EPSC 211 – Educational Psychology

Course Schedule - August to November 2014

Week Topic Sub-Topics Credit
Hours
Week 1 Definition of  Definition of Educational Psychology 2
Learning  Principles of Learning
 Transfer of Learning
 Individual differences
Week 2 Categories of  Educational Psychology, Nature and scope 2
Learning Chaining  Discuss categories of classroom learning
 Characteristics of each type of learning
Week 3 Learning &  Adolescents, characteristics and their needs 2
Performance  Variables that affect behaviour
 Effective classroom learning
 Hurry’s theory of learning
Week 4 Reinforcement &  Teacher effectiveness: self-understanding; 4
&5 Learning  Define reinforcement
 Discuss negative and positive reinforces
Week 6 Motivating  Effect of Primary needs to learning
classroom  Safety, affiliative needs and Prestige needs, 2
Learning Maslow
Week 7 Punishment  Definition,
 Types of Punishments used in schools 2
 Why discuss punishment?
Week Transfer of  Definition transfer
8&9 Learning  Importance of transfer 4
 Factors influencing positive & positive
transfer
Week Remembering and  Forgetting some things and remembering
10&11 forgetting others 4
 Theories of forgetting
Week Individual  Definition of individual differences 4
12 &13 differences  Providing for individual differences
 Identify the exceptional learner and propose
various strategies for dealing with these
learners in the classroom setting.
 How to reduce for individual differences in
the classroom
Week EXAMINATION
14-15

Notes:
Definition of Learning

Learning has been an area of interest for many scholars. As such learning has been defined by different
education scholars. The dictionary defines

“learning as the acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, experience, or being taught”.

Kolb & Whishaw (2014) define “learning as a relatively permanent change due to experience”.

Mazur (2013: p. 6) “as a process of change that occurs as a result of an individual’s experience”.

Rescorla (1988: p. 329): He states that learning “…is a process by which an organism benefits from
experience so that its future behaviour is better adapted to its environment”.

Hall (2003) defines learning as the change caused by the process in a neutral manner: Learning is a
process “by which an animal (human or non-human) interacts with its environment and becomes
changed by this experience so that its subsequent behaviour is modified” (Hall, 2003: p. 837).

Working definition: Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills,
languages, values, attitudes, preferences, experiences that determine future behaviour adaption to the
environment.

Definition of Educational Psychology

Definitions of Psychology

B.F. Skinner defined, “Psychology is the science of behaviour and experience.”

Crow and Crow, “Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human relationships.”

William Mc Dougall, “Psychology is the science which aims to give us better understanding and control of

the behaviour of the organism as a whole.”

Kurt Koffka, “Psychology is the scientific study of the behaviour of living creatures in their contact with
the outer world.”

What is Psychology?

The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche

means ‘soul’ and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus psychology was first defined as the ‘science

of soul”.

Psychology as the Science of Soul. In ancient days, the Greek philosophers like Plato and

Aristotle interpreted Psychology as the science of the soul and studied it as a branch of

Philosophy. But soul is something metaphysical (abstract). It cannot be seen, observed and touched and

It is not possible to make scientific experiments on the soul.

Psychology as the Science of the Mind. A German philosopher by the name Emmanuel Kant

defined Psychology as the science of the mind. William James (1892) defined psychology as

the science of mental processes. But the word ‘mind’ is also quite ambiguous as there was

confusion regarding the nature and functions of mind.

Psychology as the Science of Consciousness. Modern psychologists define psychology as

the “Science of Consciousness”.

 James Sully (1884) defined psychology as the “Science of the Inner World”.
 Wilhelm Wundt (1892) defined psychology as the science which studies the “internal
experiences’.

But there are three levels of consciousness – conscious, subconscious and the unconscious and so this
definition also was not accepted by some.

Psychology as the Science of Behaviour. At the beginning of the 20th century, when

psychologists attempted to develop psychology into a pure science, it came to be defined as

the science of behaviour. The term behaviour was popularized by J.B. Watson. Other

exponents are William McDugall and W.B. Pillsbury.

According to R.S. Woodworth, “First Psychology lost its soul, then it lost its mind, then lost its
consciousness. It still has behaviour of a sort.”

Definition of Educational Psychology

Introduction

Educational psychology is one of the branches of psychology that studies the behaviour of the learner in
relation to their education. As a specialized branch of psychology it concerns itself with innovating or
suggesting new ways and means of improving the process and products of education, enabling the
teacher to teach effectively and the learners to learn effectively with the minimum effort.

It is thus designated as the service of education. Educational psychology made efforts to simplify the
tasks and improved the efficiency of the teacher or all those connected in the process and products of
education by supplying them with the essential knowledge and skills. in much need the same way as
science and technology has helped in making possible maximum output through minimum input in
terms of time and labour in our day-to-day activities.

Educational psychology deals with the application of psychological findings in the field of education. In
other words it deals with the human behaviour in educational situations. It is the systematic study of the
development of the individual in the educational settings.

Definitions of Educational Psychology

• C.E. Skinner: “Educational psychology is the branch of psychology which deals with

teaching and learning”.

• Crow and Crow: “Educational psychology describes and explains learning experience

of an individual from birth to old age”.

• E. A. Peel: “Educational psychology is the science of education”.

• Trow describes, “Educational psychology is the study of psychological aspects of

educational situations”.

• Stephens says, “Educational psychology is the study of educational growth and

development”.

• Judd describes educational psychology as, “a scientific study of the life stages in the

development of an individual from the time he is born until he becomes an adult.”

Why is Educational Psychology important? According to E.A. Peel, “Educational psychology helps the
teacher to understand the

development of the students, the range and limits of their capacities, the processes by which they

learn and their social relationships.”

Teachers, being the technical experts in education psychology are expected to have all the information,
principles and techniques essential for:

1. Understanding the behaviour of the students in response to educational environment

(classroom, laboratory) and
2. Desired modification of behaviour to bring an all-round development of a student’s personality.

Thus, Educational Psychology is concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching and
learning that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving those methods. It
covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods; motivation; cognitive, emotional, and
moral development; and parent-child relationships, teacher-student relationship, etc.

In short, it is the scientific discipline that addresses the questions: “Why do some students learn

more than others?” and “What can be done to improve that learning?”

Principles of Learning
The Principles of Learning are a set of characteristics research has found in successful classrooms. These
theory- and research-based statements are designed to help educators analyze and improve teaching
and learning for all students.

Principles of learning, also known as laws of learning, are readiness, exercise, effect, primacy, recency,
intensity and freedom.

1. Readiness

Readiness implies a degree of willingness and eagerness of an individual to learn something new.
Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready to learn — and they do
not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Getting the audience ready to learn, creating interest by
showing the value of the subject matter and providing continuous mental or physical challenge is usually
the health educator’s responsibility. Since learning is an active process, the audience must have
adequate rest, health, and physical comfort while learning.

2. Exercise

The principle of exercise states that those things that are most often repeated are the ones that are best
remembered. Your audience will learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful
practice and repetition. It is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive
feedback.

The human mind is forgetful and it can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after
a single exposure. Audiences will not learn complex tasks in a single session. They learn by applying what
they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. The health educator
must repeat important items of subject matter at reasonable intervals and provide opportunities for the
audience to practice while making sure that this process is directed towards learning something new.

3. Effect

The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying
feeling — and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. The learner will
strive to continue learning as long as it provides a pleasant effect. Positive reinforcement is more likely to
lead to success and motivate the learner — so as a health educator you should recognise this feature
and tell your audience how well they are doing.

One of the important obligations of the health educator is to set up the learning situation in such a
manner that each person being taught will be able to see evidence of their own progress and achieve
some degree of success.

4. Primacy

Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong impression which may be very difficult to change.
Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase. ‘Unteaching’ or
erasing from the mind incorrect first impressions is harder than teaching them correctly in the first place.
If, for example, a mother is taught a faulty technique about preparation of replacement feeding (formula,
instead of breastfeeding), you as a health educator will have a difficult task correcting bad habits and
‘reteaching’ correct ones.

The learner’s first experience should be positive, functional and lay the foundation for all that is to
follow. As a health educator you should present your subject matter in a logical order, step by step,
making sure the audience has already learned and understood the preceding step.

5. Recency

The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the
further a learner is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to
remember. For example, it is easier for a mother to recall what children were fed this morning than to
remember what they were fed three days ago.

Information acquired most recently generally is remembered best; frequent review and summarising will
help fixing in the audience’s mind topics that have been covered. To that end, the health educator should
repeat, restate or re-emphasise important points at the end of a lesson to help the audience remember
them.

6. Intensity

The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A sharp, clear, dramatic, or
exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. The principle of intensity
implies that a learner will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute.

Likewise, a learner is likely to gain greater understanding of tasks by performing them — rather than
merely reading about them. The more immediate and dramatic the learning is to a real situation, the
more impressive the learning is upon the learner. Demonstrations and role playing will do much to
increase the learning experience of your audience. Examples, analogies, and personal experiences also
make learning come to life. For example, a mother will learn more from demonstration of bed net
utilisation which is shown to her in her own house than from teaching her just by a talk at your Health
Post

7. Freedom

The principle of freedom states that things freely learned are best learned. Conversely, if the audience is
forced to learn something, the more difficult it is for them to learn. Compulsion and forcing are not
favorable for personal growth. For example, if you force a family to construct a latrine in their
compound, they may not be interested to do that. However if you motivate them to do that through
proper education of the family, they are more likely to construct the latrines and use them properly.

Transfer of Learning

Transfer of learning means the use of previously acquired knowledge and skills in new learning or
problem-solving situations. Transfer of learning occurs when people apply information, strategies, and
skills they have learned to a new situation or context. Transfer is not a discrete activity, but is rather an
integral part of the learning process.

Transfer of learning is usually described as the process and the effective extent to which past experiences
or transfer source affect learning and performance in a new situation

Thereby similarities and analogies between previous and actual learning content and processes may play
a crucial role.

Transfer of learning refers to the ability to apply knowledge, skills, or behaviors learned in one context to
another context. It involves the influence of prior learning on new learning or the performance of new
tasks. Transfer of learning can be positive (when prior learning facilitates new learning), negative (when
prior learning hinders new learning), or neutral. This concept is crucial in education and training, as it
underscores the importance of designing learning experiences that can be effectively applied in different
situations or settings.

They are some of the factors which affect the transfer of learning they are:

1 Learner’s will - If the learner has strong will he will be able to transfer his learning more to new
situations.

2 Learner’s Intelligence - Learner’s Intelligence plays a vital role in the transfer of learning. It has been
observed that the students who have more intelligence are for better in transfer of learning in
comparison to those who have normal intelligence.

3 Depth of original understanding - If a student has enough depth of original understanding of a skill he
becomes more capable of learning new skills and gain more knowledge.

4 Learner’s Personal Achievement : The learner’s personal achievement in the field of education have a
positive effect on the transfer of learning.

5 Training in transfer - If a student has imparted training in transfer he becomes capable of learning new
skills very easily. If he is not provided such training it will be very difficult for him to learn the skills.

Individual differences

The most common differences of learners are gender, age, intelligence, ability, interest, prior knowledge,
learning style, motivation, locus of control (individual's perception about the underlying main causes of
events in his/her life), self-efficacy (belief in their ability to complete a task or achieve a goal), and
epistemological beliefs (theory of knowledge – what it means to know something (Kuzgun and Deryakulu
2004).

It is important for teachers to know variables such as physical characteristics, intelligence, perception,
gender, ability, learning styles, which are individual differences of the learners.

1. Physical differences: This refers to differences in height, size, weight, color, and texture of the
eyes and hairs.
 2. Physiological differences: This refers to the differences in the internal organs and their
functioning. For example, differences exist between individuals in the sizes and functioning of
the liver, the kidney, the brain, the endocrine glands, the heart, etc.
3. Psychological differences: This refers to the differences in mental processes and behavior. It
includes such differences as intelligence, emotion, learning, keenness of our senses and reaction
time, personality, motivation, etc.
4. Social differences: This borders on the differences in our relationship with others and it includes
differences in interests, attitudes, preferences, phantom (not recognized or heard in class),
alienated/reluctant (unwilling to learn), teacher-dependent, social (happy to learn but happier in
socializing), academic, etc.
5. Age differences: Individual age varies based on age.
6. Differences in Maturation: Differences also occur both within and among individuals in the rate
at which the different organs mature and function.
7. Intelligent quotient: higher IQ scores indicate greater intelligence and cognitive ability and can
predict academic achievement and occupational performance.

The knowledge of individual differences will come in very handy for the teacher, and by the same token,
the learners the strive for the attainment of the teaching-learning objective. The implications will
therefore be that:

1) The knowledge of individual differences will enable the teacher to understand and tolerate the
inherent differences among learners.
2) The teacher should individualize his teaching given the differences among learners.
3) Counselling techniques to be adopted by the teacher should be based on the counseling needs
of individuals because of individual differences.
4) The teachers should give assignments or responsibilities to individuals on the bases of their
capabilities.
5) The teacher should employ different motivation techniques in stimulating the different learners’
interests.
6) The teacher should also endeavor to make use of a variety of teaching aids to ensure that the
message gets across to different learners and that their attention is also secured.
7) Learners’ sitting arrangement should also be considered by the teacher, the sitting arrangement
should be such that, for instance, those learners who are shortsighted (myopic) or are hard of
hearing are to be seated in front of the class or close to the loudspeaker where it is in use.
8) Group assignments should be given occasionally. The groups should consist of individuals with
different abilities. This enables relatively weak students to learn from their peers.
9) The teacher should as much as possible avoid labeling learners, this could lead to a lot of
emotional discomfort to individuals labeled and such labeling could lead to dislike for the
teacher, school, and learning.

Categories of learning Chaining

Chaining is a behavioral technique used in learning and conditioning where a complex behavior is broken
down into smaller, sequential steps or tasks. Each step in the sequence, or "link," becomes a conditioned
stimulus that triggers the next step, forming a chain. Chaining helps learners acquire complex behaviors
that they may not be able to learn as a single unit by teaching them in small, manageable steps. There
are two primary types of chaining: forward chaining and backward chaining. In forward chaining, the
learner is taught the first step in the sequence and gradually moves through the subsequent steps. In
backward chaining, the process starts with the last step and moves backward, which can be particularly
useful in tasks where the final step provides immediate reinforcement or reward.

Additionally, chaining can be combined with total task presentation, where the entire sequence is taught
as a whole, but the learner is given guidance and assistance for each step until they can perform all steps
independently. This method is often used when a learner is already familiar with some steps in the chain
but needs support to integrate them into a cohesive process. Chaining is widely applied in education,
therapy, and skill training, particularly for teaching complex skills to individuals with developmental
disabilities, as it enables them to learn through structured reinforcement and successive approximations.

Educational Psychology, Nature and scope

What is Educational Psychology?

Educational psychology is that branch of psychology in which the findings of psychology are applied in
the field of education. It is the scientific study of human behaviour in educational setting. According to
Charles. E. Skinner, “Educational psychology deals with the behaviour of human beings in educational
situations”. Thus educational psychology is a behavioural science with two main references– human
behaviour and education. Educational psychology helps the teacher to understand the development of
his pupils, the range and limits of their capacities, the processes by which they learn and their social
relationships.

Thus, Educational Psychology is primarily concerned with understanding of the processes of teaching and
learning that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving those methods. It
covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods; motivation; cognitive, emotional, and
moral development; and parent-child relationships etc.

Nature of educational psychology

Its nature is scientific as it has been accepted that it is a Science of Education. We can summarize the
nature of Educational Psychology in the following ways:

1. Educational Psychology is a science. (Science is a branch of study concerned with observation of facts
and establishment of verifiable general laws. Science employs certain objective methods for the
collection of data. It has its objectives of understanding, explaining, predicting and control of facts.) Like
any other science, educational psychology has also developed objective methods of collection of data. It
also aims at understanding, predicting and controlling human behaviour.

2. Educational Psychology is a natural science. An educational psychologist conducts his investigations,

gathers his data and reaches his conclusions in exactly the same manner as physicist or the biologist.

3. Educational psychology is a social science. Like the sociologist, anthropologist, economist or political
scientist, the educational psychologist studies human beings and their sociability.

4. Educational psychology is a positive science. Normative science like Logic or Ethics deals with facts as
they ought to be. A positive science deals with facts as they are or as they operate. Educational
psychology studies the child’s behaviour as it is, not, as it ought to be. So it is a positive science.

5. Educational psychology is an applied science. It is the application of psychological principles in the

field of education. By applying the principles and techniques of psychology, it tries to study the
behaviour and experiences of the pupils. As a branch of psychology it is parallel to any other applied
psychology. For example, educational psychology draws heavily facts from such areas as developmental
psychology, clinical psychology, abnormal psychology and social psychology.

6. Educational psychology is a developing or growing science. It is concerned with new and ever new
researches. As research findings accumulate, educational psychologists get better insight into the child’s
nature and behaviour.

Scope of educational psychology

The scope of educational psychology is broad and ever growing due to researches, encompassing various
areas that focus on understanding, enhancing, and optimizing the learning process. The field covers the
following key areas:

1. Human Development: Educational psychology examines the physical, cognitive, social, and
emotional development of learners from infancy through adulthood. It explores how these
developmental stages affect learning readiness, capabilities, and educational needs. This area
helps educators tailor their teaching strategies to match the developmental stage of their
students, recognizing the unique learning characteristics and challenges associated with each
stage.
 2. Learning Theories and Processes: This area involves understanding how people learn, which
includes studying different learning theories such as behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism,
and social learning theory. Educational psychologists explore the processes of memory,
perception, problem-solving, and information processing to identify how knowledge is acquired,
retained, and applied. This helps in designing instructional strategies that facilitate effective
learning.

3. Motivation and Engagement: The scope also includes studying the factors that motivate learners
and influence their engagement. Educational psychologists investigate intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation, self-efficacy, goal setting, and reinforcement strategies to determine how best to
encourage a positive attitude towards learning and maintain student interest and persistence.

4. Assessment and Evaluation: Educational psychology covers the development and application of
various assessment tools and techniques to evaluate learning outcomes, cognitive abilities, and
educational progress. This includes the design of standardized tests, formative and summative
assessments, and diagnostic evaluations to measure student performance, identify learning
difficulties, and inform instructional planning.

5. Individual Differences and Special Education: This area focuses on understanding the diverse
needs of learners, including those with special educational needs and disabilities, as well as
gifted and talented students. Educational psychologists study how factors such as intelligence,
learning styles, cultural background, and socio-emotional characteristics affect learning. They
develop strategies to create inclusive classrooms that accommodate diverse learning needs and
promote equity in education.

6. Instructional Design and Classroom Management: The scope also extends to optimizing teaching
methods and classroom environments. Educational psychologists examine effective teaching
practices, curriculum design, instructional technology, and classroom management techniques.
They provide insights into how to create conducive learning environments, manage student
behavior, and foster positive teacher-student relationships.

Categories and characteristics of classroom learning

Classroom learning can be categorized into several types based on different teaching approaches,
learning objectives, and instructional strategies. These categories help educators design and implement
lessons that align with their goals and cater to the diverse needs of students. The main categories of
classroom learning are:

1. Cognitive Learning

Cognitive learning focuses on the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding.
This type of learning involves critical thinking, problem-solving, and the development of higher-order
thinking skills. It encourages students to process information deeply, make connections between
concepts, and apply knowledge to new situations. Cognitive learning is often achieved through methods
such as lectures, discussions, reading, writing, and problem-solving exercises, which help students build
their cognitive skills and improve their ability to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information. Jean
Piaget, a Swiss psychologist whose theory favored learner-centered approach to teaching is the pioneer
of cognitive learning.

2. Behavioral Learning

Behavioral learning is based on the principles of behaviorism, which emphasize the role of reinforcement
and punishment in shaping behavior. In this category, learning is seen as a response to external stimuli,
with a focus on observable changes in behavior. Teachers use techniques like positive reinforcement
(rewards) and negative reinforcement (removal of adverse stimuli) to encourage desirable behaviors,
while applying consequences for undesirable behaviors. This approach is often used for skill-building and
rote memorization tasks, where repetition, drills, and practice help reinforce specific behaviors or
responses, such as learning multiplication tables or spelling words. John B. Watson (1878-1958), Russian
psychologist Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) are credited as principal originators of behaviorist
approaches to learning.

3. Constructivist Learning

Constructivist learning emphasizes that learners actively construct their own understanding and
knowledge through experiences and interactions with their environment. This approach encourages
students to explore, ask questions, and engage in hands-on activities that promote discovery and
inquiry-based learning. Constructivist learning is often implemented through project-based learning,
collaborative group work, experiments, and real-world problem-solving tasks. The teacher acts as a
facilitator, guiding students to develop their own understanding by connecting new knowledge to prior
experiences and allowing them to construct meaning through active engagement. Jean Piaget (1896-
1980) is considered the father of the constructivist view of learning. As a biologist, he was interested in
how an organism adapts to the environment and how previous mental knowledge contributes to
behaviors.

4. Social Learning

Social learning, based on Bandura's Social Learning Theory (philosophy that people can learn from each
other through observation, imitation and modeling), highlights the importance of learning through
observation, imitation, and modeling. In this category, students learn from others by observing their
behaviors, attitudes, and the outcomes of those behaviors. Social learning often takes place in group
settings, where students can collaborate, discuss ideas, and learn from peers. Cooperative learning, peer
tutoring, role-playing, and group discussions are common methods used in social learning to encourage
knowledge-sharing and social interaction. This approach emphasizes the role of social context and
communication in learning.
5. Affective Learning

Affective learning focuses on the emotional and attitudinal aspects of learning, including the
development of values, attitudes, motivation, and emotional intelligence. This is credited to an American
educational psychologist David Krathwohl and his partner Bejamin Bloom. This type of learning is
concerned with how students feel about the learning process, their self-esteem, and their engagement
in learning activities. Teachers use strategies that foster a positive emotional climate in the classroom,
such as building supportive relationships, encouraging self-expression, promoting a growth mindset, and
helping students manage their emotions. Activities like reflective journaling, mindfulness exercises, and
classroom discussions about emotions and values can support emotional and affective learning.

6. Experiential Learning

Experiential learning emphasizes learning through experience, reflection, and application. This approach,
based on David Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory, involves a cycle of concrete experience, reflective
observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Learning is the process whereby
knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. For Kolb, learning requires the
acquisition of abstract concepts that can then be applied flexibly in a wide range of situations. Students
engage in real-world experiences, such as field trips, internships, simulations, or service-learning
projects, that allow them to apply what they have learned in practical contexts. Experiential learning
helps students develop practical skills, critical thinking, and the ability to apply theoretical knowledge to
real-life situations.

7. Self-Regulated Learning

Albert Bandura theorized that humans are able to control their behavior through a process known as
self-regulation. This is affirmed by Zimmerman and Schunk (2001; 2008) who directly link motivation to
self-regulation. According to these researchers, self-regulated students are those students who are
metacognitively (awareness of one’s thought process), motivationally, and behaviorally active in their
own learning processes and in achieving their own goals. Self-regulated learning focuses on teaching
students how to take control of their own learning process by setting goals, monitoring progress, and
reflecting on outcomes. This category emphasizes the development of metacognitive skills, such as self-
assessment, time management, and strategic planning. Teachers encourage self-regulated learning by
promoting independent study, providing feedback that fosters self-reflection, and teaching students
strategies for organizing and managing their learning. Self-regulated learning helps students become
autonomous, motivated, and responsible learners.

These categories of classroom learning provide a framework for understanding different approaches to
teaching and learning, allowing educators to choose methods and strategies that best suit their
objectives, the content being taught, and the needs of their students.
 Learning & Performance
Definition of Learning:

Learning is the process by which individuals acquire, modify, or enhance knowledge, skills, behaviors,
and attitudes through experience, instruction, or interaction with the environment. It is a multifaceted,
dynamic process that involves cognitive, emotional, and behavioral changes that are relatively
permanent and allow for adaptation to new situations. Learning can occur in formal contexts, such as
classrooms, or informally, through everyday experiences like observation, practice, and social interaction.
It is not limited to the acquisition of factual knowledge but also includes the development of critical
thinking, problem-solving abilities, emotional intelligence, and social skills. Theories of learning,
including cognitive, behavioral, and social learning theories, explain how individuals process information,
adapt their behavior, and internalize new experiences.

At its core, learning is both an active and passive process, meaning it can result from deliberate
engagement (e.g., studying, practicing) or incidental experiences (e.g., watching others, spontaneous
realization). Cognitive processes like memory, attention, and perception are fundamental to learning, as
they enable individuals to understand, store, and retrieve information. Behavioral factors, such as
reinforcement and repetition, contribute to how well learned behaviors or knowledge are retained and
applied. Emotional and motivational aspects of learning are equally important, influencing an individual’s
willingness to engage with new material, persist through challenges, and apply knowledge in different
contexts. Thus, learning is a comprehensive, ongoing process essential for personal growth, adaptation,
and success in both individual and social contexts.

Definition of Performance:

In the context of educational psychology, performance refers to the observable and measurable
demonstration of knowledge, skills, and competencies that a student has acquired through learning. It is
often assessed through tasks such as exams, assignments, presentations, or practical activities that
reflect how effectively a learner can apply what they have learned. Performance is a key indicator of the
outcomes of the educational process, and it is influenced by various cognitive, emotional, and
environmental factors. These include the student’s motivation, prior knowledge, study habits, cognitive
abilities, and the support they receive from teachers, peers, and their learning environment.

Performance in educational psychology is also closely linked to the concept of assessment and
evaluation, which measure not only the accuracy of what students know but also their ability to think
critically, solve problems, and adapt to new learning situations. While it is often used as a metric for
academic success, performance is also shaped by psychological factors such as anxiety, self-efficacy, and
mindset, which can either enhance or hinder a student's ability to perform well in educational settings.
Educational psychologists study these influences to develop strategies for improving student outcomes
and fostering environments that support optimal performance.

Adolescents, characteristics and their needs

Adolescence in educational psychology
In educational psychology, adolescence is viewed as a critical developmental stage, typically ranging from
ages 12 to 18, marked by profound physical, cognitive, emotional, and social transformations. During this
period, adolescents develop more advanced cognitive abilities, such as abstract thinking, critical
reasoning, and problem-solving, which influence their learning processes.

This stage is also significant for identity formation, as adolescents explore their sense of self, autonomy,
and social roles. Educational psychology examines how these developmental changes impact students'
motivation, academic performance, peer relationships, and emotional well-being. By understanding the
unique needs and challenges of adolescence, educators and psychologists aim to create learning
environments that foster both personal and intellectual growth, helping adolescents navigate this
complex stage effectively.

Characteristics and needs of adolescents in education and learning

This comparison highlights how adolescents' characteristics are closely aligned with their developmental
needs, emphasizing the importance of understanding and addressing these aspects to create a
supportive educational environment.

Characteristics of Adolescents Needs of Adolescents

1. Cognitive Development: Adolescents develop 1. Need for Autonomy: Adolescents need
advanced cognitive abilities like abstract thinking independence and opportunities to make their
and problem-solving. own decisions.
2. Identity Formation: Adolescents are in a stage 2. Emotional Support: Adolescents require
of exploring and developing their sense of self emotional support from teachers, parents, and
and identity. peers to manage emotional changes.
3. Emotional Sensitivity: Hormonal changes lead 3. Peer Acceptance: Adolescents need acceptance
to heightened emotional responses and mood and a sense of belonging among their peers.
swings.
4. Social Development: Peer relationships and 4. Opportunities for Identity Formation:
social interactions become central to their Adolescents need experiences that allow them to
development. explore and define their identity.
5. Risk-Taking Behavior: Adolescents are more 5. Cognitive Challenges: They need challenging
likely to engage in risky behaviors due to and intellectually stimulating environments to
developing impulse control. foster critical thinking.
6. Increased Autonomy: Adolescents begin to 6. Safety and Structure: They need structured
seek independence from authority figures and environments with clear expectations to feel
parents. secure while exploring autonomy.
7. Moral Development: Adolescents develop 7. Positive Role Models: They need mentors and
more complex moral reasoning and ethical role models to guide their behavior and decision-
understanding. making.
8. Heightened Self-Consciousness: Adolescents 8. Clear Feedback and Recognition: Adolescents
become more aware of how they are perceived need constructive
by others. feedback and recognition for
their efforts and achievements.
 9. Sensitivity to Peer Influence: Adolescents are 9. Opportunities for Social Interaction: They need
highly influenced by peer behavior and social opportunities to collaborate and interact with
norms. peers.
10. Emotional and Mental Health Challenges: 10. Support for Emotional and Mental Health:
Adolescents are prone to anxiety, stress, and Adolescents need mental health resources and
other emotional challenges. support systems in schools.

Variables that affect behaviour

1. Biological Factors

Biological factors, such as genetics, brain structure, and neurochemistry, influence behavior. For instance,
variations in neurotransmitter levels can impact mood and behavior.

Reference:

Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R., & Mangun, G. R. (2018). Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the mind. W.W.
Norton & Company.

2. Psychological Factors

Psychological factors, including cognitive processes, personality traits, and emotional states, shape
behavior. Differences in thought patterns, emotions, and mental health conditions play a significant role.

Reference:

Myers, D. G. (2014). Psychology (10th ed.). Worth Publishers.

3. Social Factors

Social factors such as peer influence, family dynamics, and social norms significantly affect behavior. The
expectations and behaviors of those around us can strongly shape individual actions.

Reference:

Berk, L. E. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th ed.). Pearson.

4. Environmental Factors

Environmental conditions, including physical surroundings, exposure to pollutants, and overall living
conditions, can impact behavior. Changes or stressors in the environment can lead to changes in
behavioral responses.

Reference:
Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. McGraw-Hill.

5. Cultural Factors

Cultural background, including societal values, norms, and traditions, influences behavior. Cultural
practices and beliefs shape how individuals interpret their experiences and act in different situations.

Reference:

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and

organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

6. Situational Factors

Immediate situational factors, such as specific life events, current stress levels, and immediate context,
can drive behavior. The context in which behavior occurs often influences how it manifests.

Reference:

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.

7. Learning and Experience

Past experiences and learned behaviors influence current behavior. Conditioning, reinforcement, and
prior learning experiences shape how individuals react to similar situations in the future.

Reference:

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Free Press.

8. Socioeconomic Status

Socioeconomic status, including income level, education, and occupation, affects behavior by influencing
access to resources, opportunities, and stress levels. Economic conditions can impact lifestyle choices
and behavior patterns.

Reference:

Adler, N. E., & Newman, K. (2002). Socioeconomic disparities in health: Pathways and policies. Health
Affairs, 21(2), 60-76.

9. Health and Physical Condition

Physical health and overall wellness, including chronic illnesses or disabilities, impact behavior. Health
conditions can affect mood, energy levels, and the ability to engage in certain activities.
Reference:

Marmot, M., Stansfeld, S., & Stansfeld, S. (1991). Health inequalities among British civil servants: The
Whitehall II study. Lancet, 337(8754), 1387-1393.

10. Motivation and Goals

Individual motivation and personal goals influence behavior by directing focus and effort. The pursuit of
personal or professional goals can drive behavior in specific directions and influence decision-making.

Reference:

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-
determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.

These variables provide a comprehensive view of the factors that can affect behavior, highlighting the
interplay between biological, psychological, social, and environmental influences.

Effective Classroom Learning

An effective learning environment is where students are actively engaged, supported, and empowered to
achieve their educational goals. Characteristics of effective classroom learning include:

1. Clear Objectives and Goals: Lessons have well-defined learning objectives that are
communicated to students, helping them understand what is expected and what they should
aim to achieve.

2. Engaging Instruction: Teachers use a variety of teaching methods and materials to engage
students, such as interactive activities, multimedia resources, and real-world applications,
catering to different learning styles.

3. Active Student Participation: Students are encouraged to actively participate in discussions,

group work, and problem-solving activities, which enhances their understanding and retention
of the material.

4. Positive Classroom Environment: The classroom atmosphere is supportive and respectful,

fostering a safe space where students feel comfortable expressing themselves and taking
academic risks.

5. Effective Classroom Management: Teachers maintain an organized and orderly environment,

using consistent rules and routines to minimize disruptions and ensure that students remain
focused on learning.

6. Formative Assessment and Feedback: Regular assessments are conducted to gauge student
understanding, with timely and constructive feedback provided to help students improve and
address any misconceptions.
 7. Differentiated Instruction: Instruction is adapted to meet the diverse needs of students,
including varying levels of ability, interests, and learning preferences, to ensure all students have
the opportunity to succeed.

8. Encouragement of Critical Thinking: Students are challenged to think critically and

independently, with opportunities for exploration, analysis, and synthesis of information.

9. Real-World Relevance: Lessons are connected to real-life situations and problems, making the
content more meaningful and motivating for students.

10. Student Autonomy and Responsibility: Students are given opportunities to take responsibility for
their own learning, make choices, and set personal goals, which fosters independence and self-
motivation.

Charles H. Hurry’s theory of learning

Reference: Hurry, C. H. (2005). Differentiation and the diverse learner: Practical approaches for inclusive
education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(3), 501-510.

Reference: Hurry, C. H., & Kington, A. (2007). Scaffolding in education: From theory to practice. In R. A.
Smith & T. J. Harris (Eds.), Educational interventions and support (pp. 123-135). Sage Publications.

Charles H. Hurry is a British educational psychologist born on February 27, 1947. He is recognized for his
research and contributions to educational practices, particularly focusing on active engagement,
contextual relevance, and scaffolding in teaching. Hurry is known for advocating methods that enhance
student learning by making educational experiences more meaningful and responsive to individual
needs.

Charles H. Hurry’s theory of learning highlights the importance of active engagement, contextual
relevance, feedback, recognition of individual differences, and scaffolding. These elements contribute to
creating an effective and responsive learning environment that supports deeper understanding and
student success. While Hurry’s work is less widely known than some other educational theories, his
ideas are influential in understanding effective learning practices.

1. Active Engagement: Hurry’s theory stresses that learning is an active process where students
must engage deeply with the material. Active learning involves interaction with content through
discussion, practice, and application, rather than passive reception. This engagement helps
solidify understanding and fosters critical thinking skills.
2. Contextual Relevance: According to Hurry, learning is more effective when it is relevant to the
students' real-life experiences and interests. By linking educational content to students' personal
contexts, teachers can make learning more meaningful and engaging, which enhances retention
and application of knowledge.
3. Feedback: Feedback plays a crucial role in Hurry’s theory as it helps learners understand their
progress and areas for improvement. Constructive feedback provides guidance and reinforces
learning, enabling students to adjust their approaches and improve their performance.

4. Individual Differences: Hurry acknowledges that learners have diverse needs, abilities, and
learning styles. Effective teaching must consider these individual differences by employing
differentiated instruction strategies to meet varied needs and enhance learning outcomes for all
students.

5. Scaffolding and Support: Scaffolding, a concept central to Hurry’s theory, involves providing
temporary support to students that is gradually withdrawn as they gain competence. This
approach helps learners build skills and confidence, promoting independent problem-solving
and learning.