AC input.
2) Full wave rectifier: Full-wave rectifiers allow both halves of the AC waveform to be used in the
rectification process.

A.C. D.C.
• Change in Current Direction. • No change.
• Transmit overlong distance. • Cannot Transmit.
• +ive, -ive polarity is not fixed. • +ive & -ive polarity is fixed.
• Electrons move in backward & forward • Electrons move in forward direction.
direction.

• Frequency of A.C. is 50-60 Hz. • Frequency is 0 Hz.

• Power factor is from 0 to 1. • Power factor is 1.
• Dangerous. • Less dangerous.
• Sinusoidal, rectangular, trapezoidal wave. • Pure and pulsating wave.

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• Uses: Motor generators etc. • Uses: DC fans, Batteries, Mobile Chargers.

o Ripple Factor:
It is a measure of D.C. output of a rectifier. The output voltage contains both A.C. and D.C. components.
The ripple factor measures the %age of A.C. component in the rectifier output. The rms depends on peak
value of charging and discharging magnitude.
Vpeak
Vpeak= Vrms=
2

I (dc)
Vac (rms) = Vpeak =
𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐)

V (ac) (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

R.F. =
𝑉𝑉(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

ideal r=0 r=1.21

(Also present in Lab # 06)

o Rectification efficiency:
It tells us the total input A.C. power is converted in useful D.C. output power.
𝐷𝐷.𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
Ƞ= 𝐴𝐴.𝐶𝐶. 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
× 100

Measure = %

Rectification Factor = 41.6% (constant)

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EXPERIMENT 12: Calculate the dynamic motion of rolling along an inclined plane.

12.1 Objective:
The objective of the experiment "Calculate the dynamic motion of rolling along an inclined
plane" is to investigate the relationship between the angle of inclination of an inclined plane,
the mass of a rolling object, and its acceleration. The experiment aims to deepen
understanding of the physics of rolling motion and provide valuable insights into the factors
influencing the acceleration of objects on inclined planes.

12.2 Apparatus:
• Inclined plane
• Ruler or measuring tape
• Stopwatch or timer
• Rolling object (e.g., a spherical object like a ball or a cylindrical object like a dowel)
• Protractor
• Balance for measuring mass

12.3 Circuit Diagram:

12.4 Procedure:
31. Break the gravitational force into components parallel and perpendicular to the inclined plane.
32. The normal force (N) is the force exerted by the inclined plane perpendicular to it.
33. If there is friction, calculate the frictional force (f):( f = u.N.).
34. Write the equations of motion for translation and rotation.
35. For pure rolling motion, the acceleration of the center of mass is related to the angular
acceleration.
36. Substitute the expressions for a and ∝ to relate translational and rotational motion.
37. Solve the equation for the acceleration of the center of mass.
38. Use the relation a =a=R⋅α to find the angular acceleration (α).
39. Once a and α are known, you can find other quantities like velocity, angular velocity, and
displacement.

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12.5 Observations and Calculations:

The observations which have been collected after conducting this experiment are summarized in the give
table: -

Angular Angular
No. of Position Velocity Acceleration Displacement Velocity Frictional
Time (s)
obs. (m) (m/s) (m/s2) (rad) (rad/s) Force (N)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

12.6 Graph:

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12.7 Result:

12.8 Precautions:
To ensure accurate and reliable results in the experiment "Calculate the dynamic motion of rolling along
an inclined plane," it's essential to take several precautions. Here are some precautions to consider:

 Surface Conditions
 Friction Minimization
 Alignment
 Incline Stability
 Height Measurement Precision
 Release Consistency
 Timing Accuracy
 Multiple Trials
 Mass Measurement Accuracy
 Control Variables
 Safety Precautions
 Avoid Air Resistance Influences
 Regular Calibration

By taking these precautions, you can enhance the reliability and validity of the experimental results,
ensuring that the observed trends and patterns are reflective of the actual physics of rolling motion on
an inclined plane.

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 Theory:

o Inclined Plane Angle:

The angle of the inclined plane with respect to the horizontal. It determines the gravitational
component parallel to the incline.

o Acceleration along the Incline:

The acceleration of the center of mass of the rolling object along the inclined plane.

o Torque:
The torque acting on the rolling object due to the net force causing rotation. For an object rolling
down an incline.

o Angular Acceleration:
The rate of change of angular velocity. It is related to the torque and moment of inertia.

o Rolling Without Slipping:

The condition where the object simultaneously undergoes translational and rotational motion
without any slipping.

o Coefficient of Rolling Friction:

A dimensionless constant representing the friction between the rolling object and the surface. It
influences the torque and can be experimentally determined.

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EXPERIMENT 13: Find the distance between two vertical lines using the sextant
apparatus.

13.1 Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to provide participants with hands-on experience in using a
sextant for distance measurements and enhance their understanding of angular measurement
principles.

13.2 Apparatus:
 Sextant
 Plum Line
 Rigid Stand with clamp
 Measuring Tape
 Sprit Level
 Colored Chalk

13.3 Procedure:
8. I took sextant and learn how to use it.
9. I wrote an alphabet “Q” on the wall with colored
chalk about 1.5m from the floor.
10. I also wrote another alphabet “P” vertically
above “Q” on the wall.
11. I clamped the sextant in a rigid stand and
placed this stand above 10m from these points and adjusted its height so that axis of the
telescope attached with the sextant is in the level with lower mark “Q”.
12. I focused the telescope on the “Q” and gets its distinct image which is formed by ray
coming straight into the telescope through the clear half of the horizon glass “M2”. This is
called stationary image of “Q”.
13. I adjust index arm at zero degree and then slowly rotated it by screw.
14. The moving image of straight into the telescope through the clear half of the horizon
glass “M2”. This is called stationary image of “Q”.
15. I measured the reading on arc scale, micrometer drum scale and vernier scale. This is
the initial reading “Ɵi”.
16. I turned the index arm to my opposite side till the image of the upper mark “P” reflected
by “M1” and “M2” approaches the direct stationary image of “Q”. I noted the reading again
when two image overlap. This is the final reading “Ɵf”.
17. I calculate this difference Ɵ= Ɵf- Ɵi of both readings.
18. I measured the distance “d” between the lower mark “Q” and the center of the index with
a measuring tape.
19. I calculated the vertical height “h” between two points “P” and “Q” by formula h=dTanƟ.

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20. I took more observations by changing the positions of sextant and calculated mean
vertical distance between two points.

13.4 Observations:
The sextant has a shape of a sector which is approximately 1/6 of a circle (600) so called
sextant. There are three scale on sextant;

Arc Scale:
• The arc scale is graduated in degrees.
• The smallest division read “I”.

Micrometer Drum:
• The outer revolving micrometer drum scales indicate minutes of arc.
• Find the long line.

Stationary Vernier:
• Find the short line of the vernier at the opposite to a line on the drum.
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟏
Least Count = = = 0.2
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟓𝟓

Note: The vernier scale of some sextants has 60 divisions instead of 50 divisions.
L.C = 0.2x60 = 12

No Horizontal Zero Reading Elevation Reading Angle subtend by Vertical Height

Distance Vertical distance
of (Initial Reading) (Final Reading) between two points (cm)
d (cm)
Obs. Ɵf

Arc Circular Vernier Total Arc Circular Vernier Total Ɵ= Ɵf - Ɵi h=dTanƟ

Scale Scale Scale Angle Scale Scale Scale Angle
Ɵ Ɵ

1 750 3 33 12 3.553 12 26 12 12.436 8.883 117.21

2 900 3 19 48 3.330 38 38 48 10.646 7.316 115.54

3 1100 3 27 24 3.457 31 31 24 9.524 6.067 116.90

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13.5 Result:
 The vertical distance between points is measured by using sextant is h = 116.5cm
 The actual distance measured between same two points with measuring tape = 120cm
 The distance between two observations is 120-116.5 = 3.5cm

13.6 Precautions:
 The plane of the index glass must be normal to the plane of scale.
 The telescope should be at same height above the floor as that of the object floor.
 Two images should overlap and should be of equal brightness.
 The axis of the telescope must be horizontal and parallel to plane of the scale.
 The axis and horizon glasses should be parallel and at the same time vernier should
read zero.

 Theory:
o Sextant:
A sextant is a navigational instrument used for measuring the angular distance between two objects,
typically celestial bodies, or the angle of elevation of a distant object. It is widely used in navigation at
sea, especially for determining the position of a ship by measuring the angle between a celestial body
(such as the sun, moon, or stars) and the horizon.

Here are the key components and functions of a sextant:

Frame and Index Mirror: The sextant has a sturdy frame, often made of metal, which holds the
various components in place. It includes an index mirror that is fixed at a 45-degree angle to the frame.

Horizon Mirror: A half-silvered mirror, known as the horizon mirror, is mounted at a 45-degree angle to
the frame. It reflects both the celestial body and the horizon.

Telescope: The sextant features a telescope with adjustable focus to observe distant objects, typically
celestial bodies.

Arc and Vernier Scale: The arc is a graduated scale, usually marked in degrees, from 0 to 120 or 0 to
140 degrees. The vernier scale allows for precise measurements to fractions of a degree.

Micrometer Drum: The micrometer drum is used to fine-tune measurements on the vernier scale,
providing increased accuracy.

Shade Glasses: Sextants often have shades or colored glasses to protect the observer's eyes from the
sun's glare when measuring celestial bodies.

o How a Sextant Works:

Observation: The navigator looks through the telescope and adjusts it to focus on the horizon and the
celestial body simultaneously.

Alignment: By adjusting the index arm, the observer aligns the reflected image of the celestial body with
the actual body seen directly through the horizon mirror.

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Angle Measurement: The measured angle is read from the vernier scale and main scale, providing the
angular distance between the celestial body and the horizon.

Calculation: Using the measured angle, along with other navigational information and the time of
observation, the navigator can calculate the ship's position.

The sextant's design allows for accurate measurements of celestial angles, crucial for celestial navigation.
While modern navigational technology has introduced electronic tools, the sextant remains an essential
backup and training instrument for celestial navigation.

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EXPERIMENT 14: Determine the radius of gyration using the compound pendulum.

14.1 Objective:
• Gain a theoretical understanding of the concept of the radius of gyration in the context of
a compound pendulum.
• Recognize the significance of the radius of gyration in describing the distribution of mass
in a rotating system.

14.2 Apparatus:
• Compound Pendulum.
• Digital scale or Balance.
• Protractor.
• Stop watch.
• Stable Support Stands.
• Safety Goggles

14.3 Diagram:

14.4 Procedure:
40. Assemble the compound pendulum setup, ensuring a clear and stable axis of rotation.
Suspend the pendulum from the support stand using a clamp, allowing it to swing freely.

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41. Measure the length of the pendulum (L) using a ruler or meter stick. This is the distance
from the axis of rotation to the center of mass. Measure the mass of the pendulum (m)
using a digital scale or balance.
42. Displace the pendulum slightly from its vertical equilibrium position. Release the
pendulum and start the stopwatch as it begins to oscillate.
43. Measure the time (T) it takes for the pendulum to complete a certain number of
oscillations (e.g., 10 oscillations). Record the time accurately.
44. Calculate the period (T) of one oscillation by dividing the total time by the number of
oscillations.
45. Calculate the period (T) of one oscillation by dividing the total time by the number of
oscillations. Calculate or measure the moment of inertia about the center of mass (Ic).
46. Conduct the experiment for several trials to ensure accuracy. Record measurements
and calculations for each trial.
47. Analyze the results, looking for patterns or trends. Compare the calculated radius of
gyration values from different trials. Draw conclusions about the distribution of mass in
the compound pendulum.
48. Throughout the experiment, wear safety goggles to protect your eyes. Ensure the
experimental area is clear of obstacles to avoid interference with the swinging pendulum.

14.5 Observations and Calculations:

The observations which have been collected after conducting this experiment are summarized in the give
table: -

Length of Mass of No. of Total Time Period Angular

No. of obs. Frequency
pendulum Pendulum Oscillations Frequency

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Period = Total time/No of Oscillation

Frequency = 1/T

𝑰𝑰
Radius of gyration = k = � 𝑳𝑳.
𝒎𝒎

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14.6 Graph:

14.7 Result:
• Analysis of the results revealed that variations in the moment of inertia about the center
of mass (Ic) played a significant role in determining k. The comparison of experimental
values with theoretical expectations highlighted a minor discrepancy, suggesting
potential areas for refinement in future experiments.
• It is important to note that uncertainties in measurements, particularly in determining (Ic)
contribute to the overall uncertainty in the calculated values of k. Further investigations
into reducing experimental errors and refining measurement techniques could enhance
the accuracy of the results.

14.8 Precautions:
• Be aware of emergency procedures and know the location of safety equipment, such as
fire extinguishers or first aid kits, in case of unforeseen incidents.
• Be aware of emergency procedures and know the location of safety equipment, such as
fire extinguishers or first aid kits, in case of unforeseen incidents.
• Be aware of emergency procedures and know the location of safety equipment, such as
fire extinguishers or first aid kits, in case of unforeseen incidents.

14.9 Applications
• In automotive engineering, the distribution of mass in vehicles affects their stability and
handling. The radius of gyration is considered in vehicle design to optimize
maneuverability and reduce the risk of rollovers.
• Pendulum clocks utilize the principles of compound pendulums. Understanding the
radius of gyration is essential in designing accurate and reliable timekeeping devices.
• In the design and control of satellites, the radius of gyration is considered to ensure
stable and predictable rotational motion in space.

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 Theory:

o Compound Pendulum:
A physical system consisting of a rigid body or assembly of bodies connected to a pivot or axis
of rotation. In the context of this experiment, the compound pendulum consists of multiple
components, possibly with distributed masses.

o Radius of gyrations:
The radius at which the entire mass of the compound pendulum could be concentrated to
produce the same moment of inertia about the axis of rotation as the actual distributed mass. It
is a measure of how mass is distributed with respect to the axis of rotation.

o Center of Mass:
The point where the entire mass of an object can be considered to be concentrated. In the
context of the compound pendulum, understanding the center of mass is crucial for calculating
the moment of inertia about this point.

o Period:
The time it takes for the pendulum to complete one full oscillation. It is an important parameter
for calculating the frequency and angular frequency.

o Frequency:
The number of oscillations per unit of time. In the context of a compound pendulum, it is
calculated as the reciprocal of the period (f = 1/T).

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EXPERIMENT 15: Determine the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum.

15.1 Objective:
The objective of the experiment is to measure the acceleration due to gravity (g) by observing the motion
of a simple pendulum.

15.2 Principle:
The principle behind determining the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum lies in the
relationship between the period of oscillation (T), the length of the pendulum (L), and the acceleration due
to gravity (g). This relationship is derived from the principles of simple harmonic motion and gravitational
force.

15.3 Apparatus:
 Stand
 Thread
 Vernier Caliper
 Stop Watch
 Meter Scale

15.4 Procedure:

Setup:

• Attach the weight (bob) to the string or rod. Make sure the length of the string is known.
• Secure the string to a stable support, allowing the pendulum to swing freely.

Measure Length:

• Use a ruler or a measuring tape to measure the length of the pendulum (the distance from the
point of suspension to the center of the bob).

Initial Position:

• Displace the bob slightly from its equilibrium position (around 5 degrees is a good start) and
release it without giving it any initial velocity.

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Time the Oscillation:

• Start the stopwatch as the pendulum/bob is released.

• Measure the time it takes for the pendulum to complete ten oscillations.
• Repeat the same process for 2 to 3 times by decreasing length of string.

Calculate Period:

• Calculate the average period (time for one complete oscillation) using the recorded times.

Calculate Acceleration due to Gravity:

𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝑳
• Use the formula: where g is the acceleration due to gravity, L is the length of the
𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐
pendulum, and T is the period.

15.5 Observations And Calculations:

• Least count of stopwatch = 0.001 sec.
• Diameter of bob = ------- cm.
• Radius of bob = ------- cm.
Table for L, T and T2

No. Length of Time for 10 oscillations Time 𝐿𝐿 Mean g

of Pendulum Period T 2
𝑇𝑇 2
𝐿𝐿
Obs. L 𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇 2
(cm) t1 t2 t=
𝑡𝑡1 + 𝑡𝑡2
T= (sec) (m/s2) 4π2 L
2 10 (cm/s2)
(sec) (sec)
(sec) T2

15.6 Graph:

15.7 Precautions:

• Length Measurement • Timer Precision

• Non-Deformable String • Stable Support
• Negligible Air Resistance • Repeat Measurements

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 Theory:

o Simple Pendulum:
A point mass suspended from a weightless, inelastic and inextensible string is called a simple pendulum."

A simple pendulum is weight suspended from a pivot such that it swings freely. A pendulum moves to and
fro about a point and hence it shows oscillating motion effect.

o Time Period:
The Time taken by a simple pendulum to complete one oscillation.

𝒍𝒍
T= 2π�
𝒈𝒈

𝟏𝟏
f=
𝑻𝑻

g= 9.8m/s2

o Working Formula:
The time period (T) of a simple pendulum of length (L) is given by the relation

𝒍𝒍
T= 2π�
𝒈𝒈

𝒍𝒍
T2= 4π2 ( )
𝒈𝒈

o How does changing the mass of the pendulum bob effect its time
period?
The time period of a pendulum depends on the length and the acceleration due to gravity, but not by its
𝒍𝒍
mass that is given by: T= 2π�
𝒈𝒈

Whether the bob is heavy or light, the time it takes to complete one full swing (period) remains constant
as long as the length of the pendulum and the gravitational acceleration stay the same.

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