Computer network

Unit-iv

Network Layer
o The Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI model.
o It handles the service requests from the transport layer and further forwards the
service request to the data link layer.
o The network layer translates the logical addresses into physical addresses
o It determines the route from the source to the destination and also manages the
traffic problems such as switching, routing and controls the congestion of data
packets.
o The main role of the network layer is to move the packets from sending host to the
receiving host.

The main functions performed by the network layer are:

o Routing: When a packet reaches the router's input link, the router will move the packets
to the router's output link. For example, a packet from S1 to R1 must be forwarded to the
next router on the path to S2.
o Logical Addressing: The data link layer implements the physical addressing and network
layer implements the logical addressing. Logical addressing is also used to distinguish
between source and destination system. The network layer adds a header to the packet
which includes the logical addresses of both the sender and the receiver.
o Internetworking: This is the main role of the network layer that it provides the logical
connection between different types of networks.
o Fragmentation: The fragmentation is a process of breaking the packets into the smallest
individual data units that travel through different networks.

Forwarding & Routing

In Network layer, a router is used to forward the packets. Every router has a forwarding
table. A router forwards a packet by examining a packet's header field and then using the
header field value to index into the forwarding table. The value stored in the forwarding
table corresponding to the header field value indicates the router's outgoing interface
link to which the packet is to be forwarded.
For example, the router with a header field value of 0111 arrives at a router, and then
router indexes this header value into the forwarding table that determines the output link
interface is 2. The router forwards the packet to the interface 2. The routing algorithm
determines the values that are inserted in the forwarding table. The routing algorithm can
be centralized or decentralized.
Services Provided by the Network Layer
o Guaranteed delivery: This layer provides the service which guarantees that the
packet will arrive at its destination.
o Guaranteed delivery with bounded delay: This service guarantees that the packet
will be delivered within a specified host-to-host delay bound.
o In-Order packets: This service ensures that the packet arrives at the destination in
the order in which they are sent.
o Guaranteed max jitter: This service ensures that the amount of time taken between
two successive transmissions at the sender is equal to the time between their receipt
at the destination.
o Security services: The network layer provides security by using a session key
between the source and destination host. The network layer in the source host
encrypts the payloads of datagrams being sent to the destination host. The network
layer in the destination host would then decrypt the payload. In such a way, the
network layer maintains the data integrity and source authentication services.

What is the Internet Protocol (IP)?

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol, or set of rules, for routing and addressing
packets of data so that they can travel across networks and arrive at the correct
destination. Data traversing the Internet is divided into smaller pieces, called IP
information is attached to each packet, and this information helps to send packets
to the right place. Every device or that connects to the Internet is assigned an , and
as packets are directed to the IP address attached to them, data arrives where it is
needed.

Once the packets arrive at their destination, they are handled differently depending
on which transport protocol is used in combination with IP. The most common
transport protocols are TCP and UDP.
What is a network protocol?
In networking, a is a standardized way of doing certain actions and formatting data so
that two or more devices are able to communicate with and understand each other.

To understand why protocols are necessary, consider the process of mailing a letter. On
the envelope, addresses are written in the following order: name, street address, city,
state, and zip code. If an envelope is dropped into a mailbox with the zip code written
first, followed by the street address, followed by the state, and so on, the post office
won't deliver it. There is an agreed-upon protocol for writing addresses in order for the
postal system to work. In the same way, all IP data packets must present certain
information in a certain order, and all IP addresses follow a standardized format.

What is an IP address? How does IP

addressing work?
An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to a device or domain that connects to the
Internet. Each IP address is a series of characters, such as '192.168.1.1'. Via resolvers,
which translate human-readable domain names into IP addresses, users are able to
access websites without memorizing this complex series of characters. Each IP packet
will contain both the IP address of the device or domain sending the packet and the IP
address of the intended recipient, much like how both the destination address and the
return address are included on a piece of mail.

What is an IP packet?
IP packets are created by adding an IP header to each packet of data before it is sent on
its way. An IP header is just a series of bits (ones and zeros), and it records several pieces
of information about the packet, including the sending and receiving IP address. IP
headers also report:
  Header length

 Packet length

 or the number of network hops a packet can make before it is discarded

 Which transport protocol is being used (TCP, UDP, etc.)

In total there are 14 fields for information in IPv4 headers, although one of them is
optional.

How does IP routing work?

The Internet is made up of interconnected large networks that are each responsible for
certain blocks of IP addresses; these large networks are known as A variety of routing
protocols, including

help route packets across ASes based on their destination IP addresses. Routers have
routing tables that indicate which ASes the packets should travel through in order to
reach the desired destination as quickly as possible. Packets travel from AS to AS until
they reach one that claims responsibility for the targeted IP address. That AS then
internally routes the packets to the destination.

Protocols attach packet headers at different layers of the OSI model:

Difference between Unicast, Broadcast and

Multicast in Computer Network
The cast term here signifies some data(stream of packets) is being
transmitted to the recipient(s) from the client(s) side over the communication
channel that helps them to communicate. Let’s see some of the “cast”
concepts that are prevailing in the computer networks field.
Feature Unicast Broadcast Multicast

A communication A communication A communication

Definition where a message where a message where a message
is sent from one is sent from one is sent from one
 Feature Unicast Broadcast Multicast

sender to one sender to all sender to a group

receiver. receivers. of receivers

Data is sent to all

Data is sent to a Data is sent to a
Transmission recipients in a
single recipient group of recipients
network

Uses a unique
Uses a special Uses a special
Addressing destination
broadcast address multicast address
address

Not all devices Not all devices may

Guaranteed
Delivery may be interested be interested in the
delivery
in the data data

Generates the Generates the Generates

Network
least amount of most amount of moderate network
Traffic
network traffic network traffic traffic

More secure Less secure Moderately secure

because data is because data is because data is
Security
sent to a specific sent to all devices sent to a specific
recipient in the network group of devices

DHCP requests, Video streaming,

Examples Email, file transfer
ARP requests online gaming

Destination Single receiver All receivers Group of receivers

Bandwidth
Moderate High Moderate
usage

Latency Low High Moderate

1. Unicast:
This type of information transfer is useful when there is a participation of a
single sender and a single recipient. So, in short, you can term it a one-to-
one transmission. For example, if a device having IP address 10.1.2.0 in a
network wants to send the traffic stream(data packets) to the device with IP
address 20.12.4.2 in the other network, then unicast comes into the picture.
This is most common form of data transfer over networks.

2. Broadcast:
Broadcasting transfer (one-to-all) techniques can be classified into two types:

Limited Broadcasting: Suppose you have to send a stream of packets to all

the devices over the network that your reside, this broadcasting comes in
handy. For this to achieve, it will append 255.255.255.255 (all the 32 bits of
IP address set to 1) called Limited Broadcast Address in the destination
address of the datagram (packet) header which is reserved for information
transfer to all the recipients from a single client (sender) over the network
.

Direct Broadcasting: This is useful when a device in one network wants to

transfer packet stream to all the devices over the other network. This is
achieved by translating all the Host ID part bits of the destination address to
1, referred to as Direct Broadcast Address in the datagram header for
information transfer.

3. Multicast:
In multicasting, one/more senders and one/more recipients participate in
data transfer traffic. In this method traffic recline between the boundaries of
unicast (one-to-one) and broadcast (one-to-all). Multicast lets servers direct
single copies of data streams that are then simulated and routed to hosts
that request it. IP multicast requires the support of some other protocols
like IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol), Multicast routing for
its work. Also in Classful IP addressing Class D is reserved for multicast
groups.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

These are a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital

transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the
traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network.
Before Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), the telephone system
was seen as a way to transmit voice, with some special services available for
data. The main feature of ISDN is that it can integrate speech and data on
the same lines, which were not available in the classic telephone system.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also provides
access to packet-switched networks that allows digital transmission of voice
and data. This results in potentially better voice or data quality than an
analog phone can provide. It provides a packet-switched connection for data
in increments of 64 kilobit/s. It provided a maximum of 128 kbit/s bandwidth
in both upstream and downstream directions. A greater data rate was
achieved through channel bonding. Generally, ISDN B-channels of three or
four BRIs (six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.
In the context of the ISDN is employed as the network in data-link and
physical layers but commonly ISDN is often limited to usage to Q.931 and
related protocols. These protocols introduced in 1986 are a set of signaling
protocols establishing and breaking circuit-switched connections, and for
advanced calling features for the user. ISDN provides simultaneous voice,
video, and text transmission between individual desktop videoconferencing
systems and group videoconferencing systems.

ISDN Interfaces:
The following are the interfaces of ISDN:

1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI) –

There are two data-bearing channels (‘B’ channels) and one signaling
channel (‘D’ channel) in BRI to initiate connections. The B channels
operate at a maximum of 64 Kbps while the D channel operates at a
maximum of 16 Kbps. The two channels are independent of each other.
 For example, one channel is used as a TCP/IP connection to a location
while the other channel is used to send a fax to a remote location. In
iSeries ISDN supports a basic rate interface (BRl).
The basic rate interface (BRl) specifies a digital pipe consisting of two B
channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 16 Kbps. This equals a
speed of 144 Kbps. In addition, the BRl service itself requires an
operating overhead of 48 Kbps. Therefore a digital pipe of 192 Kbps is
required.

2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) –

Primary Rate Interface service consists of a D channel and either 23 or 30
B channels depending on the country you are in. PRI is not supported on
the iSeries. A digital pipe with 23 B channels and one 64 Kbps D channel
is present in the usual Primary Rate Interface (PRI). Twenty-three B
channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 64 Kbps equals 1.536
Mbps. The PRI service uses 8 Kbps of overhead also. Therefore PRI
requires a digital pipe of 1.544 Mbps.

3. Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN) –
Narrowband ISDN has been designed to operate over the current
communications infrastructure, which is heavily dependent on the copper
cable however B-ISDN relies mainly on the evolution of fiber optics.
According to CCITT B-ISDN is best described as ‘a service requiring
transmission channels capable of supporting rates greater than the
primary rate.

ISDN Services:
ISDN provides a fully integrated digital service to users. These services fall
into 3 categories- bearer services, teleservices, and supplementary
services.

1. Bearer Services –
Transfer of information (voice, data, and video) between users without the
network manipulating the content of that information is provided by the
bearer network. There is no need for the network to process the
information and therefore does not change the content. Bearer services
belong to the first three layers of the OSI model. They are well defined in
the ISDN standard. They can be provided using circuit-switched, packet-
switched, frame-switched, or cell-switched networks.

2. Teleservices –
In this, the network may change or process the contents of the data.
These services correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model. Teleservices
rely on the facilities of the bearer services and are designed to
 accommodate complex user needs. The user need not be aware of the
details of the process. Teleservices include telephony, teletex, telefax,
videotex, telex, and teleconferencing. Though the ISDN defines these
services by name yet they have not yet become standards.

1. Supplementary Service –
Additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices are
provided by supplementary services. Reverse charging, call waiting, and
message handling are examples of supplementary services which are all
familiar with today’s telephone company services.

Principle of ISDN:
The ISDN works based on the standards defined by ITU-T (formerly CCITT).
The Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) coordinates
standards for telecommunications on behalf of the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The
various principles of ISDN as per ITU-T recommendation are:

 To support switched and non-switched applications

 To support voice and non-voice applications

 Reliance on 64-kbps connections

 Intelligence in the network

 Layered protocol architecture

 Variety of configurations

Advantages of ISDN:

 ISDN channels have a reliable connection.

 ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple digital channels.
 It has faster data transfer rate.
 Efficient use of bandwidth
 Improved call quality
 Greater flexibility
 Integrated services
Disadvantages of ISDN:

 ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone system.

 It requires specialized digital devices.
 It is less flexible.
 Limited coverage
 High installation and maintenance costs
 Obsolescence
 Limited features

The Primary Rate Interface (PRI) is a telecommunications interface
standard used on an Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) for
carrying multiple DS0 voice and data transmissions between the
network and a user.

BRI stands for Basic Rate Interface. An Integrated Services Digital

Network (ISDN) line that delivers two Bearer Channels (B-Channels)
and one Data Channel (D-Channel) over an ordinary telephone line.