What is Research

Research is a systematic investigation aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising

facts. It is typically a structured inquiry into a specific question or hypothesis to acquire
knowledge and understanding.

A famous definition by John W. Creswell states:

“Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue.” — John W. Creswell, Educational Research:
Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research

This definition highlights the structured and methodical nature of research aimed at
generating knowledge.

According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,

formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating
data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for
its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation,
comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and
systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.

Different Methods of research

In research, methods are the systematic approaches used to gather and analyze data to
answer research questions or test hypotheses. Broadly, research methods are categorized
into three types: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods. Here’s a breakdown
of each along with some common methods used:

1. Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research is focused on numerical data, statistics, and objective

measurements. It aims to establish patterns, test theories, and make predictions.

 Survey Method: Involves collecting data through questionnaires or structured

interviews from a sample of people.

Example: A company wants to know customer satisfaction levels. They distribute

an online survey with questions rated on a 5-point Likert scale (e.g., “How
satisfied are you with our service?”). The collected responses are analyzed
statistically to determine overall satisfaction.
  Experimental Method: Involves manipulating one variable to determine its
effect on another (e.g., laboratory experiments).

Example: In a psychology experiment, researchers want to test the effect of sleep

on memory. They divide participants into two groups: one gets 8 hours of sleep,
and the other gets 4 hours. Both groups are then given a memory test to compare
their performance.

 Correlational Research: Examines relationships between two or more variables

without manipulation.

Example: A researcher studies the relationship between exercise frequency and

mental health scores among adults. By using statistical analysis, they find a
positive correlation, suggesting that higher exercise frequency is associated with
better mental health.

 Longitudinal Study: Collects data from the same subjects over a long period to
study changes over time.

Example: A researcher follows a group of children from age 5 to age 20 to study

the effects of early childhood education on academic achievement in adulthood.

 Cross-sectional Study: Analyzes data collected from a sample at one specific

point in time.

Example: A researcher conducts a study on the dietary habits of people from

different age groups (teens, adults, seniors) at a single point in time to see if there
are differences based on age.

2. Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research focuses on exploring phenomena in-depth, emphasizing meanings,

experiences, and descriptions rather than numerical data.

 Case Study: An in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, event, or

community.

Example: A case study on the life of a famous artist explores their personal
struggles, creative process, and the impact of their work on the art community.

 Ethnography: Involves studying cultures and communities through participant

observation and fieldwork.

Example: An anthropologist spends a year living in a remote village in Africa to

study the local customs, traditions, and social dynamics through participant
observation.
  Grounded Theory: Aims to generate a theory based on data collected from
participants’ experiences.

Example: A researcher interviews people who have survived natural disasters. By

analyzing the interviews, the researcher develops a theory on how people cope
with trauma and rebuild their lives.

 Phenomenology: Focuses on understanding the lived experiences of individuals.

Example: A researcher explores the lived experiences of cancer patients

undergoing chemotherapy, focusing on their emotions, challenges, and
perceptions of the treatment process.

 Narrative Research: Explores the stories and personal accounts of individuals to

understand their experiences.

Example: A researcher collects life stories from refugees to understand their

journey, struggles, and adaptation process in a new country.

3. Mixed Methods Research

Mixed methods combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches in a single study
to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem.

 Explanatory Sequential Design: Quantitative data is collected and analyzed first,

followed by qualitative data to explain the quantitative results.

Example: A study on the impact of remote work starts with a survey (quantitative)
measuring employee productivity. Based on the results, the researcher conducts
interviews (qualitative) to gain deeper insights into why some employees reported
higher productivity.

 Exploratory Sequential Design: Qualitative data is collected and analyzed first,

followed by quantitative data to test or verify the findings.

Example: A researcher conducts focus group discussions (qualitative) to explore

public perceptions of climate change. Based on the themes identified, they create
a survey (quantitative) to measure the prevalence of these perceptions in a larger
population.

 Convergent Parallel Design: Both qualitative and quantitative data are collected
simultaneously, analyzed separately, and then compared.

Example: A study on digital learning tools collects data through both student
surveys (quantitative) and classroom observations (qualitative) simultaneously.
The results from both methods are compared to draw comprehensive conclusions.
Other Common Research Methods

 Content Analysis: A method used to analyze text, media, or documents

systematically.

Example: A researcher analyzes social media posts about a political event to

identify recurring themes, such as public opinion, emotions, and key concerns.

 Meta-Analysis: A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple

studies on the same topic.

Example: A researcher reviews and statistically combines the results of 20

different studies on the effectiveness of a new medication to determine its overall
impact.

 Action Research: A participatory approach where researchers and participants

work together to solve a problem or improve a practice.

Example: Teachers at a school notice declining student engagement. They

collaborate to implement new teaching strategies and continuously assess their
impact, making adjustments as needed.

 Secondary Data Analysis: Involves using existing data collected by others for
new research purposes.

Example: A researcher uses existing census data to study population trends and
urbanization rates in different regions of a country.

Structure and sequence of components of a thesis

Brief description of each component
A thesis is a type of research paper based on original research. It is usually submitted as
the final step of a PhD program. The structure of thesis depends on a variety of
components, such as: discipline, topic, theoretical approach.

Humanities theses are often structured more like a longer-form essay, just like in an
essay, where an argument is built to support a central thesis. In both hard and social
sciences, theses typically include an introduction, literature review, methodology
section, results section, discussion section, and conclusion section.

Writing a thesis is a structured process, and understanding the sequence and

components is crucial for presenting your research effectively. Here is the typical
structure and sequence of a thesis, followed by a brief description of each component:
1. Title Page

 Description: The first page of your thesis includes the title, your name, your
institution, department, date of submission, and supervisor’s name.
 Purpose: Provides basic information about the research and the author.

2. Abstract

 Description: An abstract is a short summary of thesis. Usually a maximum of 300

words long, it’s should include brief descriptions of research objectives, methods,
results, and conclusions. Though it may seem short, it introduces the study to the
audience, serving as a first impression of thesis.
 Purpose: Gives readers a quick overview of the research problem, methodology,
results, and conclusion.

3. Acknowledgements

 Description: A section where you thank those who helped and supported your
research (supervisors, family, friends, funding bodies).
 Purpose: To show gratitude and acknowledge contributions.

4. Table of Contents

 Description: A list of all the chapters, sections, and sub-sections with

corresponding page numbers.
 Purpose: Helps readers navigate through the thesis.

5. List of Figures and Tables

 Description: A separate list detailing the figures, charts, and tables included in
the thesis.
 Purpose: Provides easy access to visual data representations.

6. List of Abbreviations

 Description: An alphabetical list of all abbreviations and acronyms used in the

thesis.
 Purpose: Helps readers understand the terms used.

7. Introduction

 Description:

 Introduces the topic, provides background information, states the research

problem, and outlines the thesis structure.
 Defines the scope of work.
 Introduce any existing research on topic, situating the work within a
broader problem or debate.
  Outlines (briefly) how the remainder of the work will proceed.

In other words, your introduction should clearly and concisely show your reader the
“what, why, and how” of your research.

 Purpose: Sets the context, defines the scope, and explains the importance of the
research.

8. Literature Review

 Description: A literature review helps to gain a robust understanding of any

extant academic work on the study, encompassing:

 Selecting relevant sources

 Determining the credibility of the sources
 Critically evaluating each of the sources
 Drawing connections between sources, including any themes, patterns,
conflicts, or gaps

A literature review is not merely a summary of existing work. Rather, it leads to a

clear justification for the research, perhaps via:

 Addressing a gap in the literature

 Building on existing knowledge to draw new conclusions
 Exploring a new theoretical or methodological approach
 Introducing a new solution to an unresolved problem
 Definitively advocating for one side of a theoretical debate

 Purpose: Identifies gaps in the current knowledge, supports the research question,
and provides a theoretical framework.

9. Research Methodology

 Description: Explains the research design, methods used for data collection, and
analysis techniques. It should be written clearly and methodically, easily allowing
the reader to critically assess the credibility of your argument. Furthermore,
methods section should convince the reader that given method was the best way to
answer the research question.
 Purpose: Justifies the choice of methods and provides details on how the research
was conducted.

10. Results

 Description: Presents the findings of the research, often using charts, tables, and
figures for clarity. Results section should highlight what the methodology
discovered. These two sections work in tandem, but shouldn’t repeat each other.
Results section should:
  States each (relevant) result with any (relevant) descriptive
statistics (e.g., mean, standard deviation) and inferential statistics (e.g., test
statistics, p values)
 Explains how each result relates to the research questions
 Determines whether the hypothesis was supported

 Purpose: Provides a factual and objective representation of the data collected.

11. Discussion

 Description: Interprets the results, discusses their implications, and relates them
to the existing literature. For any unexpected results, it offers explanations or
alternative interpretations of the data.
 Purpose: Explains the meaning of the results, addresses the research questions,
and evaluates the study’s contributions.

12. Conclusion

 Description: Summarizes the main findings, answers the research questions, and
suggests directions for future research. Thesis conclusion should concisely answer
the main research question. It should leave the reader with an ultra-clear
understanding of the central argument, and emphasise what the research
specifically has contributed to the field.

 Why does the research matter?

 What recommendations for future the research do have?

 Purpose: Provides closure to the thesis by highlighting key points and

contributions.

13. Recommendations

 Description: Offers practical suggestions based on the findings of the research.

 Purpose: Provides actionable insights for stakeholders or areas for further study.

14. References/Bibliography

 Description: A comprehensive list of all sources cited in the thesis, following a

specific citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.), in order to avoid plagiarism.
 Purpose: Acknowledges the work of other researchers and allows readers to
locate the sources.

15. Appendices

 Description: Additional material that supports the thesis but is too lengthy for the
main text (e.g., raw data, survey instruments, consent forms).
 Purpose: Provides supplementary information for readers who want more details.
 Questionnaire for Data Collection
Format or major parts of a questionnaire
Types of questionnaire
Basic guides for formulating questionnaire
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on
a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to
read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the
purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on
their own. A well-designed questionnaire ensures that the data collected is reliable,
valid, and easy to analyze. The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires
to respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and business surveys.

The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:

1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread
geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more
dependable and reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response
is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach
once questionnaires have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies
altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey)
for testing the questionnaires. In a big enquiry the significance of pilot survey is felt
very much. Pilot survey is in fact the replica and rehearsal of the main survey. Such a
survey, being conducted by experts, brings to the light the weaknesses (if any) of the
questionnaires and also of the survey techniques. From the experience gained in this
way, improvement can be effected.
Major Parts of a Questionnaire

1. Title and Introduction

o Title: Indicates the topic or purpose of the questionnaire.
o Introduction: Provides a brief explanation of the research purpose, how the
data will be used, and instructions for completing the questionnaire.
o Example:
 "Thank you for participating in this survey. Your responses are
anonymous and will be used solely for research purposes."
2. Demographic Section
o Collects background information about the respondents, such as age,
gender, education, occupation, and location.
o Example Questions:
 "What is your age?"
 "What is your highest level of education?"
3. Main Body (Core Questions)
o Contains the primary questions related to the research topic. These can be
open-ended, closed-ended, or multiple-choice questions.
o Example Questions:
 "How satisfied are you with our service?" (Likert scale: Very
satisfied, Satisfied, Neutral, Dissatisfied, Very dissatisfied)
 "What features do you like most about this product?" (Open-ended)
4. Closing Section
o Includes a thank-you note and may provide contact information if
respondents have questions or need further clarification.
o Example:
 "Thank you for your time. If you have any questions about this
survey, please contact us at [email]."

Types of Questionnaires

1. Structured Questionnaire
o Description: Consists of pre-determined, standardized questions with fixed
response options.
o Purpose: Suitable for quantitative research where data needs to be easily
measurable and comparable.
o Example: Multiple-choice questions, Likert scale questions.
2. Unstructured Questionnaire
o Description: Consists of open-ended questions that allow respondents to
answer in their own words.
o Purpose: Used in qualitative research to gain deeper insights and explore
complex issues.
o Example: "What are your thoughts on the current education system?"

The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions

in a questionnaire:
  Questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the
respondent;
 Questions of a personal character;
 Questions related to personal wealth, etc.

3. Semi-Structured Questionnaire
o Description: Combines both structured and unstructured questions.
o Purpose: Balances the need for measurable data with the flexibility to
explore respondents' opinions.
o Example: "How would you rate our service?" followed by "Please explain
your rating."
4. Self-Administered Questionnaire
o Description: Completed by the respondents themselves, usually online or
on paper.
o Purpose: Cost-effective and efficient for reaching a large number of
respondents.
5. Interviewer-Administered Questionnaire
o Description: Conducted by an interviewer who asks questions and records
the responses.
o Purpose: Useful for complex questions that may require clarification or
probing.

Basic Guides for Formulating a Questionnaire

To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple i.e., the size
of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum. Questions should proceed in
logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions. Personal and intimate
questions should be left to the end. Technical terms and vague expressions capable of
different interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire. Questions may be
dichotomous (yes or no answers), multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-
ended.

1. Define Clear Objectives

o Be clear about what information you want to gather and how it will help
answer your research question.
2. Use Simple and Direct Language
o Avoid jargon or complex words that might confuse respondents. Keep
questions concise and easy to understand.
3. Include Both Open and Closed-Ended Questions
o Use closed-ended questions for easy analysis and open-ended questions for
more detailed insights.
4. Maintain Logical Flow
o Start with general questions and gradually move to more specific ones.
Group related questions together.
 5. Avoid Leading or Biased Questions
o Do not frame questions in a way that might influence the respondents'
answers.
o Example: Instead of "Don’t you agree that our service is excellent?", ask
"How would you rate our service?"
6. Pilot Test the Questionnaire
o Test the questionnaire with a small group before full deployment to identify
any issues or confusing questions.
7. Use Balanced Scales for Rating Questions
o For Likert scale questions, provide a balanced set of response options (e.g.,
Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree).
8. Ensure Anonymity and Confidentiality
o Assure respondents that their answers will be kept confidential to encourage
honest responses.
9. Limit the Length
o Keep the questionnaire as short as possible to prevent respondent fatigue.

Research Problem
The research problem is the foundation of any research study. It is a specific issue,
challenge, or gap in knowledge that the researcher aims to address. A well-defined
research problem guides the entire research process, influencing the choice of methods,
analysis, and interpretation of results.
Necessity of defining a research problem
Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This
statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant
data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the
researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant
and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored? What techniques are to be
used for the purpose? And similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher
who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the
research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a
prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of
a problem is often more essential than its solution. It is only on careful detailing the
research problem that we can work out the research design and can smoothly carry on
all the consequential steps involved while doing research.

Key Components of a Research Problem

1. Topic:
o The broader subject area or field of interest.
o Example: "Online learning in higher education."
2. Background Context:
o Provides an overview of the current state of knowledge and highlights the
issues that need attention.
o Example: "The rapid adoption of online learning has raised concerns about
its effectiveness and student engagement."
3. Problem Statement:
o Clearly articulates what the specific issue or gap is.
o Example: "Despite the growth of online courses, student engagement and
retention rates remain low."
4. Research Questions:
o Derived from the problem statement, these are the specific questions the
research aims to answer.
o Example: "How does the use of interactive content affect student
engagement in online learning environments?"
5. Objectives:
o Define the goals of the study, often categorized into general and specific
objectives.
o Example:
 General Objective: "To investigate factors affecting student
engagement in online learning."
 Specific Objective: "To assess the impact of interactive videos on
student participation."
Types of Research Problems

1. Descriptive Research Problems:

o Aim to describe the characteristics of a phenomenon or population.
o Example: "What are the demographic characteristics of students enrolled in
online courses?"
2. Comparative Research Problems:
o Seek to compare two or more groups or variables.
o Example: "How do student engagement levels differ between online and
face-to-face classes?"
3. Causal Research Problems:
o Focus on identifying cause-and-effect relationships.
o Example: "What is the effect of interactive content on student performance
in online learning?"
4. Exploratory Research Problems:
o Aim to explore new areas of study or unknown aspects of a phenomenon.
o Example: "What factors influence student motivation in self-paced online
courses?"

Characteristics of a Good Research Problem

1. Specific and Clear

2. Researchable
3. Significant and Relevant
4. Ethical and Feasible

Example of a Research Problem Statement

Topic: Student Mental Health and Academic Performance

Problem Statement: "Despite numerous studies highlighting the importance of mental

health in educational outcomes, there is limited research on the specific impact of
anxiety on academic performance among college students. Understanding this
relationship is crucial for developing effective interventions to support students’ well-
being and success."

Research Questions:

1. What is the prevalence of anxiety among college students?

2. How does anxiety affect students' academic performance?
3. What coping strategies do students use to manage anxiety?

By defining a clear and well-structured research problem, one can set a strong
foundation for the study.
 Processing and Presentation of Data
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the
outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is
essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making
contemplated comparisons and analysis. Technically speaking, processing implies
editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable
to analysis. The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with
searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, “in the
process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original
or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions”.

Data processing and presentation are crucial stages in the research process that help
transform raw data into meaningful information. These steps involve organizing,
analyzing, and displaying the collected data in a format that allows readers to
understand and interpret the findings easily.

Data processing
1) Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data
(specially in surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when
possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed
questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing is done to assure that the data are
accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as
possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation. With
regard to points or stages at which editing should be done, one can talk of field
editing and central editing.
Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by the investigator for
completing (translating or rewriting) what the latter has written in abbreviated
and/or in illegible form at the time of recording the respondents’ responses. This
type of editing is necessary in view of the fact that individual writing styles often
can be difficult for others to decipher. This sort of editing should be done as soon
as possible after the interview, preferably on the very day or on the next day.
While doing field editing, the investigator must restrain himself and must not
correct errors of omission by simply guessing what the informant would have said
if the question had been asked.
Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have been
completed and returned to the office. This type of editing implies that all forms
should get a thorough editing by a single editor in a small study and by a team of
editors in case of a large inquiry. Editor(s) may correct the obvious errors such as
an entry in the wrong place, entry recorded in months when it should have been
recorded in weeks, and the like. In case of inappropriate on missing replies, the
editor can sometimes determine the proper answer by reviewing the other
 information in the schedule. At times, the respondent can be contacted for
clarification. The editor must strike out the answer if the same is inappropriate
and he has no basis for determining the correct answer or the response. In such a
case an editing entry of ‘no answer’ is called for. All the wrong replies, which are
quite obvious, must be dropped from the final results, especially in the context of
mail surveys.

2) Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to

answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or
classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under
consideration. They must also possess the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e.,
there must be a class for every data item) and also that of mutual exclusively
which means that a specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a
given category set.

Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be
reduced to a small number of classes which contain the critical information
required for analysis. Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing
stage of the questionnaire. This makes it possible to precode the questionnaire
choices and which in turn is helpful for computer tabulation as one can straight
forward key punch from the original questionnaires. But in case of hand coding
some standard method may be used. One such standard method is to code in the
margin with a coloured pencil. The other method can be to transcribe the data
from the questionnaire to a coding sheet. Whatever method is adopted, one should
see that coding errors are altogether eliminated or reduced to the minimum level.
Example: In a survey where respondents answer "Yes" or "No," "Yes" may be
coded as "1" and "No" as "0."

3) Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which
must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful
relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data which happens to be the
process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and
in this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes.
Classification can be one of the following two types, depending upon the nature
of the phenomenon involved:
(a) Classification according to attributes: As stated above, data are classified on
the basis of common characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as
literacy, sex, honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as weight, height, income, etc.).
Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be
measured quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an individual item can
be noticed. Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as
statistics of attributes and their classification is said to be classification according
 to attributes. Such classification can be simple classification or manifold
classification. In simple classification we consider only one attribute and divide
the universe into two classes—one class consisting of items possessing the given
attribute and the other class consisting of items which do not possess the given
attribute. But in manifold classification we consider two or more attributes
simultaneously, and divide that data into a number of classes (total number of
classes of final order is given by 2n, where n = number of attributes considered).*
Whenever data are classified according to attributes, the researcher must see that
the attributes are defined in such a manner that there is least possibility of any
doubt/ambiguity concerning the said attributes.
(b) Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics,
the numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which can be
measured through some statistical units. Data relating to income, production, age,
weight, etc. come under this category. Such data are known as statistics of
variables and are classified on the basis of class intervals. For instance, persons
whose incomes, say, are within Rs 201 to Rs 400 can form one group, those
whose incomes are within Rs 401 to Rs 600 can form another group and so on. In
this way the entire data may be divided into a number of groups or classes or what
are usually called, ‘class-intervals.’ Each group of class-interval, thus, has an
upper limit as well as a lower limit which are known as class limits. The
difference between the two class limits is known as class magnitude. We may
have classes with equal class magnitudes or with unequal class magnitudes. The
number of items which fall in a given class is known as the frequency of the given
class. All the classes or groups, with their respective frequencies taken together
and put in the form of a table, are described as group frequency distribution or
simply frequency distribution. H.A. Sturges, suggests the size of class interval:
i = R/(1 + 3.3 log N) where
i = size of class interval;
R = Range (i.e., difference between the values of the largest item and smallest
item among the given items);
N = Number of items to be grouped.

4) Data Transformation: Converting data into a suitable format or structure for

analysis. Example: Converting dates into a consistent format (e.g.,
DD/MM/YYYY).

5) Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for
the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This
procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of
summarising raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form
of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an
 orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tabulation is essential because
of the following reasons.
 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum.
 It facilitates the process of comparison.
 It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and
omissions.
 It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices. The
choice depends on the size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures
and the availability of tabulating machines or computers. Tabulation may also be
classified as simple and complex tabulation. The former type of tabulation gives
information about one or more groups of independent questions, whereas the
latter type of tabulation shows the division of data in two or more categories and
as such is designed to give information concerning one or more sets of inter-
related questions. Simple tabulation generally results in one-way tables which
supply answers to questions about one characteristic of data only. As against this,
complex tabulation usually results in two-way tables (which give information
about two inter-related characteristics of data), three-way tables (giving
information about three interrelated characteristics of data) or still higher order
tables, also known as manifold tables, which supply information about several
interrelated characteristics of data. Two-way tables, three-way tables or manifold
tables are all examples of what is sometimes described as cross tabulation.

Data Presentation

Data presentation involves displaying the processed data in a clear and understandable
format using various tools and techniques. It helps convey the findings effectively to the
audience.

1. Textual Presentation:
o Describes the findings in a narrative form, using text to explain data
patterns, trends, and statistics.
o When to Use: Suitable for small datasets or when detailed explanations are
needed.
o Example: "The survey revealed that 75% of respondents were satisfied with
the new product features, while 15% were neutral and 10% were
dissatisfied."
2. Tabular Presentation:
o Presents data in a table format with rows and columns, making it easy to
compare different variables.
o Advantages: Provides a concise summary of data and allows for quick
reference.
 o Example:

Satisfaction Level Number of Respondents Percentage

Very Satisfied 120 40%
Satisfied 90 30%
Neutral 60 20%
Dissatisfied 30 10%

3. Graphical Presentation:
o Uses visual elements like charts, graphs, and diagrams to present data,
making it easier to identify patterns and trends.
o Types of Graphs:
 Bar Chart: Compares different categories using bars.
 Pie Chart: Shows the proportion of different components as parts of a
whole.
 Line Graph: Displays trends over time with a line connecting data
points.
 Histogram: Represents the frequency distribution of continuous data.
o Example:
 A bar chart illustrating customer satisfaction levels across different
age groups.
4. Diagrammatic Presentation:
o Involves the use of diagrams or pictorial representations such as flowcharts,
scatter plots, and maps.
o Example: A flowchart showing the process of customer service from
inquiry to resolution.

Data processing and presentation are essential for making raw data understandable and
insightful. By following a systematic approach and choosing the appropriate
presentation method, researchers can effectively communicate their findings and
support their conclusions.
 Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals or elements from a larger
population to make inferences or draw conclusions about that population. It involves
choosing a representative group that reflects the characteristics and diversity of the
entire population, allowing researchers to gather data efficiently and economically
without needing to study every individual.

Sampling is crucial in research methodology, as it helps ensure that the findings can be
generalized to the broader population while minimizing time, cost, and effort involved
in data collection. Different sampling techniques can affect the validity and reliability of
the research results.

(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-

probability sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate
selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which
represents the universe. When population elements are selected for inclusion in
the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience sampling. If
a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a
fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations.
This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At times
such a procedure may give very biased results particularly when the population
is not homogeneous. On the other hand, in judgement sampling the researcher’s
judgement is used for selecting items which he considers as representative of the
population. For example, a judgement sample of college students might be taken
to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgement sampling is used
quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop
hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.

(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance
sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the population
has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible
samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected.
 For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of
15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on
slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is another
method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a
number from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected
from the table. To do this we select some random starting point and then a
systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table. We might start in the
4th row, second column and proceed down the column to the bottom of the table
and then move to the top of the next column to the right. When a number
exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is
simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the
relevant range. Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely
random fashion, the resulting sample is random. This procedure gives each item
an equal probability of being selected. In case of infinite population, the
selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same probability
and that successive selections are independent of one another.

(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling
is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and
so on. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of
randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random
numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This procedure is useful when
sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design the selection
process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth
element is selected until the desired number is secured.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn
does not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is
applied so as to obtain a representative sample. In this technique, the population
is stratified into a number of no overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample
items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is
based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and
then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.

(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from
individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to
be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left
to the interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota sampling. The size of the
quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in the
population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability
sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgement samples rather than
random samples.

(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping
the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual
elements for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to
 sample its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The
sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card
holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three
clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size must
often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of
accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and
other sources of error is usually accentuated. The clustering approach can,
however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the
efficiency of field work, specially in the case of personal interviews.

Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when
the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area
sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping
areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller
areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the
sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the
population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since
interviewer can do many interviews at each location.

(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster

sampling. This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably
large geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the
first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states, then
districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the technique of
random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as
multi-stage random sampling.

(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the
ultimate size of the sample is not
fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the
basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted
under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.
 Citations / References
Names of Different Styles
Arranging given materials according to APA
Citations and references are essential components of academic writing. They give credit
to the original sources of information, ideas, or data, and allow readers to verify the
sources used in the research. Different styles and formats are used to cite sources,
depending on the discipline or the guidelines of the publication.

Common Citation Styles

1. APA Style (American Psychological Association)

o Used in: Social sciences, psychology, education, and linguistics.
o Key Features: In-text citations use the author-date format (e.g., Smith,
2023).
o Reference List: Includes author(s), year, title, and source (e.g., journal,
book).
2. MLA Style (Modern Language Association)
o Used in: Humanities, literature, and arts.
o Key Features: In-text citations use the author-page format (e.g., Smith 23).
o Works Cited: Lists sources in alphabetical order by the author's last name.
3. Chicago Style (Chicago Manual of Style)
o Used in: History, business, and the arts.
o Key Features: Offers two systems—Notes and Bibliography (for
humanities) and Author-Date (for sciences).
o Footnotes or Endnotes are common in the Notes and Bibliography system.
4. Harvard Style
o Used in: Various disciplines, especially in the UK and Australia.
o Key Features: Author-date format similar to APA.
o Reference List: Alphabetical order by author’s last name.
5. IEEE Style (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
o Used in: Engineering, computer science, and technology.
o Key Features: In-text citations are numbered (e.g., [1], [2]), with a
corresponding reference list.
6. Vancouver Style
o Used in: Medicine and health sciences.
o Key Features: Uses numerical citations (e.g., 1, 2) and a reference list in the
order of appearance.

Arranging Materials According to APA Style (7th Edition)

In APA 7th edition, the reference list provides detailed information about the sources
cited in the text. The reference entries follow specific formats depending on the type of
source (books, journal articles, websites, etc.). Below are the rules and examples for
referencing in APA style.
General Rules for Reference List

 Alphabetical Order: List references alphabetically by the author’s last name.

 Hanging Indent: Use a hanging indent (second and subsequent lines of each
entry are indented 0.5 inches).
 Double-Spaced: The entire reference list should be double-spaced.
 Capitalization: Capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle, and proper
nouns.
 Italics: Italicize titles of books, journals, and reports.

General Formats for Common Sources in APA Style:

1. Book:
o Format: Author(s). (Year). Title of the book. Publisher.
o Example: Smith, J. (2020). Understanding psychology. Oxford University
Press.
2. Journal Article:
o Format: Author(s). (Year). Title of the article. Title of the Journal,
Volume(Issue), Page range. https://doi.org/xxxxx
o Example: Brown, A., & Lee, B. (2021). The impact of online learning on
student performance. Journal of Educational Research, 45(2), 123-135.
https://doi.org/10.1000/j.jer.2021.03.001
3. Website:
o Format: Author(s). (Year, Month Day). Title of the webpage. Website
Name. URL
o Example: National Institute of Mental Health. (2022, August 5). Anxiety
disorders. NIMH. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders
4. Edited Book:
o Format: Editor(s) (Ed.). (Year). Title of the book. Publisher.
o Example: Johnson, L., & Kim, H. (Eds.). (2019). Advances in educational
psychology. Routledge.
5. Chapter in an Edited Book:
o Format: Author(s) of the chapter. (Year). Title of the chapter. In Editor(s)
(Ed.), Title of the book (pp. Page range). Publisher.
o Example: Miller, T. (2020). Cognitive development in children. In S. Green
(Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (pp. 45-67). Wiley.
Arranging Given References According to APA Style

Given Materials:

1. The Impact of Climate Change by John M. Doe, published in 2018 by Green

Earth Publications.
2. Introduction to Data Science by Jane Smith and Alan Turing, published in 2020
by Tech Press.
3. "Social Media and Mental Health" by Amy Brown, published in Journal of
Health Psychology, volume 35, issue 4, pages 245-260, in 2021. DOI:
10.1000/jhp.2021.04.012
4. National Institute of Health. (2022, July 10). COVID-19 Updates.
https://www.nih.gov/covid-19-updates

APA-Formatted References List:

1. Doe, J. M. (2018). The impact of climate change. Green Earth Publications.

2. Smith, J., & Turing, A. (2020). Introduction to data science. Tech Press.
3. Brown, A. (2021). Social media and mental health. Journal of Health Psychology,
35(4), 245-260. https://doi.org/10.1000/jhp.2021.04.012
4. National Institute of Health. (2022, July 10). COVID-19 updates.
https://www.nih.gov/covid-19-updates