ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Code No. MP 323

Lec. 4b

By

Dr. Abdel-Moneim M. Nassib

Mechanical Engineering Department
University of Assiut
2021-2022

1
2-13 INFLUENCE OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA ON AIR
QUALITY
Atmospheric dispersion of air contaminants is the result of
ventilation, atmospheric turbulence, and molecular diffusion
‫انتشار الجزيئي‬.
2-14 LAPSE RATES AND DISPERSION
By comparing the ambient lapse rate to the adiabatic lapse
rate, it may be possible to predict what will happen to gases
emitted from a stack.
When the ambient lapse rate is super adiabatic (greater than
the adiabatic), the turbulence of the air ‫ اضطراب الهواء‬itself
causes the atmosphere to serve as an effective vehicle of
dispersion.
Fig. 2-7 Effect of lapse rate on plume behavior ‫( اضطراب الهواء‬a) looping,
(b) neutral, (e) coning, (d) fanning, (e) lofting, (j) fumigating, and (g) trapping.
2-15 PRESSURE SYSTEMS AND
DISPERSION
• High- pressure systems are related to clear skies, light
winds, and atmospheric stability. When such a system
becomes stagnant over an area for several days, air
contaminants can build up to cause air pollution
problems.
• Conversely, low-pressure systems are associated with
unstable atmospheric conditions and commonly
brining winds and rain; contaminant buildup is less
likely to occur in low-pressure cells. Initially, a warm
front will reduce air-contaminant concentrations,
primarily through the storm activity along its leading
edge. As the warm front develops, however, more
stable conditions will result, with an accompanying
increase in air pollution potential.
2-16 WINDS AND DISPERSION
Wind is one of the most important vehicles in the distribution ‫توزيع‬,
transport ‫ نقل‬, and dispersion ‫ تشتت‬of air contaminants.
2-17 MOISTURE AND DISPERSION
The presence and amount of water vapor in the atmosphere affects the
amount of solar radiation received and reflected by earth. Water vapor
serves to scatter or absorb radiation energy, and hence humidity has a
major influence on air quality.
Precipitation serves as a cleansing agent ‫ عامل التطهير‬for the atmosphere,
removing particulates and soluble gases in a process called washout.
When rainfall removes sulfur dioxide (SO2) from the air, it may react with
the water to form H2SO3 (sulfurous acid) or H2SO4 (sulfuric acid).
2-18 MODELING ‫النمذجة‬
A knowledge of meteorological phenomena and an understanding
of the variable factors that build weather systems can be used as a
basis for forecasting air pollution potential and for devising air-
pollution prevention and abatement programs
2-18-1 Dispersion Models
Several empirical dispersion models have been developed. These
models, or equations, are mathematical descriptions of the
meteorological transport and dispersion of air contaminants in an
area, and permit estimates of contaminant concentrations, either
in the plume from an elevated or ground-level source. Most of the
equations in use today are based on the following general
equation which was suggested by Pasquill and modified by Gifford.
dC ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂x
= Kx + Ky + Kz (2-1)
dt ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z

Equation (2-1) relates dispersion in the x (downwind) direction as a

function of variables in all directions of a three-dimensional space.
It assumes that the plume has a Gaussian concentration
distribution in both the z (vertical) and y (horizontal) directions, as
shown in Fig. 2-8.
Fig. 2-9 Coordinate system showing Gaussian distribution in the horizontal and vertical.
The concentration (C) of a gas or aerosol ( < 20 μm) calculated at ground
level for a distance downwind (x) is given by:

 1  H 
2
  1 y 
2

Q  
C x ,y = exp −    exp  −  
  (2-2)
 u y  z  2   z    2   y  
where C = pollutant concentration, g/m3
Q = pollutant emission rate, g/s
π = pi, 3.14159
u = mean wind speed, m/s
σy = standard deviation of horizontal plume concentration,
evaluated in terms of downwind distance x, m, (as shown in
Fig. 2-9)
σz = standard deviation of vertical plume concentration evaluated
in terms of downwind distance x, m, (as shown in Fig. 2-10)
exp = base of natural logs, 2.71828183
H = effective stack height, m
x = downwind distance along plume mean centerline from point
source, m
y = crosswind distance from the centerline of the plume, m
This equation may be simplified if concentrations along only
the plume centerline are needed. In this case, Y = 0, and the
equation is as follows:

Q  1  H 
2

C x,0 = exp −    2-3)
(
 u y  z  2   z  
The equation may be further simplified if the
effective stack height is zero, such as in a situation of
ground-level burning.
Q
C x ,0 = (2-4)
 u y  z
Values of σy, and σz, for various distances down-wind (x), with various
stability categories, are indicated in Figs. 2-9 and 2-10. Generalized
categories are included in Table 2-1.
Fig. 2-9 Lateral diffusion coefficient σy, vs. downward
distance from source.
Fig. 2-10 Vertical diffusion coefficient σz
vs. downward distance from source.
 Table 2-1 Pasquill stability types
Surface Day
wind Incoming solar radiation Night
speed m/s
Mostly Mostly
Strong Moderate Slight
overcast clear
2< A A-B B
2 A- B B C E F
4 B B-C C D E
6 C C-D 0 D D
6> C 0 D D D

A - Extremely unstable D - Neutral

B - Moderately unstable E - Slightly stable
C - Slightly unstable F - Moderately stable

The maximum ground-level concentration occurs where σz = 0.707 H,

provided σz / σy are constant with downwind distance x.
Example 2-1 Determining maximum ground-level concentration.
A power plant burns 5.45 tonnes of coal per hour and discharges the
combustion products through a stack that has an effective height of 75
m. The coal has a sulfur content of 4.2 percent by mass, and the wind
velocity at the top of the stack is 6.0 m/s. The atmospheric conditions
are moderately, to slightly stable. Determine the maximum ground-
level concentration of SO2 and the distance from the stack at which the
maximum occurs.
SOLUTION
1- Determine the emission rate Q for SO2
5.45 x 103 kg/h x 0.042 = 229 kg S/h
S + O2 = SO2
229 kg/S + 229 kg O2 = 458 kg SO2/h

h 1000 g
Q = 458 kg SO 2 / h x x =127 g / s
3600 s kg
2. Determine location of maximum concentration.
For the given atmospheric conditions choose C. For class C.
the σz / σy ratio is a constant for distances up to 1 km from
the stack. Therefore, a = 0.707H = 0.707 x 75 = 53 m
From Fig. 2-11, σz reaches a value of 53 m at a distance of
about 850 m from the stack with class C atmosphere.
Thus. x max = 850m
3. Determine concentration at x max
From Fig. 2-10. σy = 88 m at x = 850 m.
Q  1  H 
2

C x,0 = exp −   
 u y  z  2   z  
2
127 1  75 
Cmax = exp−  
 x 6 x 53 x 88 2  53 

= 5.31 x 10-4 g/m3

= 531 µg/m3
Example 2-2: Determining crosswind concentrations
From the data in Example 2-1, determine the ground-level
concentrations at a distance of 3.0 km downwind at the
centerline of the plume and at a crosswind distance of 0.4 km
on either side of the center line.
1. At 3 km; Class C σy = 280, σz =170
2. The centerline concentration is

Q 
 1  H  
2

C x ,0 = exp −   
 u y  z  2   z  

127 
 1  75  
2

= exp−   
 x 6 x 170 x 280 
 2  170  

= 1.28 x 10-4 g/m3

3. The concentration 0.4 km away from centerline is:

 1  H   2

 1  y  
2
Q 
C ( 3 , 0 .4 ) = exp−    exp−   
 u y z  2   z    2   y  

127  2
 1  85    
 1  400  
2

= exp−    exp−   
 x 6 x 170 x 280 
 2  170   
 2  280  

= 4.49 x 10-5 g/m3 x 1000x1000 =

= 44.9 µg/m3
2-19 STACK DESIGN
Meteorological data are necessary for the effective design of
a stack.
Location of nearby buildings may cause mechanical
turbulence.
Stacks should usually be designed 2 to 2.5 times the height of
nearby structures .
The effective stack height H is not only the physical stack
height h but includes the plume rise (Δh).
H = h + Δh (2-5)
For the calculation of plume height Δh, Holland's equation
often used for this determination, is given below.

v d   T d  
1.5 + 
 2.68 x10 p T 
−3
h = s  (2-6)
u   s 
where Δh = rise of plume above the stack, m
vs = stack gas velocity, m/s
d = inside stack diameter, m
u = wind speed, m/s
p = atmospheric pressure, millibars
ΔT = stack gas temp. minus air temp., K
Ts =stack gas temperature, K
Fig. 2-11 Effective stack height H
The preceding calculations are suitable for neutral conditions.
For unstable conditions, Δh should be increased by a factor of
1.1 to 1.2, and for stable conditions, Δh should be decreased
by a factor of 0.8 to 0.9.
Davidson and Bryant present another equation for plume rise.

 T 
1 .4
 vs  (2-7)
 h = d  
1 + T 
 u   s 
Example 2-3: Calculating effective stack height Determine
the effective height of a stack given the following data.
(a) Physical stack is 203 m tall with 1.07 m inside diameter.
(b) Wind velocity is 3.56 m/s.
(c) Air temperature is 13°C.
(d) Barometric pressure is 1000 millibars.
(e) Stack gas velocity is 9.14 m/s.
(j) Stack gas temperature is 149°C.
 SOLUTION
1. Convert temperatures to K.
Ta = 273 + 13 = 286 K
Ts = 273 + 149= 422 K
2. Calculate ΔT.
ΔT = 422 - 286 = 136K
3. Calculate Δh using Eq. (2-7).

v sd   T d  
1.5 +  2.68 x10 p  
−3
h =
u   Ts  
9.14 x 1.07   − 3 1000x 136 x 1.07  
h = +  
3.56 
1.5 2.68 x10
 422 
= 6.6 m
4. Calculate effective stack height.
H = h + Δh = 203 + 6.6 = 209.6 m
2-20 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON
METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
The interrelatedness of atmospheric conditions and
air quality should be evident from the foregoing
discussion of the effects that meteorological
conditions can have upon the dispersion,
concentration, or removal of atmospheric pollutants.
2-20-1 Changes on the mesoscale and Microscale
On the regional and local scale, reduced visibility,
altered precipitation, and the "urban heat island"
effect are among the changes in weather that have
been attributed to air pollution.
2-20-2 Reduced visibility.
Particulates in the size range of 0.38 to 0.76 µm and gas
molecules (especially sulfur dioxide) are the major
contaminants that contribute to reduced visibility.
2-20-3 Altered Precipitation
Air contaminants either emitted
to or formed in the atmosphere
can result in increased
precipitation. This phenomenon
occurs because small particles act
as nuclei, inducing the formation of
raindrops, the same principle
operant in cloud seeding.