Unit 2

Atmosphere Structure, Types

of Flow, Mach Number
 Introduction
1. Pressure (p): Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface
due to the time rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting
on that surface.
𝑑𝐹 (units: N/m2)
𝜌 = lim
Δ𝐴→0 𝑑𝐴

2. Temperature (T): Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the

particles in the gas. If KE is the mean molecular kinetic energy, then
temperature is given by KE = 3/2 kT , where k is the Boltzmann constant.

3. Velocity: The velocity at any fixed point B in a flowing gas is the velocity of an
infinitesimally small fluid element as it sweeps through B .

4. Streamline: a streamline is the path that imaginary particles take as they move
through a fluid. Streamlines are used to show the direction and velocity of a
fluid's flow.
 Introduction
5. Density (ρ): mass per unit volume. (It decreases with increase in temperature)
Δ𝑚
𝜌 = lim (units: kg/m3)
Δ𝑣→0 Δ𝑣

6. Specific Weight (ϒ): weight per unit volume. (It refers to the heaviness of the
fluid)
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
(units: N/m3)

7. Specific Volume (υ): volume occupied by unit mass of fluid

1
𝑣=
𝜌
(units: m3 /kg)
Earth’s Atmosphere
 Earth’s Atmosphere
• Troposphere: The troposphere is the lowest layer of our atmosphere. Starting at
ground level, it extends upward to about 10 km (6.2 miles or about 33,000 feet)
above sea level.
• We humans live in the troposphere, and nearly all weather occurs in this lowest
layer.
• Most clouds appear here, mainly because 99% of the water vapor in the
atmosphere is found in the troposphere.
• As the density of the gases in this layer decrease with height, the air becomes
thinner. Therefore, the temperature in the troposphere also decreases with
height.
 Earth’s Atmosphere
• Stratosphere: The next layer up is called the stratosphere.
• The stratosphere extends from 4 -12 miles (6-20 km) above the Earth's surface
to around 31 miles (50 km).
• This layer holds 19 percent of the atmosphere's gases but very little water
vapor.
• The infamous ozone layer is found within the stratosphere.
• Ozone molecules in this layer absorb high-energy ultraviolet (UV) light from the
Sun, converting the UV energy into heat.
• In the stratosphere temperature increases with altitude means that air in the
stratosphere lacks the turbulence and updrafts of the troposphere beneath.
• Commercial passenger jets fly in the lower stratosphere, partly because this
less-turbulent layer provides a smoother ride.
• The transition layer at the bottom of the stratosphere is called the tropopause.
 Earth’s Atmosphere
• Mesosphere: Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere.
• This layer extends from around 31 miles (50 km) above the Earth's surface to 53
miles (85 km).
• The gases in the mesosphere are now thick enough to slow down meteors
hurtling into the atmosphere, where they burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night
sky.
• Unlike the stratosphere, temperatures once again grow colder as you rise up
through the mesosphere.
• The coldest temperatures in Earth's atmosphere, about -90° C (-130° F), are
found near the top of this layer.
• The gases that comprise this layer continue to become denser as one
descends.
• The transition boundary which separates the mesosphere from the
stratosphere is called the stratopause.
 Earth’s Atmosphere
• Thermosphere: The layer of very rare air above the mesosphere is called the
thermosphere.
• Between about 53 miles (85 km) and 375 miles (600 km) lies the thermosphere,
known as the upper atmosphere. While still extremely thin, the gases of the
thermosphere become increasingly denser as one descends toward the Earth.
• As such, incoming high energy ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun
begins to be absorbed by the molecules in this layer and causes a large
temperature increase.
• Because of this absorption, the temperature increases with height. From as low
-120 degree Celsius at the bottom of this layer, temperature can reach as high
as 2000 degree Celsius near the top.
• The bottom of the thermosphere is the mesopause - the transition into the
mesosphere.
 Earth’s Atmosphere
• Exosphere: This is the outermost layer of the atmosphere.
• It extends from about 600 km to 10000 km above the earth.
• In this layer, atoms and molecules escape into space and satellites orbit the
earth.
• As you might imagine, the "air" in the exosphere is very, very, very thin, making
this layer even more space-like than the thermosphere.
• In fact, the air in the exosphere is constantly - though very gradually - "leaking"
out of Earth's atmosphere into outer space.
• At the bottom of the exosphere is a transition layer called the thermopause.
 Earth’s Atmosphere
• Ionosphere: The ionosphere is not a distinct layer like the others.
• The ionosphere is a series of regions in parts of the mesosphere and
thermosphere where high-energy radiation from the Sun has knocked electrons
loose from their parent atoms and molecules.
• The electrically charged atoms and molecules that are formed in this way are
called ions, giving the ionosphere its name and endowing this region with some
special properties.
• The aurora, or Northern Lights and Southern Lights, occur in the parts of the
thermosphere that correspond to layers of the ionosphere.
 Altitude
• Altitude is not only means distance above the ground. It has various definitions

Altitude

Absolute Density

Geometric Temperature

Geopotential Pressure
 Altitude
• Geometric altitude: geometric height above sea level.

• Absolute altitude: Height measure from the center of earth

ℎ𝑎 = ℎ𝐺 + 𝑟

Absolute altitude is very important as the local acceleration of gravity

(g) varies with ha

• From newton's law gravitation, g varies inversely as the square of the distance from the
center of the earth.
• let g0 be the the gravitational acceleration at the sea level, the local gravitational
acceleration g at a given absolute altitude
2 2
𝑟 𝑟
𝑔 = 𝑔0 = 𝑔0
ℎ𝑎 ℎ𝐺 + 𝑟
 Hydrostatic Equation
• Hydrostatic equation: It relates the small change in pressure to a corresponding
small change in the height of the object.
• applies to any fluid of density ρ
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ𝐺
(1)

•to make use of the equation assume that the g is constant throughout the
atmosphere and equal to its value at sea level, g0, then we can write
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔0 𝑑ℎ
(2)

•h = geopotential altitude: A fictitious altitude which is physically compatible with

the assumption of g = constant = g0
 Relation between h and hG
dividing equation 2 by 1
𝑔
𝑔0 𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ = 𝑑ℎ𝐺
1= 𝑔0
𝑔𝑑ℎ𝐺
𝑟2
𝑑ℎ = 2
𝑑ℎ𝐺
𝑟 + ℎ𝐺

ℎ ℎ𝐺
𝑟2
න 𝑑ℎ = න 2
𝑑ℎ𝐺
𝑟 + ℎ𝐺
0 0

𝑟
ℎ= ℎ𝐺
𝑟 + ℎ𝐺
 Standard Atmosphere
• Defined variation of
temperature with altitude.
• The temperature variation
with altitude consist of a
series of vertical lines
(constant temperature lines)
and temperature gradient
lines
 Standard Atmosphere
• Given T = T (h) as defined so p = p(h) and ρ = ρ (h) follows.

• dividing equation 2 by equation of state, we get

𝑑𝑝 𝑔0 (3)
=− 𝑑ℎ
𝑝 𝑅𝑇

First consider the isothermal region,

𝑝 ℎ
𝑑𝑝 𝑔0
න =− න 𝑑ℎ
𝑝 𝑅𝑇
𝑝1 ℎ1
𝑝 𝑔0
−𝑅𝑇 ℎ−ℎ1 𝜌
=𝑒 =
𝑝1 𝜌1
 Standard Atmosphere
• Now considering gradient layers, as the temperature variation is linear and can be
written as
𝑇 − 𝑇1 𝑑𝑇
= =𝑎
ℎ − ℎ1 𝑑ℎ

where a is defined as the temperature lapse rate.

Modifying the equation 3, we get
𝑑𝑝 𝑔0 𝑑𝑇
=−
𝑝 𝑎𝑅 𝑇

integrating between h1 and h,

𝑝 𝑇
𝑑𝑝 𝑔0 𝑑𝑇
න =−න
𝑝 𝑎𝑅 𝑇
𝑝1 𝑇1
 Standard Atmosphere
g 
g
− 0 − 0 +1
p T  aR  T   aR 
=   =  
p1  T 1  1  T 1 
Value of pressure, temperature and density at standard sea level
altitude:
ps = 1.01325 x 105 N/m2
ρs = 1.225 kg/m3
Ts = 288.16 K
 Numerical
Q1. Find out the value of pressure temperature and density at the altitude of 20 km.

Q2. At 12 km in the standard atmosphere, the pressure, density and temperature are
1.9399 x 104 N/m2 , 3.1194 x 10-1 kg/m3 and 216.66 K, respectively. Using these values,
calculate the standard atmospheric values of pressure, density and temperature a an
altitude of 30 km.
 Types of flow
1. Incompressible Flow : Constant density (Usually liquids)
• Mach number is less than 0.3

2. Compressible Flow : Variable density (Usually gases)

• Mach number is greater than 0.3

3. Viscous flow: When viscosity of fluid is considered in fluid flow, such type of flow
is known as Viscous flow. Viscosity is a resisting force to flowing fluid.

4. Inviscid flow: When viscosity of fluid is not considered in fluid flow, such type of
flow is known as Inviscid flow.
 Types of flow
5. Laminar Flow : Laminar flow is a smooth and orderly type of fluid flow
characterized by parallel layers of fluid particles moving without significant mixing.
• It occurs at low velocities, high viscosities, and in the absence of obstructions,
creating an organized and predictable flow pattern.

6. Turbulent Flow : Turbulent Flow is a dynamic and chaotic type of fluid flow
characterized by irregular motion and the formation of eddies, vortices, and
fluctuations in velocity and pressure.
• It occurs at high velocities, low viscosity, and in the presence of disturbances or
obstacles, playing a significant role in many natural and engineered systems.

7. Transitional Flow: Transitional flow is a type of fluid flow that occurs between
laminar and turbulent flow regimes.
 Types of flow
8. Steady Flow : Steady flow refers to a condition in fluid dynamics where the
properties of the flowing fluid, such as velocity, pressure, and temperature, remain
constant at any given point within the flow field over time.

9. Unsteady Flow : Unsteady flow, also known as transient flow, refers to fluid
motion where the properties, such as velocity, pressure, and temperature, vary with
time at different points in the flow field.

10. Uniform Flow: If fluid parameters such as velocity, acceleration, etc does not
change with respect to space, such type of flow is known as Uniform flow.

11. Non-Uniform flow: If fluid parameters such as velocity, acceleration, etc

changes with respect to space, such type of flow is known as Non-Uniform flow
 Types of flow
12. Rotational flow: when fluid particles while flowing rotates about their own axis,
such a flow is known as Rotational flow.

13. Irrotational flow: When fluid particles while flowing does not rotate about their
own axis, such a type of flow is known as Irrotational flow.

14. One-dimensional flow: The flow velocity varies in one primary dimension.

15. Two-dimensional flow: The flow velocity varies in two primary dimensions.

16. Three-dimensional flow: The flow velocity varies in three primary dimensions.
Types of flow
 Continuity Equation
Mass can neither be created nor destroyed

V1d
Consider steady flow in a stream tube t

The mass of gas that has swept

through area A1 during the time
interval dt 2
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑑𝑡 1
Stream tube with mass
conservation
therefore, mass flow for area A1
• 𝑑𝑚
𝑚1 = = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1
𝑑𝑡
 Continuity Equation
Same mass flow is flowing through area A2, So mass flow for area A2

• 𝑑𝑚
𝑚2 = = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝑑𝑡

Since, mass is conserved, it follows

• •
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 Continuity
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2 Equation for steady
fluid flow
 Momentum Equation
Force = mass x Acceleration
F = ma

Forces acting on the fluid

element at point p as it moving
along the streamline.
➢ pressure acting in normal
direction on all six faces of
the element
➢ Frictional shear acting
tangentially on all six faces
of the element Force diagram for an elemental
➢ Gravity acting on mass volume
inside the element
 Momentum Equation
For time being ignoring the shear force, the net force in x-direction, Fx

𝑑𝑝
𝐹 = 𝑝𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑝 Force on element
𝐹 = − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 due to pressure
𝑑𝑥

mass of the fluid element 𝑚 = 𝜌(𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)

acceleration a of the fluid element 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑉

𝑎= = =𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
 Momentum Equation
Substituting in the Newton's second law,

Euler's Equation, Also

𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 termed as
Momentum equation

this equation relates the change in pressure to the change in velocity

Assumption made in derivation of momentum equation

➢ Friction and gravity neglected

➢ Flow assumed to be frictionless (inviscid flow)
➢ Steady flow field
 Bernoulli’s Equation
Consider two points along a streamline,
in inviscid flow, incompressible flow
2
1
𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0
Integrating between point 1 and 2
Two points along a streamline
2 2
1 2 1 2
න 𝑑𝑝 + න 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑉1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑉2
2 2
1 1

1 2
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 = constant Bernoulli's Equation
2
 Bernoulli’s Equation
Assumption in Bernoulli's equation

➢ holds only for inviscid, incompressible flow

➢ Relate properties between two different points along a streamline.
 Numerical
Q1. Consider an airfoil section in the flow of air, where far ahead of the airfoil the
pressure, velocity and density are 1 bar, 160 m/s and 1.225 kg/m3, respectively. At a
given point on the airfoil the pressure is 0.8 bar, What is the velocity at point A?

Q2. Consider an airplane flying at a velocity of 60m/s at a standard altitude of 3km. At

a point on the wing, the airflow velocity is 70 m/s. Calculate the pressure at this point
assuming incompressible flow.
 Sound Wave
Sound waves travels through the air at a definite speed known a speed of sound.

stagnant
gas
p a p+dp
T T+dT
ρ ρ+dρ

sound wave moving to the

left into stagnant gas with
velocity a
Model of a sound wave moving into a stagnant gas
 Sound Wave
Behind the ahead the
wave wave
p a p+dp
T T+dT
ρ ρ+dρ Model of the
stationary
motionless sound sound wave
wave
Applying mass and momentum conservation equation to imaginary control volume
across the sound wave, we get

𝑑𝑝 𝛾𝑝 𝑎= 𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝑎= 𝑎=
𝑑𝜌 𝜌
𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐
 Mach Number
Speed of sound in a perfect gas depends only on the temperature of the
gas.
𝑉
𝑀=
𝑎

M < 1 --> Subsonic flow

M=1 --> Sonic Flow
M > 1 --> Supersonic Flow
0.8 ≤ 1 ≤ 1.2 --> Transonic Flow
M >5 --> Hypersonic Flow

A shock wave or shock, is a type of propagating disturbance that moves

faster than the local speed of sound in the medium.
 Mach Number
• A point source of sound will produce
different disturbances in the flow if it
moves at different speeds.

• Stationary Source: A stationary

source emits a sound waves at regular
intervals eg. every second.
• The waves travel in the form of a
circle with the centre at the
location of the source as shown in
Fig. 12 (a).
• After 3 seconds there will be three
concentric circles as shown.
• The effect of the sound source is
felt at a point as the edge of a circle
reaches that point.
 Mach Number
• Source moving at Subsonic Speeds: In this case the sound travels faster than the
particle, but the particle moves so that the origin of each circle is different, and the
waves produced are closer together on the side toward which the particle is moving.
• This gives rise to the Doppler effect where frequency of the waves to a stationary
observer appears different if they are infront of the moving object or behind.

• Source moving at the Speed of Sound: In the situation where the source moves at
the speed of sound, i.e., Fig 12(c) then sound waves travel with the particle speed
and do not "outrun" it.
• Consequently, the circles representing wave motion touch each other as shown.
• A line which is tangential to each of these circles can be drawn such that any
effect of the sound wave is felt only to the right of this line.
• In the region to the left of the line no effect of the source of the sources is
detected until the particle reaches that point. These regions are designated
"Zone of Action" and "Zone of Silence" respectively.
 Mach Number
• Source moving at Supersonic Speeds: The situation becomes dramatic when the
source moves at speeds greater than the speed of sound.
• The boundary between the Zone of Silence and the Zone of Action is not a
single straight line, but two lines meeting at the current position of the source.
• In addition, the Zone of Action is now a more restricted region.
• A stationary observer does not hear any sound till they are within the Zone of
Action.
• This is a common experience when a supersonic aircraft flies past.
• An observer on the ground first sees the aircraft but hears nothing.
• They have to wait till the aircraft flies past and "immerses" them in the Zone of
Action. In case of a subsonic aircraft, the observer hears the sound as the
aircraft approaches.
END